Research Methods Readings

Functional Clothing Design - From Sportswear to Spacesuits

-design of functional clothing ties together science and art -human user is at center Design -can be applied to products as diverse as apparel, space vehicles, graphics, architecture and cities -designer must be familiar with content and process -content of various design professions quite different -> creates design specialists -lack of knowledge may actually help develop exciting new approaches Design Process - creative problem solving through sequence of stages to a given destination - involves conscious application of incentives, intentions, decisions, actions and evaluations forms of thinking -divergent: spreading out to explore a wide range of ideas and info: -convergent: narrowing in or focus on most pertinent ideas and concepts -explicit: conscious thinking; based on logic -intuitive: feeling; based on instinct Forms of behaviour -analysis: breaking down a problem into its essential elements -synthesis: building up a design concept by linking ideas Reflective equilibrium - design solution reaches balance in designer's mind between what can be proved and what feels right - misconceptions are uncovered or new ideas cause designer to want to return to earlier steps Design insight - extraction from body of info to find innovative approach to solution Conducting Research -exploratory research helps designers analyze problems -designer's objective is to learn as much as possible about 1) the user 2) the task 3) the environment Types of research -Literature Review: understand field and evaluate what other researchers and designers have already done -Market Survey: assesses existing public solutions to design problems, can help designer avoid redesigning pre-existing solutions -Direct Observation: going to site , become familiar with range of problems you must resolve -Participant Observation: when designers physically engage themselves in activity -Indirect Observation: reported observation of others Direct Communication: interviews with ppl involved in activity (subjective info), Design -Lab Simulation and Experimentation: needed when actual design situation is not available Definition phase -create new structure or understanding out of info acquired through research- defining the problem 1) who are the users? 2) what is the activity? 3) what are environmental conditions under which apparel will be used? Create Personas -character that represents potential users or groups of users- help designer understand about their user group Identifying Variables -elements related to user, context, the design objective or problem itself that influence how effective a particular design solution will be. Identified are phrased in terms of problems, NOT solutions Identifying Constraints -directly under the control of a designer -commonly part of environment of the task Developing Frameworks -relationship between variables to understand how they interact and influence one another -can help identify possible gaps in research Identifying Requirements -translate abstract concepts into itemized details -allows designer to discuss problem itself before beginning to think of solutions Creating a Concise Problem Definition - specific detailed definition of design project -provides direction - can form guidelines for selecting best design ideas -Fluency: ability to come up with many ideas in a single category -Flexibility: ability to come up with many categories of design requirements or approaches Idea Generation Techniques -Brainstorming: large numbers of ideas in short period of time -Lateral Thinking: thinking diff from traditional methods -Vertical Thinking: incorrect info is discarded and relevant info is sought -Synectics: method of joining together irrelevant elements for creative solutions -Mind mapping; seeks to stimulate both flexibility and fluency -Interaction matrixes; use design variables to generate new design ideas -Sketching Forced Connections -helps designer connect some alternative ideas generated in ideation process Decision Matrixes -visual representation helps designer understand and investigate the influence of design decisions & the results Using Interaction Narratives - short story telling exercises that allow designer to imagine how user will interact with design solution Low-Fidelity Prototyping - user's perspective can be integrated and design alternatives can be evaluated Conducting User Feedback Sessions -feedback sessions illuminate specific drawbacks -capturing concrete feedback helps minimize misinterpretations Evaluating Designs -critical look at decisions made in design process

