Research Design ch. 3

Codes of research ethics

-Hippocratic oath

What incidents influenced development of Belmont Report?

-Tuskegee syphilis study

When are researchers not called to obtain informed consent?

-anonymous questionnaires -public behavior being observed 1) procedures unlikely to cause participant distress 2) responses will be kept confidential 3) if responses to be disclosed, they wouldn't harm them

Nuremberg Code

set of ethical principles essential for a medical experiment to be permissible -people's consent to be in a study must always be voluntary -they can withdraw from study at any time -prior to giving consent, people should be informed about study's purpose and potential risks to personal welfare -all unnecessary risks to participants should be avoided -study's results must outweigh risks to participants -only qualified scientists should conduct research

avoiding false or deceptive statements

-avoid making deceptive and fraudulent statements when publishing or discussing results of their research -must be able to trust researchers' assessments -fraudulent articles must either be publicly corrected or fully retracted, however those articles may have already been used by other researchers for ideas and references -must portray training, credentials, and area of expertise accurately

limits of confidentiality

-by informing participants of conditions that limit confidentiality, the researcher has stronger ethical grounds for breaking confidentiality if one of those conditions arises -reduces chance of legal liability of researchers find themselves obligated to release confidential information

Nuremberg code influenced...

Belmont report

beneficence and nonmaleficence

beneficence: strive to benefit those you work with nonmaleficence: do not cause harm -protect welfare of participants -benefit society as a whole -maximize benefits and minimize harm

justice

benefits of their research and of psychological science as a whole should be made available to all people -treat research participants fairly

Common rule

builds on Belmont report and used by many federal agencies in US that conduct studies on human subjects research

expedited review

studies that don't qualify for exempt status but fall within minimal risk to participants -one or more IRB members can approve research proposal, require modifications, forward it to full IRB for review -proposal can be disapproved only after a full IRB review

ethics

system of moral principles and standards; promote respect and ensure standard of safety; involves thinking about what constitutes as moral behavior in research contexts and the principles behind why behavior is immoral

plagarism

taking credit for someone else's work or ideas

respect for people's rights and dignity

respect: respect dignity and worth of all people, rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self determination -honor rights when people's ability to make decisions is compromised -respect differences between people

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

reviews animal research proposals for compliance with federal regulations -can approve, deny, or request modification -can halt a previously approved study if violating regulations

ethical controversy over deception

-contradicts principle of respect for rights and dignity--denies them right to provide fully informed consent and could be viewed as undermining their dignity, -conflicts with principle of fidelity and responsibility and principle of integrity--emphasizes psychologists should be trustworthy, honest, and truthful -principle of beneficence and nonmaleficence--deception may cause them to doubt truthfulness of informed consent statements in future studies

APA Ethics code

-describes a general ethical principle and specific ethical standards to guide a psychologists professional behavior -full title: Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct -first one developed after WWII in 1953 (addressed ethical standards in client relationships, research, other areas) -Developed after Nuremberg Code and before Belmont Report -1973 after Belmont released Ethical Principles in Conduct of Research with Human participants (focuses entirely on research)

problems with ambiguity in broad language

-difficulty for researcher in deciding how principle or standard applies to a particular case -greater likelihood of disagreement between researchers and ethics review committees in deciding whether study meets ethical criteria -different ethical committees will reach different decisions about whether to approve same research proposal and what changes to researchers procedure might be needed to gain committee approval -adhering to one principle or standard might call for a course of action that conflicts with another principle standard -different aspects of the same principle or standard might call for conflicting courses of action -different participants or parties might have competing interests, thus applying same principle to each party would require conflicting courses of action

benefits of anonymity and confidentiality

-enhance validity of research findings by increasing participants' truthfulness in responding -protect against social harm

Why are research ethics important?

-ensure safety and respect of participants -provide baseline for furthering important research -intertwined with methodology -affect validity of scientific findings

How do research ethics affect the validity of scientific findings?

