Residential Construction and the Appraiser
MDF Trim
A trend in new construction is the increased use of MDF material for interior trim. As you may know, MDF stands for medium density fiberboard, and it is a manufactured material consisting of wood fibers, wax, and resin, which are pressed together under heat and pressure. The result is a smooth wood-like material with no knots or grain, which is easy to work with and can be painted for a consistent finish.
Tamper-Resistant Electrical Receptacles
"What are tamper-resistant electrical receptacles and what is the new requirement? The 2008 National Electrical Code®(NEC®) will require new and renovated dwellings to have tamper-resistant (TR) receptacles. These receptacles have spring-loaded shutters that close off the contact openings, or slots, of the receptacles. When a plug is inserted into the receptacle, both springs are compressed and the shutters then open, allowing for the metal prongs to make contact to create an electrical circuit. Because both springs must be compressed at the same time, the shutters do not open when a child attempts to insert an object into only one contact opening, and there is no contact with electricity. Tamper- resistant receptacles are an important next step to making the home a safer place for children.
Conventional Tank Systems
A conventional storage tank water heater is still the most popular type of system even though it employs 100-year old technology and is only about 55% to 60% efficient. The tanks vary in size from 20 gallons to 80 gallons.
Heat Recovery Ventilators
A heat recovery ventilator (HRV) recovers most of the heat that would be lost in a typical ventilation system and returns it into the house. Imagine a device that has two fans. One is used to exhaust polluted air to the outside and the other is used to replace the exhausted air with fresh air from the outdoors.
Modular Houses
A modular home is defined by the National Modular Housing Council this way: Modular means a method of construction that utilizes pre-engineered, factory-fabricated structures in three dimensional sections that are transported to a job site, assembled and finished. Modular homes are built in self-supporting modules or "boxes." They are transported to the site on flatbed trucks and then either rolled onto a foundation or set in place with cranes.
Fiber-Cement Siding
A relatively recent innovation in siding is fiber-cement. It is composed of cement, sand, and cellulose fiber which is intended to prevent cracking and increase strength. It comes in various styles, is textured to resemble wood and can be painted in any color (or left unpainted). Among the more well-known brands is HardiePlank, which is manufactured by the James Hardie Company. The company's website boasts that it is the most popular brand of siding in North America.
Vinyl Siding
According to the Census Bureau, vinyl siding has been the most popular exterior siding on new houses in the United States since 1994. It is still the most common type of siding on new houses, but over the last 10 years has been slowly losing market share to fiber-cement. Over the last 30 years, vinyl siding has been tremendously popular in both new construction and remodeling. Older wood-sided houses can easily be re-sided with vinyl; concrete block and brick houses can also be covered with vinyl siding. Vinyl materials are also available for soffit, facia, and exterior trim, making a house's exterior maintenance free.
Solar Heat
Active solar heating systems depend on collector panels and a method to store excess heat - typically in water or rocks. Then the warm air is circulated through the house. They can be effective in certain parts of the country and when combined with good insulation, can be the sole source of heat for a dwelling. In colder or cloudier parts of the country, they may be ineffective or require backup systems.
Domestic Water Heating Systems
After the costs of heating or cooling a home, usually the second most expensive utility bills come from heating domestic hot water. According to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, on average nationwide, heating water is responsible for 13% of total energy bills in residences. It can run as much as 25% or higher.
Aluminum Siding
Aluminum siding reached its peak of popularity in the 1960s and 1970s. This was especially true in the remodeling industry. Many companies and individuals made a lot of money in the 1960s selling and installing aluminum siding on older wood-sided houses. (This phenomenon even inspired a 1987 feature film, Tin Men, starring Richard Dreyfuss and Danny DeVito.) Aluminum siding was initially popular because it is durable, fire-resistant, and does not need to be painted periodically. By the early to mid-1980s, aluminum siding had been largely replaced by vinyl siding, because of vinyl siding's resistance to fading and denting.
Aluminum Wiring
Aluminum wiring was used for a short period of time in the mid-1950s, due to a shortage of copper during the Korean War. It proved to be a fire hazard, in many instances, as the aluminum was subject to oxidation where it joined the electric boxes and receptacles. Aluminum wiring does not meet code and is no longer used.
Amperage
Amperage is the total volume of electricity that you have available. In small houses with light loads and perhaps gas appliances, you might be able to get by with 60 amps. 100 amps is a more normal minimum amount. A house with electric heat would require at least 200 amps. It is not unusual today to find large houses with 300 amps or more. The only definitive way to tell the amperage is to examine the size of the entrance cable. Remember the hose analogy - certain size wires can carry only a prescribed volume of electricity. The size or gauge of the entrance cable will enable you to calculate the amperage of the service.
U-Factors
Another important consideration is the U-factor. Unlike an R-factor, which measures resistance to heat transfer, the U-factor measures heat transmission, i.e., heat transfer. This means that when it comes to U-factors, lower numbers are better. A U-factor is calculated as the reciprocal of an R-factor. U-factors are commonly used to rate the energy efficiency of windows.
Balloon Framing
Balloon framing employs studs that run continuously from the sill to the rafter plate (i.e., from the foundation to the roof). The second story floor joists are hung and attached to the studs. This type of construction was introduced around 1850 after steam-powered sawmills became common and long timbers could be easily milled. Balloon framing gave good structural rigidity and was well-suited for the plaster interior finishes of the day. One of the disadvantages was that the two-story cavities between studs were dangerous in the event of a fire. This could be ameliorated by installing horizontal "fire stops" made of 2 x 4s, but by the 1930s and 1940s, balloon framing was outlawed in many municipalities. If you encounter a two-story house that was built in the late 1800s or early 1900s, it almost certainly will have balloon framing.
Permanent Chassis
Both the Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac definitions of manufactured home included the phrase "built on a permanent chassis." What exactly is a permanent chassis? A chassis is an undercarriage; in a manufactured house, it consists of steel framework supporting the floor joists. "Permanent" means that it stays with the house throughout its life. Here is a photo of the permanent chassis under a manufactured house.
Masonry Construction
Houses can also be built using masonry construction, although it is not as common as it once was. Masonry construction comes in several types: Brick Stone Concrete block Poured concrete It is sturdy, durable and low maintenance, but generally costs more than frame construction. Masonry construction has been around longer than frame construction.
