Research Methods Chapter 4: Methodological Issues

Interview schedules

a list of questions to be asked orally of a participant

Dependent variables

affected or changed by independent variables

Effect size

an indicator of the relationship between the variables studied; large effects occur when a strong relationship is suspected and therefore can be found with fewer parcitipatngs

Variable

any trait, attribute, or characteristic that varies

Variable traits

any trait, attribute, or characteristic that varies; it can vary within each person over time (e.g. age) or be constant within a person but vary across individuals (e.g. birthplace)

Operationaling variables simply means that they

are well defined

Which of the following types of data typically require larger sample sizes Nominal Ordinal Interval Metric-level analysis

Nominal

Mechanism to collect data

instrument

Self-checlisks

list containing characterics or activities that researchers can check if observed

Questionnaires

list of questions that the participant answers in writing or by marking the appropriate response

Underrepresented groups

minority groups often not studied in research

Anecdotal records

contain specific and factual recordings of observations deemed important to the researcher

Observation forms

contain specific behaviors for the research to observe and evaluate and to prove a place to document the frequency of such observations

John henry effect

control group alters behavior due to knowledge that they're in the control group

Operational definition

definition of a variable for the purpose of the study as well as how it will be identified and measured

Time-and-motion logs

detailed observations that occur over time

In general, potential sources of bias include ALL BUT WHICH of the following

having too large of a sample

Rating scales

used to provide a score in relation to how a person behaves; differ from an observatin in that it implies a judgement rather than just an acknowledgement

Experimenter or observer expectancies

self-fulfilling prophesy

Types of Researcher Bias

-Experimenter effects -Experimenter or observer expectancies -halo effect

Common Methodological Errors

1. failing to clearly define the research poulation 2. not collecting a large enough sample 3. using the most convenient method of data collection rather than the best 4. attemping to go through all stages of the study within one semester 5. using inappropriate instruments 6. lacking a well-thought out plan of action 7. overgeneralizing 8. inadequately addressing issues of bias

Instrumentation

1. instrument selection 2. data collection 3. instrument administration

Instrument selection is largely based on

1. where, when, or how data is collected 2. appropriateness of instrument to population 3. psychometric properties of the instrument

Hawthorne effect

A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied

Records containing specific & factual recordings, usually in paragraph form, of observations deemed important to the research

Anecdotal records

Variables that are controlled, created, applied, enforced, or enacted by the researcher

Manipulated variables

Considerations for Instrument selection

ERIC Database The Mental Measurements Yearbook Association for Asesssment in Counseling and Education

An indicator of the relationship between the variables studied

Effect size

Difference between experiementer bias and experimenter effects

Experimenter bias: -occurs when a research unintentionally influences participant behavior Experimenter effects -when the involvement of a particular experimenter influences the results

A sheet for recording frequency counts of a behavior, as well as the intended direction of the behavior

Flowcharts

The tendency to allow one trait(usually irrelevant to the purposes of the research) of a person to influence how you view other traits

Halo effect

Participants in an experimental group are motivated to perform better when they know they are being studied

Hawthorne Effect

Types of Participant Bias

Hawthorne effect John Henry effect

Entire process of data collection including instrument selection and administration

Instrumentation

Participants in a control group are motivated to not only increase their performance, but to outperform the participants in the experimental group

John Henry Effect

Quantative in nature; easily categorized with numerical values and show differences in amounts

Numerical variables

Highlighting a specific case example is typically a goal of what type of research?

Qualitative research

Obtaining a representative, random, and generalizeable sample is typically a goal of what type of research?

Quantitative research

Instruments used by researchers

Rating scales Interview schedules: list of questions asked by researcher Observation forms Flowcharts: frequency of behavior Performance checklists Anecdotal records: observations deemed important Time-and-motion logs: Very detailed observations of a person or group or a specified period of time

Dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

A step to establish validity in qualitative research that includes incorporating multiple forms of data collection, theories, or researchers is known as

Triangulation

Minority groups often not studied in research

Underrepresented groups

Power analysis

a statistical method to determine the acceptable sample size that will best detect the true effect of the independent variable G*power

Flowcharts

a sheet for recording frequency counts of a behavior, as well as the intended direction of the behavior performance checklists

Which of the following types of data typically require larger sample sizes? a. nominal b. ordinal c. interval d. metric-level analysis

a. nominal

Target or Theoretical Population

all persons comprising an identified population(e.g. american women)

Categorical variables

categorized along type and show more qualitative differences (e.g. religious affiliation)

Categorical variable

category or type Example: hair color hometown species

Independent variables

causes changes to the dependent variable

Sampling bias

certain members of population are underrepresented or overrepresented

Achievement and aptitude tests

measure of a participant's knowledge, ability or propensity to achieve

Instrument

mechanism to collect data

Selected variables

observed as they occur or after they have occurred without researcher intervention

Experimenter bias

occurs when a researcher unintentionally influences participant behavior, participant ratings, or study outcomes

John Henry Effect

participants in a control group try to outperform experimental group and increase performance

Accessible population

portion of the target population to which the researcher has reasonable access

Numerical variables

quantitative in anture; easily categorized with numerical values and show differences in amounts (e.g. test scores)

Selected variable

researcher selects clients who are alaready being treated w ith this form of therapy

Manipulated variable

researcher selects participants to be exposed to this type of therapy

Replication

reseating a study several times to ensure that the findings are representative of the larger poulation

Self-fulfilling prophecy

tendency for people to pick pu on cues of others expectation and perform according to the expectations

Halo effect

tendency to allow one trait(usually irrelevant) of a client to influence the assessments of the client's behavior and statements -attractiveness, sex, race, and social class

Target population/theoretical opulation

the whole population you are interested in studying

Manipulated variables

those that are controlled, created, applied, enforced, or enacted by the researcher

A step to estabilish validity in qualitative research that includes incorporating multiple forms or data collection, theories, or researchers is known as

triangulation

Extraneous Variables

undesirable variables that influence the outcome of a study

Extraneous variables

undesirable variables that influence the outcome of a study

Experimenter effects

unintended changes in subjects' behavior due to cues inadvertently given by the experimenter

Independent variable

variable that is manipulated

Any trait, attribute, or characteristic that variers; it can vary within each person

variable traits

Numerical variable

variables that take on values that are indicated by numbers Examples: total rainfall

Operationalizing variables simply means that they are

well defined

Hawthorne effect

when participants in experimental group are motivated to perfom better when they know they are being studied