Universal Methods of Design

Cultural Probes: - communication tools about lives, environments, thoughts and interactions - maps, postcards cameras, journals etc, text and imagery to document personal responses - Bill Gaver created cultural probe kit - view participants cultures and beliefs As a research method: - not meant to be specifically analysed - Intended for inspiration - Can include observations, site visits, interviews Design Probes: - empathetic understanding of gathering info over a long period of time Fly -On-The-Wall Observation: - Participant observation - Removes researcher from direct involvement - Minimized potential bias or behavior influences - reduces researchers ability to connect with people - Conducted with flexibility -John Zeisel: -Observations from point of the viewer -secret outsiders and distant observers - position themselves at a distance and unobtrusive place when observing Recognized Outsiders - positon themselves at a natural distance - disadvantage, people change behaviors when they know they are being studied (Hawthorne Effect) - Hawthorne Effect influenced by landmark studying Observation Method - Attentive looking and recording of people, artifacts environments and interactions - Informal - Ethnographic Method: - Systematic, careful - documented by notes, sketches and photos Structures/Systematic Observations: - Pre-structure of research session - worksheets, checklists, and codifying behavior - Regular time intervals - Predetermined types of interactions Participant Observation (PO): - Immersive and participatory - understanding through experience - Activity, culture, context and subculture - Built from anthropology - More time-limited engagement - Critical to documenting physical environment - Behaviour, interactions, languages, motivators and perceptions Two levels of participations: - Marginal: blend into environment - Full Participants: complete members of a group or subculture Not typical for design researchers Ex. Patricia Moore empathy experiment Personal Inventories: - Relevance of objects in users life - Participants POV - Inspires designs and themes - Create responsive products & systems based on true needs and values - Done by interviews, photos and diary studies - Understand ppl in the workplace - Typically conducted at home or items carried during travel - Commonly participant driven - Inventory is informative but designer relies on insight about user Photo Studies: - Participant documents aspects of their interactions - visual behavioural insights - Common in exploratory research - Often used as a complementary component with other methods Shadowing: - follow closely throughout daily activates - Tracking life or work - help researcher gain sense of user actions and routines - Several team members complete shadowing - Consent based Touchstone Tours: - Guided tour - exploratory - Immersion in participants world - Environmental spaces, homes, rooms, backpacks, purses - documented with video, photos or sketches and transcript of convo User Journey Maps: - Visualization and documentation of experiences interacting with product or service - Tells story about individuals feelings, perceptions - Helps teams develop shared vision - informed by direct contact with customers who use product - Rich, qualitative data - Honest representation of experience

In the Picture (83-99)

Defines ethnography -useful intro to social research processes by describing particular cultural group or practice -ethnographer is researcher and writer -research grew out of anthropology; study of human beings, their lived experiences and their cultural practices -researches were intrigued by differences in practice of "newly discovered societies" and attempted to document their daily life -could focus on cultural practices found in a society: how ppl dress, working life patterns, and how they pursue leisure Bronislaw Malinowski - anthropologist -researchers became participants in culture and practices of the society to gain a close and intimate understanding of the points of view of those observed -raises question of under what conditions is It possible to be both inside and engaged with events that are observed and at the same time located outside and detached from them? -social action and human experience are highly contextualised Methods in ethnographic research: observation -key strategy for research in social realm -get close to activities and everyday experiences of other people -can be diff levels of connection between researcher and research setting -data collection begins with wide focus then narrowed so that a saturation point is achieved -purposeful observations; not something we do naturally