Cool Metal Roofs
Cool metal roofs are a specific type of metal roofing that has been developed in recent years. The idea is that the more sun rays that can be reflected away, the less heat will build up in an attic. Cool metal roofs are light-colored and shiny. They can save up to 40% in cooling energy. Metal roofs are durable and have sustainable attributes in that most contain at least 25% recycled materials. At the end of their life, they can be 100% recycled. They are marketed as a sustainable product, and they have gained significant market share in both the new construction and remodeling markets. Modern metal roofing also has insulation and sound-deadening properties that reduce the noise made by rain hitting the roof's surface.
Cotton Insulation
Cotton insulation is made from recycled cotton textiles, such as denim. Other benefits of cotton insulation are: It doesn't require any warning labels; No respiratory or other safety equipment is required; It has good acoustical properties and requires little energy to manufacture. Boron, a non-toxic fire and pest resistant treatment, is used as a treatment on the cotton insulation. Unlike fiberglass, there is no formaldehyde off-gassing to be concerned about.
Drain Pipes
DWV stands for drain/waste/vent, and it is the system that collects wastewater from the various plumbing fixtures in the house and carries it out of the house either to a municipal sewer system or an on-site sewage system. In older houses, cast iron was the choice for drain pipes. These were extremely durable. If you are in an area with older housing stock, you probably encounter cast iron drain pipes regularly. Plastic pipe has largely replaced cast iron pipes in the DWV systems. There are two primary types of plastic pipe used for drain lines, PVC and ABS. PVC pipe is white and is more rigid than ABS. ABS pipe is black, and because it is slightly more flexible, it has greater resistance to damage due to freezing.
Radiant heat advantages are:
Doesn't dry out the air No air or dust blown around No convectors or registers to complicate furniture arrangement Less heat loss to outside air infiltration Can reduce the heat load in a well-insulated house by 25% to 35% over conventional convective systems
Doing Business with FHA
Doing Business with FHA" section of the Handbook, it states, "Appraiser refers to an FHA Roster Appraiser who observes, analyzes, and reports the physical and economic characteristics of a property and provides an opinion of value to FHA. An appraiser's observation is limited to readily observable conditions and is not as comprehensive an inspection as one performed by a licensed home inspector." [Emphasis added.] Some appraisers have inserted this statement word-for-word in their FHA appraisal reports in order to clarify the appraiser's role and to distinguish themselves from home inspectors.
Platform or Western Framing
Due to the fire hazard and the difficulty of getting good lumber 20 feet long, balloon framing is rarely used today. (Not to mention the fact that it does not meet modern building codes.) It was replaced by platform framing starting around the 1930s and 1940s. With platform framing, the studs run only one-story high. The wall sections are framed on the convenient "platform" consisting of the floor joists and subfloor. If there is a second floor, a whole new platform is erected on top of the first-floor walls. Then a second-story is framed up with one-story studs. That also makes it more efficient to build as the second-floor platform makes a perfect staging area to lay out and frame the second-story walls before they are erected.
Clay Tile Roofs
Early clay tiles were made by forming clay around a curved surface, sometimes a log, and then fired in a kiln or oven. Fired roof tiles date back to ancient Greece. They were commonly used in the early Spanish missions found in the Southwest and the area that was later to become California. Today, they are still popular in Adobe or Mission style dwellings in the Southwest and Western United States; they are usually combined with stucco walls. Modern clay tiles are still produced by baking molded clay in a factory. The tiles may be glazed or have textures added. Concrete tiles are also produced, which are extruded on molds, under pressure. They can be similar in appearance to clay tiles. These tiles are heavy and should be applied over at least a 5/8-inch-thick plywood deck.
Electric Heat
Electricity is sent through a resistor, which causes it to heat up. Air passes over the heated surface and warms the room by convection. In some cases, fans are also employed to move the air around. Electric baseboard heat has many advantages: there is a thermostat in every room, it is clean, there is no furnace or chimney needed, and virtually no maintenance is needed. It is practically a perfect heating system except for one factor - in most parts of the country, it is the most expensive system to operate because of the costs of the electricity itself.
Engineered Wood Wall Framing
Engineered lumber can be used for framing, also, as a replacement for 2 x 4 and 2 x 6 lumber. From the website of MAKI Building Centers: "Engineered wood is made from quick growing, abundant species such as aspen, fir, pine and poplar that are processed into wood veneers or strands, coated with adhesive, compressed into large billets, dried, then sawn into standard lumber dimensions. Laminated veneer lumber (LVL), laminated strand lumber (LSL) & parallel strand lumber (PSL), are some of the types of engineered wood products. Because engineered wood products are superior in strength, stability, and uniformity to standard lumber species of the U. S., headers and girders can be engineered for greater clear spans or to carry greater loads."
EIFS
Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems (EIFS) is sometimes known as synthetic stucco. This system combines the insulation and exterior finish in one process. The exterior surface is quite water-resistant but there have been many problems with water infiltration where the material meets other components such as windows, doors, roofs and chimneys. EIFS has been used for 30 years or more, primarily in the South, and in some markets it has gotten a bad reputation for leaking. It turns out, though, that most leaking problems stem from improper installations. The system is composed of 5 layers: Substrate Adhesive Insulation board Base coat with embedded fiberglass mesh Finish coat in desired color
Fiberglass Insulation
Fiberglass insulation is the most common type of insulation used in residential properties today. There are many different brands; probably the most well-known brand is probably Owens Corning with its distinctive pink color. This type of insulation has many advantages. It is an effective insulator, it deadens sound, it is resistant to mold, and it does not burn. Fiberglass insulation comes in batts and blankets. Batts are pre-cut lengths, while blankets are rolls that are cut to fit by the installer on site.
Hot Air Heat
For many years, hot air furnaces were ductless or pipeless. They were known as gravity furnaces. As the air was heated, it rose through a floor register, and as it cooled, the air fell back down (by gravity, or more accurately convection) to be re-heated and sent up again. Holes were cut in the floor of the second story in an attempt to get heat upstairs; these holes were covered with grates. A limited amount of heat did ultimately find its way up there, but it was not very efficient.
Post and Beam
For over a thousand years, the framing system utilized was the post and beam system. This consists of large vertical posts that support horizontal beams. The posts and beams were joined together by various interlocking joints, such as mortise and tenon, and then secured by wooden pegs.