-imperative to analyze, report, and gather data honestly -so people don't feel coerced into research participation -so they understand when and how their identities will be kept confidential -people whose participation has been coerced are more likely to distort their responses -safeguarding confidentiality can enhance validity of research findings by increasing participant's willingness to respond truthfully

How are research ethics intertwined with methodology

-influence how scientists manipulate and measure variables -how they recruit and interact with participants -how they store and analyze data -how they report findings -how they execute other aspects of their research -limit the types of studies researchers can conduct

General Principles founded by APA

-looked at 6000+ cases and found major ethical themes 1) beneficence and nonmaleficence 2) fidelity and responsibility 3) integrity 4) justice 5) respect for people's rights and dignity

From these 3 ethical principles, Belmont Report derived guidelines for:

-obtaining consent for research participants -assessing benefits and risks of research projects -selecting participants in a just way

Tuskegee syphilis study

-ongoing 40 year trial, 600 financially poor Black participants from rural south recruited, they had syphilis and no one told them or even tried to treat them even after penicillin became available -doing so would have interfered with goal of learning how syph spreads through body, damaging brain, eyes, heart, other organs -also asked local physicians not to treat them -when participant died, researchers offered to help pay for burial as incentive to let them perform autopsy -Washington Evening Star brought it to light and news spread throughout country -outrage --> govt. shut down the study -Clinton offered formal apology to survivors -led to US updating regulations protecting human research subjects -developed NAtional Commission for Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research -developed The Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and guidelines for Protection of Human Subjects

experimental treatments

-participants may not necessarily be assigned to receive the experimental treatment -experimental treatment may be less or no more effective than the procedures that other groups receive

QRPS

-questionable research practices -gray zone of what is scientifically acceptable -artificially enhancing performance (like dropping results of a survey they don't think fit) -increase odds of obtaining statistically significant findings -makes it more likely research report will be published -should be dropped only when they meet the criteria of bad data; this way, bear no relation to whether data consistent with hypothesis under study

What does it take for IRB to approve study?

-researcher has minimized any scientifically necessary risks to participants -benefits must outweigh risks, the risk/benefit ratio

subjectivity in risk assessment

-researchers and IRB members may agree on the types and overall level of risk to participants but disagree on whether the planned procedures adequately address those risks

What prevents data falsification?

-science is a public process; everyone can dissect it -obligated to provide original data to other scientists who wish to verify those data -unwillingness to share data -when results can't be replicated -accusations of misconduct

Why study animals?

-to learn about other species -to help explain human behavior -hereditary basis of behavior--animals age faster than humans so they can track the progress -shorter lifespans allow scientists to study long term effects of environmental factors that affect development without having to wait decades to gather all the data -greater level of experimental control--can apple more similar genetic histories to control and experimental groups b/c come in liters they can split -there are issues that cannot be ethically tested on humans -can manipulate genes, brain structures and pathways, etc.

deception

-when researchers intentionally withhold information from potential participants that might influence their decision to provide informed consent (passive deception) or intentionally mislead participants about some aspect of a study (active deception) allowed when: 1) study likely to yield significant potential benefits 2) no feasible, non deceptive approach to obtain those same benefits 3) participants unlikely to experience physical pain or substantial emotional harm 4) validity and potential benefits would be compromised without it

Does animal research yield benefits?

1) increase efficiency of education and training 2) treating phobias and compulsions 3) training companion animals to assist people with disabilities 4) understand biological mechanisms associated with mental disorders and drug treatments 5) saving lives of wild animals by applying behavioral techniques rather than lethal controls to reduce problem behaviors 6) reduce self injurious behaviors among children with autism 7) treat anorexia and chronic ruminative vomiting, can be life threatening

ethical concerns with animal testing

1) inherent rights perspective--all beings have inherent value and moral standing; cannot be used by humans for whatever they wish. Cannot obtain informed consent 2) Utilitarian perspectives--moral standing but not equal standing; the higher the moral standing, he greater justification needed because moral standing increases with capacity to experience pleasure and pain, related to cognitive abilities like self awareness 3) pro use perspectives--obligated to treat animals humanely, but animals not people and don't have same moral standing; strongest moral obligation is to humans, and humans have right to decide status of animals

Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of animals

1) justify the study 2) nature and training of personnel involved in the study 3) care, housing, and acquisition of lab animals 4) experimental procedures to be used 5) field research with animals