Research Design by John W. Creswell

Research Methods -involves forms of data collection analysis and interpretation for studies -Researchers collect data on an instrument or test -Research Designs as worldviews, strategies and methods Research Design -plans and procedures for research that cover decisions from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection and analysis. Types of research (strategies of inquiry) -Qualitative -Quantitative -Mixed Methods Qualitative Research -using words - open-ended questions - case studies - collecting data through observing a setting - involves emerging questions and procedures - data typically collected in the participants settings, data analysis inductively building from particulars to general themes and the researcher making interpretations of the meaning of the data - Final written report has a flexible structure Quantitative Research - using numbers - closed-ended questions - experiments - collecting data on instruments - Testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables - Final written report has a set structure consisting of introduction, literature, and theory, methods, results and discussion Mixed Methods Research -Combines both or some form of both quantitative and qualitative forms -Integrating quantitative and qualitative data -results from separate methods can help identify questions for the other method -qualitative and quantitative data can be merged into one large database or results can be used side by side to reinforce each other -Can serve larger, transformative purpose to advocate for marginalized groups Components in a Design -Research Design: plan or proposal to conduct research, involves the intersection of philosophy, strategies of inquiry and specific methods Worldview: (also called Scientific method or Science research) set of beliefs that guide action -The Post Positivist Worldview (QUANTITATIVE) - Traditional form of research - Absolute truth of knowledge (can never be found) - need to identify and asses causes that influence outcomes - Reduce ideas into a small sets to test, (such as the variables that compromise hypotheses and research questions) - Based on careful observation and measurement of the objective reality - Developing numeric measures of observations and studying the behavior of individuals is very important - Begins with theory, collects data that either supports or refutes the theory, and then makes necessary revisions before additional tests are made. - Rationality, evidence, objectivity (quantitative) - data collected on an instrument that measures attitudes, and the information is analyzed using statistical procedures and hypothesis testing - The Social Constructivist Worldview (QUALITATIVE) - An approach of qualitative research - assume that individuals seek understanding of the world - develop subjective meanings of their experiences - goal of research is to rely as much as possible on the participants views of the situation being studied - open ended questions - Subjective meanings formed through interaction with others - Addresses process of interaction among individuals - focus on specific contexts in which people live and work to understand historical and cultural settings of participants - intent is to make sense of the meaning others have about the world -The Advocacy and Participatory Worldview (QUALITATIVE) - Qualitative research but can be foundation for quantitative research - believes research inquiry needs to be intertwined with politics and political agenda - may change the lives of the participants, the institutions in which individuals work and live, and the researchers life - Becomes a united voice for reform and change - Focused on the needs of groups and individuals in society that may be marginalized and disenfranchised - Participatory - Free others from hegemonic constraints - Collaborative -The Pragmatic Worldview (MIXED) - arises out of actions, situations and consequences rather than antecedent conditions - Emphasize the research problem and use all approaches available to understand the problem - Researchers have freedom of choice to conduct - Mixed methods research - Need rational for research Quantitative Strategies - quasi- experiments and correlational studies -> specific single subject experiments -Survey Research - questionnaires or structured interviews for data collection - Experimental Research Qualitative Strategies -Ethnography through observational and interview data -Grounded Theory to get general, abstract concept of process, or interaction grounded in views of participants -Case Studies to explore in depth events, activities or processes with individuals -Phenomenological research identifies essence of human experiences to understand their lived experiences -Narrative Research studies the lives of individuals from personal stories Mixed Methods Strategies -Sequential Mixed Methods to elaborate on or expand findings of one method with another method -Concurrent mixed methods merges quantitative and qualitative data to provide comprehensive analysis of research problem -Transformative Mixed Methods uses a theoretical lens as perspective within design that contains both quantitative and qualitative data

Ethnography in field of design (377-388)

- become popular in industrial design - appeals to designers because it promises to reveal a whole new dimension of the user -link was forged in 1991 when Chicago design firm, Doblin Group was asked by mutual client to collaborate on "Workplace Project" -usually done more quickly and given less theoretical contextualization than on academic projects Design -field whose members envision and give shape to new or modified products and services The user -central trope for designers The Field of Design -industrial design developed out of industrial revolution and modern mass production methods -industrial design developed into recognized profession only in 20th century and primarily in the US History of Ethnography in Design -importance of situating product use in its sociocultural context -CSCW (computer-supported-cooperative work) design research CSCW -interdisciplinary study of how humans interact with computer software in the workplace PARC (Xerox Palo Alto Research Center) -Lucy Suchman (first to work for the center) Data Collection -Mounted Video Cameras -Roving Cameras: Desk Tours and Shadowing -Store Intercept Interviewers -In-depth interviews -photo narratives E-Lab -researchers

"Open Research Online"