Appraising Manufactured and Modular Houses
For the purposes of most conventional and government mortgage financing, manufactured houses are treated differently. For example, Fannie, Freddie, and FHA require that at least two of the comparable sales in the sales comparison approach must be manufactured homes. Also, for manufactured housing, these entities have a minimum house size. (There is no minimum house size for modular or site-built dwellings.) There is even a different form that needs to be used to report the results of an appraisal of a manufactured house, the 1004C form. Conversely, modular houses are appraised in a manner that is similar to site-built housing. An appraiser may even use site-built houses as comparable sales for a modular home, assuming they are viewed as competitive housing types in the market. The appraisal of a modular house for mortgage financing is reported on the standard URAR (1004) form, assuming it is a single-family house.
Factory-Built Housing
Freddie Mac, in its "Glossary of Finance and Economic Terms," defines factory-built housing as: Generic term for the type of housing constructed in a factory and transported to a residential site as opposed to assembled piece by piece at the construction site. Examples of factory-built housing include manufactured, modular and panelized housing.
Galvanized Steel Pipes
Galvanized steel is steel that is coated with zinc in order to protect it from corrosion. This type of steel is used today for a number of construction purposes, including metal roofing. In the early- to mid-1900s, galvanized steel pipes were commonly used for plumbing supply lines, both for the main line from the water supply into the house and for distribution lines inside the house. However, galvanized steel pipes have a tendency to rust or corrode from the inside out. They can collect calcium/lime scale buildup inside which restricts the flow of water.
R-factors
Heat energy will flow from warm areas to cold areas. We can impede the flow but can't stop it entirely. The measure of resistance to heat transfer is called an R-factor. To give some perspective, an inch of wood has an R-factor of about 1. Depending on where you are, the desired R-factors may be something like R-13 in the floors, R-19 in the walls, and R-30 in the ceilings. It would take a lot of wood to reach those R-factors! Thankfully, modern insulations have been developed that will help us reach the R-factor that is necessary for comfort.
Heat Pump Water Heaters
Heat pump water heaters use electricity to move heat from one place to another instead of generating heat directly. Therefore, they can be two to three times more energy-efficient than conventional electric water heaters. To move the heat energy, heat pumps work like a refrigerator in reverse. A refrigerator makes cool air through the use of a compressor and then gives off warm air as a by-product through the use of a condenser and coil. A heat pump water heater pulls heat from the surrounding air and uses it to heat water in a tank. Heat pump water heaters should be installed in a space with excess heat, such as a furnace room. They will not operate efficiently in a cold space. They tend to cool the spaces they are in. Heat pump water heaters require installation in locations that remain in the 40º to 90ºF range year-round and provide at least 1,000 cubic feet of air space around them. Cool exhaust air can be evacuated to the room or outdoors.
Electric Heat Pumps
Heat pumps are simply reversible air conditioners. They can heat spaces in the winter and cool them in the summer. In the summer, they extract heat from the inside air of the house and expel it outside. In the winter, they extract heat from the outside air and bring it inside. Heat pumps use very little energy and have few moving parts. The problem is that they are inefficient once the outside air gets below about 40 degrees. In northern climates, they need backup systems for heating but will work well for cooling. They are a relatively slow form of heat as the heated air entering a room is considerably cooler than that supplied by a hot air heating system.
Types of Insulation
Here are the most common forms of insulation. Each has advantages and disadvantages. Cellulose - loose fill Blown-in insulation Styrofoam panels Urea-formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI) Batts and rolls of fiberglass and other materials Fiberglass rolls or batts are the most common type of insulation used in residential construction today.
Mortarless Brick Veneer
Here is another new product, from the website of the Portland Cement Association www.cement.org. "A new exterior wall system uses concrete bricks cast in special shapes which require no mortar and can be installed by anyone with basic carpentry skills. The system provides homeowners with the luxury look of real brick exteriors at a more affordable cost. The dimensions and appearance of the brick faces are similar to traditional split-faced bricks, and like bricks used for conventional veneer walls, they are installed in staggered rows. Hidden from view is the unusual shape of the cast block, which allows shingle-like overlapping. Because the system does not require footings or mortar, it can be used on new or existing buildings. Installers stack the blocks in rows and screw them to vertical furring strips attached to the wall sheathing. The furring strips provide a positive connection and create an air space, allowing the veneer surface to breathe and providing drainage for any moisture that may penetrate. Thermal insulation characteristics are about the same as common face brick (R-0.11) and each unit weighs just over four pounds. Because of the interlocking shape of the materials, the system requires no mortar and can be installed by a contractor, handyman, or homeowner with basic woodworking and layout skills. Like traditional split-face brick, the system is strong and durable and will not dent, chip, or fade in color."
Hot Water Radiant Heat
Hot water radiant heat costs less to install and operate. New types of plastic pipe (usually PEX tubing) can withstand freezing and corrosion. Because the water only needs to be heated to between 90 and 120 degrees, a small boiler or hot water heater can be utilized at considerable energy savings.
Site is defined as?
Improved land or a lot in a finished state so that it is ready to be used for a specific purpose. So, land is the physical thing, in its raw state. Once someone decides to improve it to the extent necessary to support building improvements, it becomes a site.
PEX Tubing
In a lot of new construction today, you will find PEX tubing. "PEX (or crosslinked polyethylene) is part of a water supply piping system that has several advantages over metal pipe (copper, iron, lead) or rigid plastic pipe (PVC, CPVC, ABS) systems. It is flexible, resistant to scale and chlorine, doesn't corrode or develop pinholes, is faster to install than metal or rigid plastic, and has fewer connections and fittings. PEX tubing is made from crosslinked HDPE (high density polyethylene) polymer. The HDPE is melted and continuously extruded into tube. The crosslinking of the HDPE is accomplished in one of three different methods. PEX plumbing has been in use in Europe since about 1970, and was introduced in the U.S. around 1980. The use of PEX has been increasing ever since, replacing copper pipe in many applications, especially radiant heating systems installed in the slab under floors or walkways. Interest in PEX for hot and cold water plumbing has increased recently in the United States.