3 Rs

1) reduction--reduce number of animals being studied to the minimum number possible 2) refinement--refine procedures to expose animals to the least possible amount of pain or suffering necessary 2) replacement--when possible, replace use of nonhuman animals with alternative methods (like human subjects) or replace more sentient animals with less sentient ones

informed consent

people have the right to make a voluntary, informed decision about whether to participate in a study

confederate

accomplice of the investigator who is trained to act a certain way

What led to the development of the Nuremberg Code

after WWII in Mazi Germany physicians convicted of crimes against humanity for conducting seriously unethical procedures on members of concentration camps that were involuntarily subjected to them; they were injured or killed

ethics and maximizing the validity of research findings

allow researchers to deceive participants about key aspects of study

Integrity

be honest and truthful; do not engage in fraud -record and analyze accurately -do not misrepresent facts -honor promises made to others

debriefing

conversation with participant conveying additional information to the study -to provide with more complete info. including deception -learn how participants perceived research experience and correct perceptions about study -minimize adverse effects and maximize likelihood of feeling positive about their participation -don't discuss study with other future participants

Belmont Report

ethics code that provides foundation for US federal regulations governing human subjects research -pivotal b/c covered both biomedical and behavioral research -3 primary principles: respect for persons (respecting autonomy of those capable of self determination and protecting individuals not capable of self determination), beneficence (maximize benefits and avoid or minimize possible harm to participants and society), and justice (All people, not just wealthy or privileged, have access to benefits from publicly funded research, and potentially vulnerable groups, like mentally ill, prisoners, and economically poor not exploited when selecting research participants) -stressed importance of establishing independent, external review committees to assess proposed study's risks, benefits, and ultimate ethical justifiability

assent

even though the person might not be able to comprehend the details of a study to the degree listed on a consent form, he or she provides some evidence of being willing to agree to participate in the study -often happens when parents sign their children on to be part of a study

Fidelity and Responsibility

fidelity: psychologists should behave in a trustworthy manner responsibility: adhering to professional code of conduct and not exploiting people -recognize professional obligations to society -strive to act ethically -train people to act ethically -care about ethical behavior of colleagues

contamination

future participants learn info from previous participants that they aren't supposed to know until after the data collection is completed

IRB

independent, institutional review committee that evaluates whether proposed research with human participants complies with federal ethics regulations -if IRB disapproves of a study, other review committees cannot override the IRB's ruling

Hippocratic oath

intended to guide medical practice rather than research -act with integrity and competence, benefit others, avoid harm and injustice, protect confidentiality

anonymity

participant's identity unknown, even to researcher

confidentiality

participants' identities will not be released without their consent, and data from the study will be reported in a way that does not identify individual participants

minimal risk

probability and magnitude of harm or discomfort anticipated in the research are not greater in and of themselves than those ordinarily encountered in daily life or during the performance of routine physical or psychological exams or tests

reporting research results ethically

prohibition against fabricating data; most unethical thing a researcher can do -undermines scientists' confidence in body of knowledge past and present colleagues have built their research on -undermines public trust in science -data falsification uncommon but prevalence is underestimated

when at risk

proposed study involves more than minimal risk -proposal undergoes full IRB review -stronger safeguards must be put in place to protect participants' welfare types of harm: 1) physical 2) psychological 3) social and loss of privacy 4) economic 5) legal 6) combination

animal welfare act

regulates use of warm blooded animals in scientific research, except for rats, mice, and birds

What material granted exemption from IRB?

research based on anonymous surveys, interviews, naturalistic observations of people's public behavior, analysis of data that already exists, study of educational practices in common educational settings -must still comply with ethical regulations

Why did the physicians act in this way?

to get info on bodily responses and tolerance limits to traumas, primarily designed to benefit German military

incidental findings

unexpected findings about a research participant that is not directly related to the purpose of a study but that may be significant for the participant's or someone else's health or functioning -researchers response governed by ethics codes or duty to report laws

When do they allow researchers to use deception?

when benefits of research knowledge outweigh the costs to the participants