- relationship between design and science - 1920's: search for scientific design PRODUCTS -1960's, design methods movement: concern for scientific design PROCESS -"design science decade" by radical technologist Buckminister Fuller - produced works of art and design based on objectivity and rationality on values of science -1962: "The Conference on Design Methods" London -> marked launch of design methodology as subject or field of enquiry -1970's: backlash against methodology and rejection of its underlying values, including early pioneers -lack of success in application of science on everyday design practice - methodology continued to develop strongly especially in engineering -1980s -1990s: emergence of new journals of design research, theory and methodology Scientific Design -change from craftwork of pre-industrial design to mechanisation of industrial design -assumptions that modern, industrial design had become too complex for intuitive methods -first half of 20th century = rapid growth of scientific emergences in design (behavioural science, engineering science etc.) -scientific design is a reflection of the reality of modern design practice Design Science -first used by Buckminster Fuller, but adapted by Gregory into context of 1965 conference on "The Design Method" -design science refers to an explicitly organized, rational and wholly systematic approach to design, not just utilisation of scientific knowledge of artifacts but design in some sense a scientific activity itself Science of design -is the study of design "design methodology" -study of design leaves open interpretation of the nature of design Design as a Discipline -Donald Schon challenged positivist doctrine underlying much of design science movement and offered a constructivist paradigm -proposed to search for 'an epistemology of practice implicit in artistic and intuitive processes..' -can mean design studied on its own terms within its own rigorous culture -we have to be able to demonstrate standards of rigour in our intellectual culture at least match those of the others

What is a Research Question in Design? - Meredith Davis

-begins with question that reflects desire to know something or something that arises from observation - defines scope of investigation -framing the research question sets stage for everything that follows in research study -decisions depend largely on what designer sees as content of study and expected use of findings -content of design research addresses several categories of interest to the field Based off of -what people want and need -what the context demands -how design is planned, produced and distributed -the consequences of design action -tools and methods of studying these issues research 1. discovery of fundamental knowledge a. evidence-based scientific approach to study of design, to describe what can be observed and measured about design and its effects 2. knowledge gained about application in design practice - involves systematic inquiry a. seeks meaning in lived experiences of individuals in effort to understand a particular phenomenon 3. knowledge that guides designer's decisions in executing work for specific context or group of users - possible directions the designer should take in addressing problems a. assumes there is no single truth and that people attach diff meanings to things based on their own view or reality -when research methods are less formal, results are less likely to be statistically significant or generalizable -relativism accepts that researcher has perspective that influences findings -Design research allows us to search for original and meaningful territory Research questions - methodological and philosophical approaches - identify people, concepts and circumstances to be studied - the wording of a research question implies a hierarchy among aspects of the research problem - good research questions include definitions of terms - behind a research question there is a working theory that supports the question - good research questions are realistic - followed by 3-5 sub-questions that contribute to overall understanding of primary question - anticipate how findings will be used and by whom Valentina Miosuro - 4 diagnosed patient types 1) Disheartened patients 2) Compliant patients 3) Disease managers 4) Hyper-managers Don Norman - distinction between type of research needed & work of social scientists -cant be yes or no answer -there are few 'truths' and 'rules' in design -issues of proof and generalizability are also - researches should be cautious about using comparative terms when phrasing questions -research questions are not tasks to be executed

Discipline of the catwalk (429-456)

-female bodily capital is transformed into a cultural commodity -fashion models rarely enjoy sociological limelight West and Zimmerman -theorized gender as matter of active 'doing' not matter of natural being -Judith Butler claimed sexed bodies are not the natural units upon which gender is socially imposed Floating norms -producers must respond to unstable market demands and changing rules of art and commerce A look -code for mode's unique appearance that appeals to particular client depending on product being sold Infantilization -models must also embody YOUTH Models -subject to multiple and palpable gazes -simultaneously positioned in regime as inmates and as spectacles -hold the least power in this market -have weakest sense of judging criteria and greatest replaceability

"Mind Mapping"

-provides method of visually organizing a problem space in order to better understand it - can help generate ideas and develop concepts when pieces of related info are unclear -provides nonlinear means of externalizing info in our heads so that we can consolidate, interpret, communicate, store and retrieve info -can promote understanding and enhance recall of a problem space -these maps reflect how we think through complexities of given problem -shows diff ways that people prioritize and organize info -allows us to identify subject of map, relationships between components and understand importance of info represented -visual cues (noun clusters, common symbols, group-related info, hand-drawn images) can serve to transform map to mnemonic device that can more readily trigger recall of the info space steps -identify focus question to serve central theme -start drawing extensions and label them with simple verb-noun pairs or noun clusters -each will reveal deeper levels of secondary info -continue process of making free associations until all pieces of info are represented -before completing map still leave time for ideas to flow