BX Wiring
In the 1940s and 1950s, BX or armored cable was common. There were two wires plus a ground wire inside a metal jacket that protected the wires. It was a good system for interior wiring of a house, but the cable was hard to work with because it was difficult to cut and didn't bend very well. If properly installed and in good condition, there is nothing substandard about BX cable. It does not violate code or pose any threat to the structure or people. It is still used today in some commercial applications.
Hot Water Heat
In this system, water is heated in a boiler and sent through pipes to each room, where it gives off heat through convectors. As the water is heated, it expands and temporarily goes up into the expansion tank. The water is pulled through the lines by a circulating pump.
Types of Inspections
It has been said that there are two types of subject property inspections that an appraiser might undertake for a residential appraisal: Interior and exterior inspection Exterior only inspection
Low-Flow Plumbing Fixtures
It is now required that low-flow plumbing fixtures be installed in new construction and remodeling projects. Here is an explanation from lydiabbh.com: "It's not just low flow, it's the law. In 1995, the National Energy Policy Act mandated the use of toilets that use no more than 1.6 gallons of water per flush. Since then, low-flow plumbing fixtures including toilets, faucet aerators and showerheads have been developed that save substantial amounts of water compared to conventional fixtures while providing the same utility. Different types of low-flow toilets use various technologies aimed at making the toilet more functional. Some toilets have large drain passages, redesigned bowls and tanks for easier wash down. Others supplement the gravity system with water supply line pressure, compressed air, or a vacuum pump.
High-Density Insulation
It's not a huge innovation, but high-density insulation provides a higher R-factor, and consequently better performance based on the same thickness. For instance, a normal 3½ inch fiberglass batt that you would use to insulate a 2 x 4 wall would give you about an R-11. A high-density 3½ inch fiberglass batt would produce an R-15. A normal 5½ inch batt for a 2 x 6 framed wall would give you an R-19; whereas a 5½ inch high-density fiberglass batt would produce an R-21. A 10-inch conventional batt in the ceiling would provide an R-30; versus a 10-inch high-density batt's yield of an R-38.
Land is defined as?
Land is defined as: In law, the solid surface on the earth, as distinguished from water. So, land is the physical thing.
Loose Fill Insulation
Loose fill insulation can be sprayed in attics and into wall cavities. This is usually a cellulose material, but there are also newer sustainable types. Cellulose insulation has an approximate R-value of 4 per inch, which means that 8 inches of loose fill cellulose insulation in an attic would have an R-value of about 32. Loose fill insulation is not as effective in wall cavities due to the possibility of settlement over time.
Panelized Homes
Panelized homes are factory-built homes in which large panels (a whole section of wall with windows, doors, wiring, and siding) are transported to the site and assembled there. They must meet state and local codes for that location. When finished, they are indistinguishable from site-built homes and are appraised the same way. The wall panels may be constructed of traditional lumber or metal studs. Panels generally provide more chances to customize a home than with modular construction. Some panelized houses are now being built using structural insulated panels (SIPs). A study by the Building Systems Council found that construction of a 2,600 square foot home with trusses and panels used 26% less lumber, generated 76% less waste and was constructed in only about 37% of the man-hours needed to build a similar site-built home. A big advantage is that the house can be enclosed and made weatherproof and secure within a day or two.
Metal Roofs
Metal roofing has been around for many years but is only recently starting to gain market share in residential applications. Copper and zinc have been used as roofing for hundreds of years, mostly in high-end and institutional properties, due to their high cost. In the United States, metal roofing has been used on farmhouses and outbuildings for decades. This older, low-tech roofing material (sometimes called "tin roofing") bears little resemblance to today's metal roofing. Modern metal roofing features precision-manufactured, insulated panels that fit together tightly, with warranties of 50 years or longer. The most common metal roofing material is metallic-coated steel sheeting.
Passive Solar Water Heating Systems
Passive solar water heating systems cost less than active systems, but they're not as efficient. However, passive systems can be more reliable and last longer. There are two basic types of passive systems. Integral collector-storage passive systems These work best in areas where temperatures rarely fall below freezing. They also work well in households that have significant daytime and evening hot-water needs. Thermosyphon systems In these systems, water flows through the system as warm water rises and cooler water sinks. The collector must be installed below the storage tank so that warm water will rise into the tank. These systems are reliable but are usually more expensive than integral collector-storage passive systems.
Non-Metallic Wiring
Newer houses are typically wired with non-metallic (NM) wire, which has been common since the later 1950s and early 1960s. The term "non-metallic" refers to the plastic sheathing that covers the wire, not to the wire itself. The wire inside the sheathing is copper. Many appraisers and others refer generically to this type of wiring as Romex®. However, Romex® is a brand name for non-metallic wire manufactured by the Southwire company. There are many other brands of NM wire besides Romex®. Non-metallic wiring comes in several gauges, that is, thicknesses. The most common in residential applications are 14 gauge and 12 gauge. It is important to note that the gauge number and wire thickness have an inverse relationship; i.e., the smaller the number, the thicker the wire. Within the last 10 to 15 years, some makers of NM wiring have adopted a color-coding system for wire gauge. NM wiring with white sheathing usually indicates 14-gauge, 15-amp wire. However, some 12-gauge, 20-amp wire is still sheathed with white. Yellow-sheathed wire is indicative of 12-gauge, 20-amp wire. Orange-sheathed wire is indicative of 10-gauge wire. In today's new construction, 12-gauge wire is preferred. If you encounter a large new custom-built house with 14-gauge wire throughout, it might be an indication that the builder or subcontractor was cutting corners.
PEX Usage
PEX is becoming popular in both new construction and in renovation. Because it is flexible, it is easy to work with. This makes replumbing an existing house faster and easier; new lines can be run through wall cavities without having to remove large sections of drywall or plaster. The most common type of PEX uses red colored tubing for hot water and blue colored tubing for cold water, making it easier to identify which line is which.