"Scholars Before Researchers: On the Centrality of the Dissertation Literature Review in Research Preparation"

-thorough, sophisticated literature review is foundation and inspiration for substantial, useful research -doctoral education is key means for improving education research, literature has given short shift to dissertation literature review -acquiring skills required to be education scholars should be focal, integrative activity of predissertation doctoral education Role and Purpose of Literature Review in Education Research -good research advances our collective understanding - understand strengths and weaknesses of existing studies -"generativity" along with discipline, publication and peer review is one of hallmarks of scholarship (Shulman) -literature review sets broad context of study, states what is and what is not within the scope of investigation and justifies those decisions Education Research and Doctoral Preparation - consensus that improving doctoral education is key to improving education research -until 19th century doctorate was a teaching degree, certifying that one had a thorough and sophisticated grasp of a particular field of study - Educational Researcher': authors discussed challenges they faced in educating doctoral students and methods that they used to address challenges The Literature Review: A Necessary Chore? -Bruce's study of metaphors of literature review shed light on limitations of published criteria for reviewing literature -product of doctoral program culture is that literature review is not valued and is rarely an explicit part of doctoral curriculums The Literature Review: Our Foundation and Inspiration -Study by Mullins and Kiley established link between methodology and literature review -Hart suggests more central role for lit review in doctoral dissertations Standards and Criteria of a Literature Review -1 category: Coverage -2 Category: Synthesis -3 Category: Methodology -4 Category: significance -5 Category: Rhetoric Literature & Review Analysis Findings - differences to faculty expertise & effectiveness driven from communicating scholarship expectations Refining Our Conception of Literature Reviewing -topic-based dissertation is often used in education especially for theoretical, philosophical, humanities-based and qualitative dissertations - work divided so to best support rhetorical -literature review is necessary but not sufficient for good research

Theory is everywhere by Pedersen, E. (106-128)

22 definitions regarding the term "theory" Purpose of Theories -explanation: found in most -prediction; often found in positivism rarely found in interpretive or critical social science -provision of order; sorting and organizing ideas and data -advancement of knowledge -benefits research through guidance or research or its development; theory development -description; necessary component to understanding Defines Theory -linked to research & scholarship -not any one way to develop theory -traced back to ancient Greece Defines Facts -determined by instruments used to measure them -theory is present in any research that can explain behaviour -theory is present even if a specific previously published or named theory has not been used Positivist Social Science -seeks explanation of human and physical phenomena generally for the purpose of prediction and control Interpretive Social Science -considers the lived experience from perspective of individuals living it Deductive theory - attempt to increase human understanding by providing explanations of why certain things occur

"Now I see it, now I don't: researcher's position and reflexivity in qualitative research" - Roni Berger

Abstract -addresses potential effects on reflexivity of researcher's social position (ex. gender, age, race) purpose of reflexivity = major strategy for quality control, understanding how it may be impacted by characteristics is important occurs when (1) researcher shares the experience of study participants, (2) researcher moves from the position of an outsider to the position of an insider in the course of the study, and (3) researcher has no personal familiarity or experience with what is being studied. Strategies are offered for harvesting the benefits of researcher's familiarity with the subject and for curbing its potentially negative effects. Immigration story -affected process of data collection and analysis In studying life stories of immigrant women bc it allowed writer to approach the study with some knowledge about subject and to address certain topics more easily or know to address them -shared experience may create closer relationship between researcher and participant Strangers in a strange land -studying abusive divorces with law guardians of their children -researcher unfamiliar with the experience may approach it from fresh viewpoint and lead to innovative directions - unfamiliarity may lack comprehension of situation Conclusion -important to remember that researcher's position may be fluid rather than static -position effects balance in research project (capturing viewpoint of the person who lived the experience) and understanding as 'objective' outsider