Site Characteristics
Physical characteristics of the site itself, such as shape and configuration may have substantial impacts on its desirability, and hence its value. Cul-de-sac sites minimize traffic and maximize backyard privacy. They can sell for considerably more than interior lots; even though their shapes tend to be irregular. Corner sites for residential properties are generally less desirable. You have traffic on two sides and your backyard is exposed to more sight lines. Also, some special assessment districts are created for the installation of sidewalks, water and sewer lines, or street lights. In many cases, the fees are based on the amount of frontage you have, so the owner of a corner lot would pay more. Locational characteristics have an impact as well. Sites with higher elevations and views may be more valuable. On the other hand, they may lead to more difficult access in wintertime. Sites near or fronting water (e.g., lakes, rivers, bays, oceans) can enjoy large premiums. Of course, on the flip side, these properties may be prone to flooding, and may require the owner to carry flood insurance, which is becoming costlier each year.
Plumbing Systems
Plumbing systems encompass two main systems: the distribution system and the drain/waste/vent (DWV) system. In addition, there may be a third sub-system with hot water or solar heating. The distribution system brings water, under pressure, into the house - usually through a ¾-inch or one-inch line. This divides into cold and hot water distribution lines that run to each fixture or appliance. Better quality systems use ¾-inch main lines and ½-inch branch lines. Lesser quality installations use ½-inch throughout. Good plumbing practice postulates: Keep piping runs as short as possible Put the water heater close to the main point of use Insulate supply pipes in certain situations In cold climates, do not run supply pipes through exterior walls or unheated areas (due to the potential for freezing) Design the system so it can be shut down and drained easily Install shutoff valves on every fixture riser pipe
Polybutylene
Polybutylene pipe is a semi-flexible plastic pipe that was used from the 1970s until the early 1990s, but is no longer manufactured or used in the United States. It is usually black or gray in color and is joined together with metal or plastic fittings, and metal clips. Polybutylene plumbing is often (but not always) marked with PB-1 or Poly-B on the outside of the pipe. Polybutylene pipes were widely used in new construction in many parts of the country from the 1970s until the early 1990s
Post and Beam Today
Post and beam construction is quite strong and has many supporters in the building industry. It is not used much today because of the cost of getting and milling large, mature timbers. Also, it takes more skill to design and erect the timbers. These days, we find this type of construction more often in high-end dwellings or vacation homes. In many cases, all or part of the framing structure is left exposed on the interior for decorative purposes. Some refer to this type of building as timber frame construction.
Electric Service Drop
Power will be delivered from a utility pole to a building via three wires - two wires are hot, and the third is neutral. The wires may run through the air as three separate wires, or as a single braided triplex wire. Of course, they may also be buried under the ground, as is the case with most modern subdivisions. If you measure the voltage across both hot legs, it will be 240 volts. Between either hot leg and the ground, it will be 120 volts. These are nominal voltages but they vary a little between 110 and 120 and between 220 and 240 volts. 110 volts will give you a nasty shock - but 220 can kill you!
PVC and CPVC
Rigid plastic pipe includes PVC and CPVC. PVC is approved only for cold water, but CPVC can be used to carry hot or cold water. The pipe is often clearly marked with "PVC" or "CPVC" so that the plumber (and others) can tell the difference. This type of pipe is generally either white, off-white, or gray in color. It comes in a number of diameters. As stated previously, better quality installations use ¾ inch main lines and ½ inch supply lines to individual fixtures. CPVC is commonly used for supply lines, while PVC is used primarily for drain lines. Both are joined together by plastic fittings that are glued in place.
Roof Covering
Roof covering has the basic function of keeping out the rain and snow. It can also serve aesthetic purposes and adds texture and color to a house design. Here is a list of popular roof coverings arranged in order of their costs - from low to high. Composition roll roofing Composition shingle Built-up rock Rubber Metal Wood shakes or shingles Cement fiber shingle Clay tile Slate Copper Some of the listed roof coverings, such as built-up rock, rubber, and copper, are more common in commercial or institutional buildings than in residential structures.
Roof Sheathing
Roof sheathing serves the same purposes as the wall sheathing - strength, nailing surface, plus moisture protection. It typically consists of plywood sheets, or oriented strand board (OSB). A sheathing paper is also applied over the sheathing, and the finished roof covering is installed on top. Sheathing paper has traditionally been asphalt paper (sometimes called felt paper or tar paper) but it is being replaced by newer synthetic products. Prior to the 1950s, most roofs were sheathed with 1 x 4 or 1 x 6 planking which was nailed to the rafters. If the roof covering was to be cedar shingles, the sheathing was typically 1 x 4 planking with air spaces in between, so that the shingles could dry out after rains or snows.
Roof Trusses
Roof truss systems resist the spreading stresses and transfer all the weight to the outside walls. They are about 3 to 4 times as strong as a conventional rafter system and none of the interior walls are load-bearing. That allows great flexibility in interior design and layout. There can be large open spaces. Roof trusses are usually factory-built to custom specifications, trucked to the site, and erected with cranes.
Exterior Sheathing
Sheathing is applied to the exterior of the structure in order to: Strengthen the structure Provide a nailing surface for siding Combat air infiltration Form a moisture barrier Provide some insulation The most common sheathing is plywood or OSB, although insulated types of sheathing, such as fiberboard or gypsum, have supplanted wood sheathing materials in some markets.
Site Selection
Sites are connected with the community around them. They are inextricably linked to the existing and planned infrastructure. Sites are impacted by the physical and environmental factors that adjoin them and that are nearby. These factors could include: Climate Exposure Access Transportation systems Traffic Utilities Surrounding land use and density Natural barriers to future development Views
Slate Roofs
Slate roofs were common on residences in the 1800s into the early 1900s, particularly in urban areas where there was limited or no availability of shingles or shakes. Slate roofing is highly durable. If properly installed, it does not wear out. Many houses constructed in the early 1900s with slate roofs still have the same roofs today. Slate shingles are heavy and expensive, and are rarely used in residential new construction. They are still used on very high-end new houses, as well as institutional buildings, such as churches and government buildings.
Site improvements are:
So, site improvements are what make the difference between a parcel of land and a site. The improvements necessary to convert land to a site could also include: Alleys Gutters Wells Septic systems Fill Tree removal On-site drainage systems Site plans Site approval Zoning changes Permits
Solar Shingles
Solar shingles are photovoltaic solar cells designed to look like conventional asphalt shingles. They are the same size and shape as conventional fiberglass/asphalt composition shingles and are applied to a roof along with conventional shingles. The first ones were introduced in 2005.