Theory construction in design research by Friedman, K. (507-522)

Defines Design -process that is goal-oriented -goal is solving problems, meeting needs, improving situations or creating something new or useful -6 domains: natural sciences, humanities and liberal arts, social and behavioral sciences, human professions and services, creative and applied arts and technology and engineering Defines Research -diligent search and studious inquiry or examination -collecting of info about subject -asks questions in systematic way -"methodical search for knowledge" -involves search for general principles -applied research adapts findings of basic research to classes of problems -clinical research involves specific cases Defines Theory -science vs. craft is systematic thought organized in theory -craft = doing -theory = allows us to frame and organize our observations Central Issue in Design -to develop courses of action to change existing situations into preferred ones' -understanding 'things; how they are and how they work' Defines Industry -meets the vast majority of world's physical needs and is necessity The Dictionary of Ideas -defines theory as 'set of ideas, concepts, principles or methods used to explain a wide set of observed facts' How Theory Works 1) What 2) How 3) Why 4) Who, where, when Theory construction problems in design research -design is becoming generalizable discipline that can be readily applied to processes

A Designers Research Manual

Demographics - group people into segments - researchers can create hypothetical profiles - what people are doing, thinking, buying - age, gender, sexual orientation, household size, personal income, family, education, race and religion -understanding of needs and motivations of market segments - collect data for-profit and non-profit -Demographic profiling makes broad generalization about groups Strategy: Competitor Analysis - Evaluating strengths and weaknesses of competitors - Uses secondary sources to determine competitive advantage - Competitive intelligence combines secondary source tools of competitor analysis to primary research - Media scanning - Open sources to find info about history, finances, personnel, brand position, and marketing strategies, personas of companies, annual reports, press release - Determine messaging, media buys, target audiences Drawing From Memory: - Most memorable features of particular product or sector - Consumer draw products form memory on blank paper - Followed by in-depth discussion with a group Touchpoint Analysis: - Customers experience a product in different ways - Who comes in contact with the product, brand or service throughout lifecycle - Research technique braking points down into distinct areas; 1. Pre-purchase (marketing/advertising) 2. Purchase (retail) 3. Post-purchase (product use and after sales) - Touchpoint wheel used to evaluate customer journey - shows where customers are intentionally /unintentionally influenced - Benefits: better values for consumer, brand loyalty, profitability for retailer User Testing Tactic: Personas & Communication design: - Fabricated models of end users who identifies motivations, expectations and goals - Singular icon representative of a group - associated with interactive work - find actual user and ask why personas represent the needs of real users and are developed through traditional research - Formative research validates characteristics of model and ensures they are not designers opinion - Help guide design process - Shift focus - Organize info - Structure navigation - Created by ethnographic research, focus groups & demographic data - relatable attitudes, behaviours and personal details - used through design process in planning or formative phases - Align projects goals with audience needs

Marketing Research Tactics:

Demographics -help researchers create hypothetical problems -provide insight regarding what groups of people are doing, thinking or buying. -used at start of project to define audience Psychographics -quantitative tactic used to measure subjective beliefs, opinions and interests, tastes, traits and lifestyle - valuable insight on opinions and preferences of groups being studied - measures subjective data -helps clarify a creative approach by illuminating a target market's opinions and preferences -used for problem identification or problem solving -best used in early phases of the design process with demographic, ethnographic research and personas Surveys and Questionnaires - tactic for collecting quantitative info by asking participants a set of questions in specific order - questions are given to sample of individuals, representing larger population. - If researcher administers the questions - it is called survey or structured interview. - If participants answer questions on their own (online or paper) it is called a questionnaire - collect info about opinions and preferences of defined group, or to collect factual information such as a consensus report - ability to collect large amounts of information from a wide population in short amount of time - used as formative research to gather demographic (fact based) or psychographic (opinion based) data - used to guide design during product development - can support or confirm creative solutions or understand effects of creative campaign Web Analytics - quantitative analysis that uses concrete metrics to track user behaviour online -also called web statistics or technographic research -designer can gain insight into users' needs and interests by measuring key variable through the course of a user visit -provide designer with info on users' viewing habits -where users have come, pages visited most, how long users stay on page, how long they stay on site as a whole, what time of the day they are looking -help designer decide where and when to run ads, based on whether the site is most commonly viewed at work or at home -help inform future technical -Hits - request for any file from a web server -Page views -individual pages -Visits/sessions -visitors/unique visitors - user who visits a website more than once within a specified period of time -produce formative and summative data -formative - help designer understand which features or content users find valuable in current design -summative - tell designer whether a redesign has increased visits or whether a new feature is being used