Solar Water Heating Systems
Solar water heating systems include storage tanks and solar collectors. There are two types of solar water heating systems: active, which have circulating pumps and controls, and passive, which do not. Most solar water heaters require a well-insulated storage tank. Solar storage tanks have an additional outlet and inlet connected to and from the collector. In two-tank systems, the solar water heater preheats water before it enters the conventional water heater. In one-tank systems, the backup heater is combined with the solar storage in one tank. There are three types of solar collectors that are used for residential water heating. Flat-plate collector Glazed flat-plate collectors are insulated, weatherproofed boxes that contain a dark absorber plate under one or more glass or plastic covers. Unglazed flat-plate collectors, which typically might be employed for solar pool heating, have a dark absorber plate, made of metal or polymer, but without a cover. Integral collector-storage systems ICS or batch systems use one or more black tanks or tubes in an insulated, glazed box. Cold water passes through the solar collector, which preheats the water. Then, the water continues on to a conventional backup water heater. These systems should be installed only in mild climates because the outdoor pipes could freeze in cold weather. Evacuated-tube solar collectors These collectors have parallel rows of transparent glass tubes. Each tube contains a glass outer tube and metal absorber tube attached to a fin. The fin's coating absorbs solar energy but inhibits radiative heat loss. These collectors are used more frequently for commercial applications.
Insulation
Some materials transfer energy (i.e., heat) more quickly and are called conductors. Good conductors include such things as metal and stone. If you sit on a stone bench on a cold day, your rear end gets cold because the stone quickly conducts away your body heat. Poor conductors, or insulators, include plastic and air.
HUD Code
The Manufactured Housing Institute, on its website, discusses the HUD Code and makes interesting comparisons to other building codes. It says: Every HUD Code manufactured home is built in a factory, under controlled conditions, and has a special label affixed on the exterior of the home indicating that the home has been designed, constructed, tested and inspected to comply with the stringent federal standards set forth in the code. No manufactured home may be shipped from the factory unless it complies with the HUD Code and is released for shipment by an independent third-party inspector certified by HUD.
Steam Heat
Steam heat was popular in the early 1900s but is rarely seen today in new construction, other than retail or offices. Water was heated until it turned to steam and the steam was carried through pipes to large radiators. Some were two-pipe systems with one for supply and the other for return. Some were one-pipe systems where the steam cooled, condensed, and ran back to the boiler through the same pipe. Steam heat was relatively efficient as the cast iron radiators retained heat for a long time. However, there were many disadvantages: the radiators got very hot, could cause burns, and restricted furniture placement. These systems operated under high pressure and pipes could burst. The systems were also noisy and needed attention, such as refilling the water.
Stone
Structural stone houses were among the earliest in the country. The early settlers picked up field stones and used them for the walls. Later, stone was dug from quarries and used to build houses and other structures. Today, many frame houses have been built, and are being built, with a stone veneer over the wood framing; or with decorative stone trim.
Mechanical Ventilation
Sustainable construction practices include a plan to force ventilation on a regular basis to introduce fresh air periodically into the interior and exhaust stale and toxic air to the outdoors. Indoor air quality is a major concern. Advanced designs of new homes are starting to feature mechanical systems that bring outdoor air into the home. Some of these designs include energy-efficient heat recovery ventilators (also known as air-to-air heat exchangers).
Sustainable Types of Insulation
Sustainable types of insulation include things that are rapidly renewable; examples are wool and cotton. You can shear a sheep and 6 months later, it has re-grown its coat. Likewise, you can harvest cotton and it doesn't take long to grow a new crop. Sustainable insulation is also non-toxic. Again, cotton and wool qualify. Have you ever worked with fiberglass insulation? It can get up your nose and cause your hands and any exposed areas to itch. It can get into your lungs and cause complications. Sustainable insulation is made from natural products such as wool, cotton, and soy-based foam insulation. We are even seeing straw bales used as insulation. Sustainable insulation is made from recycled products such as cellulose insulation made from recycled newspapers.
The Cost of Tankless
Tankless water heaters currently cost more than conventional storage water heaters. However, a demand water heater should have lower operating and energy costs, which could offset its higher initial cost. As they become more common and technology improves, the purchase prices will come down. They are very reasonable in Japan as they have been commonly used for more than 20 years.
Structural Insulated Panels (SIP)
The Structural Insulated Panel Association, on its website, defines a SIP this way: "Structural insulated panels (SIPs) are high performance building panels used in floors, walls, and roofs for residential and light commercial buildings. The panels are typically made by sandwiching a core of rigid foam plastic insulation between two structural skins of oriented strand board (OSB). Other skin material can be used for specific purposes. SIPs are manufactured under factory-controlled conditions and can be custom designed for each home. The result is a building system that is extremely strong, energy efficient, and cost effective. Building with SIPs will save you time, money, and labor."
Modular versus Manufactured
The best way to distinguish a manufactured house is the red HUD certification label on the exterior of the house. When you see one of these, you can be confident that you are looking at a HUD Code manufactured house, and not a modular house. The steel chassis under the house is also a telltale sign of a manufactured house. However, you need to be aware of some recent trends that have muddied the waters and made it harder to distinguish some modular homes from HUD-Code manufactured homes. A recent addition to the factory-built housing market is the "on-frame" modular house which is built on a permanent steel chassis, transported to the site on attached wheels and placed on a permanent foundation. Luckily, these houses are rare in most markets. When you encounter a permanent steel chassis, it is a good bet (but not a guarantee) that the subject is a HUD Code manufactured home.
Plumbing Systems - Drainage
The drainage system carries off waste water. Greywater from the sinks and laundry is carried off in drain lines which may vary from 1½ inches to 3 inches in diameter. Greywater is water that has been used in the home, except water from toilets, dishwashers, and kitchen sinks. Water from dishwashers and kitchen sinks may have been contaminated by contact with bacteria in food wastes, and is therefore generally not considered greywater. [Note that the article on the next page states that dishwater discharge is part of greywater; this is a point of some industry disagreement.] Water from showers, sinks, and laundry water comprises 50-80% of residential "waste" water. In a typical home, this may amount to more than 5,000 gallons a year. Greywater may be recycled for uses such as watering lawns and landscaping, flushing toilets, and even washing cars.
Knob and Tube Wiring
The earliest type of wiring in a house was called knob and tube. It consisted of electrical wires that were covered with a thin sheath of plastic or tape, which were attached to wood structural members with ceramic knobs. In areas where the wire went through the wood, ceramic tubes were used to prevent the wire from touching the wood so that the heat from the wire did not cause a fire. The use of knob and tube wiring continued from the early 1900s into the 1940s or 1950s, depending on the area of the country in which a house is located.
Heating Systems
Up until the early 1800s, houses in the United States were heated by fireplaces. Then metal wood-burning stoves were introduced. Usually, they were employed in several different rooms. The modern, central heating system, with one central furnace, didn't appear until around 1880. At first, they too burned wood but evolved through coal, oil, gas, electric, etc.
Forced Air Heat
The modern forced hot air system employs fans to move the air around and ducts to supply heat to every room. The air can also easily be filtered or humidified. Hot air warms a room rapidly and the ducts can also be used for air conditioning. The disadvantages are that it is noisy and blows hot, dusty air around and the ducting system makes it difficult to retrofit. Hot air systems can be fueled by natural gas, propane gas, heating oil, wood, coal, and electricity. In 2017, 57% of new houses were built with forced air heat.
Perimeter Chassis
The other type of chassis for a manufactured house is designed for use with a basement or a full perimeter foundation. This is a relatively recent innovation. In this type of chassis, the weight of the house is carried to the exterior foundation walls and is also supported by center posts. It does not need cross-beams. This type of chassis is less common than the traditional "outrigger-type" chassis because it is an upgraded feature which costs more.
Rise over Run
The slope of the roof is described as a precise relationship of the rise over run. The rise is how high it goes up vertically over a certain horizontal run. For example, if the roof rises 4 inches as it goes 12 inches sideways, that means the slope or pitch of the roof is 4 over 12 or 4/12. In northern climes, 4 over 12 would be a minimum, because steeper roofs are needed to combat snow loads in the winter.
Low-E Glass
The sun's energy passes through glass as shortwave radiation and is absorbed by carpeting, furniture, etc. Then it is transmitted as heat energy or longwave radiation, which wants to flow from warm air to cool, and much will pass back out through the windows. Low emittance (Low-E) glass has a coating on the inside to reflect it back. Different types of coating may be applied to admit more or less solar gain, depending on the climate. In the summer or in warmer climates, it is desirable to have less sun come through. Low - E glass advantages are: Better heat insulation Reduced carbon dioxide into the atmosphere Reduced condensation on the interior
Lead Pipes
The well-publicized water quality issues in Flint, Michigan from 2014 to 2016 have brought the issue of lead in drinking water to the forefront of public consciousness. Most of the lead pipes that are still in use today are the main supply lines that run from the municipal water line in the street into the house. As these lines are underground and the appraiser will not be able to see them, the appraiser is generally not responsible for identifying them. It is possible that a short section of the main supply pipe might be visible between the water line entry into the basement and the water meter or main shutoff valve. Lead pipes can sometimes be difficult to distinguish from galvanized steel pipes, as they are both gray or metallic in color, and they are similar in diameter.
Manufactured Homes
There are multiple definitions of manufactured housing. HUD defines manufactured housing this way: A manufactured home (formerly known as a mobile home) is built to the Manufactured Home Construction and Safety Standards (HUD Code) and displays a red certification label on the exterior of each transportable section. The Manufactured Housing Institute says: A manufactured home is a single-family house constructed entirely in a controlled factory environment, built to the federal Manufactured Home Construction and Safety Standards (better known as the HUD Code). Fannie Mae, in its Selling Guide, defines a manufactured home this way: For purposes of Fannie Mae's guidelines, a "manufactured home" is any dwelling unit built on a permanent chassis and attached to a permanent foundation system. Freddie Mac has this to say in its Single-Family Seller/Servicer Guide: The Manufactured Home must be built on a permanent chassis in compliance with the applicable HUD Codes for Manufactured Homes (HUD Codes) in effect as of the date the Manufactured Home was constructed.
Spray Foam Insulation
There are several different types of spray foam insulation, including one that is soy-based (more on that one later). Most of the common spray foam insulations are polyurethane-based. This type of insulation has many advantages. It has a very high R-value and adheres well to the surface it is sprayed onto, with no sagging or settling. It expands to fill gaps, which results in increased efficiency. It can be used effectively to insulate new construction before the drywall is hung and also to fill in wall cavities in existing houses. Some types of this insulation contain hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) in the blowing agent used to spray the material, although there are types that do not use HFCs. The government has required manufacturers to phase out HFCs by 2021. (Photo on right from Wikipedia.) Spray foam insulation is typically costlier than fiberglass or other types of insulation. Also, some types release toxic fumes when they burn.
Active Solar Water Heating Systems
There are two types of active solar water heating systems; again, this type of system uses a pump. Direct circulation systems This type of system employs pumps to circulate water through the collectors and into the home. They work well in climates where it rarely freezes. Indirect circulation systems With this system, pumps circulate a non-freezing, heat-transfer fluid through the collectors and a heat exchanger. This heats the water that then flows into the home. These systems can be used in climates prone to freezing temperatures.
Loads
There are two types of loads carried in a house, live loads and dead loads. Live loads are changing, non-permanent forces that create weight in a structure. For example, the weight of people walking around in a building, or the weight of furniture, or the force of the wind pushing down on the structure would be considered live loads. In a garage, a live load would include the weight of a vehicle that is parked there. Dead loads place continuous and permanent force on a structure. Specifically, they refer to the weight of the structure itself. The sum of the live load and the dead load in a structure make up its total load, which is called the gravity load.
Soy-Based Foam Insulation
This insulation is sprayed into a house in a liquid form. As it hardens, it expands up to 100 times its size. It fills in all the cracks and spaces inside the walls, making an airtight seal. It is non-toxic and moisture resistant. It resists mold, fungus, and rodents. You can get high R-values in less space than batt insulation. Open-cell type foam insulation is less dense and contains more airspace. This is less expensive and will yield about an R-3.5 per inch of insulation. Closed-cell type is more dense and heavier. It is more expensive but will yield between an R-6.5 and 7.0 per inch. Soy-based foam insulation costs more to install because of the more complicated spraying procedure, but will save considerably in energy bills over time.