"What do you want to understand, in Maxwell"

states that you -need to be actively involved in actual design of your study throughout entire research process -will play import role in communicating why or how you wrote certain things about your research -helps you understand how and why results were answered and why they are important Qualitative Research Design -research questions are the heart of your research design -they are component that directly links to all other components of design -research questions are starting point and primary determinant of design -qualitative researches don't develop final research questions until they have done significant amount of data collection and analysis Suman Bhattacharjea (1994) -dealt with ways in which female administrators in educational offices in Pakistan defined, implemented and controlled their professional tasks and working environment in a gender-segregated and male-dominated society The Functions of Research Questions - explain specifically what your study is intended to learn or understand - 2 vital functions; to help you to focus the study and to give guidance for how to conduct it -questions that are too focused may, leave out things that are important to goals, lead to assumptions, questions that are too general are problems Research Questions and Other Kinds of Questions -intellectual goals for study can function as link between practical goals and research questions -theres a difference between research questions and interview questions Research Hypotheses in Qualitative Design -research questions are not the same as research hypotheses -research questions state what you learn -research hypothesis is statement of your tentative answers to these questions -propositions can also be called hypotheses General Questions and Particular Questions - research questions don't have to be stated in general terms o assumption that they did is derived from logical positivism -> casual explanation was seen as inherently involving laws which were meant to be discovered through science - assumption has been challenged by researches -qualitative studies often employs small samples of uncertain representativeness Instrumental Questions and Realist Questions - "instrumentalism" has been abandoned by almost all philosophers of science it still influences researches -research questions in interview studies should be framed in terms of respondents perceptions or beliefs about what happened rather than what actually happened Variance Questions and Process Questions -variance theory vs process theory -variance focus on difference and correlation, often begin with "does" / "how much" -process focus on how things happen rather than whether there is particular relationship or how much it is explained by other variables

"Undertaking a literature review: A step-by-step approach"

step-by-step guide to understanding lit review by presenting critical elements of process -defines lit review - Defines types of sources (primary, secondary, conceptual, anecdotal) Types of Literature reviews -Traditional or narrative: critiques and summarizes body of lit and draws conclusions about topic in question -> purpose is to provide reader with comprehensive background for understanding current knowledge and highlighting the significance of new research -Systematic: uses rigorous and well-defined approach and reviews are used to answer well-focused questions about clinical practice -Meta-analysis: process of taking large body of quantitative findings and conducting statistical analysis in order to integrate those findings and enhance understanding -Meta-synthesis: is non-statistical technique used to integrate, evaluate and interpret the findings for multiple qualitative research studies Selecting a review topic -important to focus topic of interest -having sufficient literature is important Searching the literature -identify the appropriate and related info -keyword searches are most common method of identifying literature -existing lit reviews and systematic reviews can be important sources of data Analysing and synthesizing the literature -read article to get a sense Framing Review -Divide literature into themes and categories -Present literature chronologically Writing the review - present findings in such a way that it demonstrates your knowledge in a clear and consistent way -avoid long and confusing words and keep jargon to minimum -sentences are short and clear Intro - include purpose of review and brief overview of the 'problem' -any limits/boundaries should be clearly described Main Body -presents and discusses findings from literature -lit that is central to topic should be analysed in depth here Conclusion -should conclude with concise summary of findings that describes current knowledge and offer rationale for conducting future research -any gaps in knowledge that have been identified should lead logically to purpose of proposed study References -should conclude with full bibliographical list of all books, journal articles, reports and other media