Electric Radiant Heat
Traditional electric radiant heat has the advantages of having no boiler, no chimney, no parts or valves to wear out, and no pipes to freeze. Of course, if a cable breaks in the ceiling or floor due to a seismic event or a roof leak, it can be quite problematic to repair. Electric radiant ceiling cables often cause cracks in the plaster due to expansion and contraction.
Modern Masonry
True masonry construction uses the masonry material for its structural support. In the 1700s, 1800s, and the early 1900s, houses constructed of stone or brick were common, that is, the stone or brick formed the structural support for the house. Today, most new brick and stone houses are actually wood-framed houses with a brick or stone veneer on the exterior. If you were to remove the brick veneer from one of these modern houses, it would remain standing because the wood framing actually provides the structural support. True masonry construction is more common today in commercial construction than residential construction.
Why Inspect Properties?
USPAP Advisory Opinion 2 (AO-2) is titled "Inspection of Subject Property." It states, in part: The primary reason for inspection of a property is to gather information about the characteristics of the property that are relevant to its value.1 [Emphasis in original.] While there are other ways to gather information on the subject property's relevant characteristics, in many cases the personal observations of the appraiser are the primary source of information regarding the subject property. Hence, USPAP states the reason why appraisers inspect the subject property is to gather information about the property's physical characteristics that are relevant to its valuation.
Ventilation
Ventilation goes hand-in-hand with insulation. Moisture is the enemy of most types of insulation. When insulation gets moist, it packs down and the insulating air spaces get compressed, thereby reducing its effectiveness. Moisture inside a house must be contained and evacuated through proper means of ventilation. Moisture in the building structure can lead to mold growth, peeling paint, and rotting wood. As houses have been built more "tight" in recent years, this is more important than ever. Super-insulation may be counterproductive if the house can't breathe. There should be a vapor barrier on the heated side of a wall, so that warm, moist air inside the house is prevented from entering the wall cavity. This is important because if warm, moist air gets inside the wall, it cools, condenses, and soaks the insulation.
Electrical Systems
Voltage = Pressure Amperage = Volume The best analogy is to compare electricity running through a wire to water flowing through a hose. The volts are the pressure that is pushing it (similar to pounds per square inch of water pressure), and the amperage is the total volume that will fit through the hose (similar to gallons per minute of water). Continuing with the example, you can have a very thin hose with a lot of pressure behind the water (think of a pressure washer, for example). This is good for blasting grime off your porch furniture, but not so much for filling up a 5-gallon bucket. Conversely, you can have a four-inch pipe that is full of slowly running water. The water doesn't have much pressure behind it, but it sure will fill up a bucket quickly. An expert can tell the amperage of an electric service by the size of the wire that is feeding it. A 200-amp service will have a much thicker wire feeding it than a 100-amp service.
Photovoltaic (PV) Panels
When we speak of solar energy today, typically, we are talking about photovoltaic (PV) panels. They take the sun's energy and turn it directly into electricity. This electricity can be used to power the house and light it. Here is a summary of how it works, from the NASA website: Photovoltaics is the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level. Some materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb photons of light and release electrons. When these free electrons are captured, an electric current results that can be used as electricity. The photoelectric effect was first noted by a French physicist, Edmund Becquerel, in 1839, who found that certain materials would produce small amounts of electric current when exposed to light. In 1905, Albert Einstein described the nature of light and the photoelectric effect on which photovoltaic technology is based, for which he later won a Nobel prize in physics. The first photovoltaic module was built by Bell Laboratories in 1954.
Radiant Heat
With hot air or hot water systems, the air is heated and it circulates around and eventually transfers heat to a person. With radiant heat, waves of radiant energy are transferred directly to your body. You can feel the warmth - like sitting near a wood stove or getting warmed by the sun. Also, everything else in the room gets warmed - the furniture, for example - which then warms the air for a period of time afterward. Radiant heat can be based in the floor or the ceiling. Radiant floor heat is preferred because of convection. Heat rises, after all. With radiant ceiling heat, the area near the ceiling is always warmer than the floor. Radiant floor heat is efficient and has fewer temperature extremes from floor to ceiling. You can be comfortable at temperatures 6 to 8 degrees less than with other forms of heat.
Platform or Western Framing (Contd.)
With platform framing, the studs are mounted vertically and have a sole plate nailed across the bottom. If the studs are 2 x 4s, they are usually installed 16 inches on center. If 2 x 6s are used, they are typically put 24 inches on center. With 2 x 6s, there is a deeper wall cavity, so thicker insulation can be inserted. At the top of the studs is a double top plate. (On the top floor, this is also sometimes called the rafter plate.) There is additional support needed over and around openings in the wall such as doors and windows. Headers are built over the openings to spread the load out to the sides and prevent the windows and doors from getting crushed or becoming out of square. A common cause of doors and windows that stick or won't close properly is the failure of the header; this failure often causes the window or door opening to become out of square.
Wood Shingles and Shakes
Wood shingle roofs have been used in Europe for over a thousand years. Many buildings had wood shingles on both the walls and roofs. They were popular in Colonial America and are still used in areas such as New England and particularly on Cape Cod-style homes. Shingles are thin, tapered pieces of wood and are uniform in size and shape. In early times, the shingles were planed smooth and uniform. Starting in the early 1800s, they were milled in steam-powered saw mills. Shakes are shingles that have been hand split from straight grained bolts of wood and are irregular in shape and texture. Cedar is the most popular wood for shingles and shakes, as it is water- and rot-resistant. Cypress and redwood are also used. Wood shingle roofs can be installed over a solid roof deck or a spaced sheathing that allows some air circulation around the shingles. Wood shingles cost more than asphalt shingle roofs, and there are more labor costs to install them.
Siding
Wood siding, both shingle and clapboard, was the standard in this country from the 1600s through the 1800s. During the last 75 years or so, there have been many innovations in lower maintenance siding materials. Many have the color baked in, and textures are available to resemble wood. As we did with roofing, we will provide a list of common siding materials in approximate order of cost. Hardboard Wood clapboard Aluminum Vinyl Stucco Fiber cement Wood shingles EIFS Brick Stone
Wool Insulation
Wool is natural, renewable, and sustainable. It can absorb moisture without compromising its thermal efficiency. When wool fibers absorb moisture, they generate heat. This warmth acts to prevent condensation in construction cavities by maintaining the temperature above the dew-point in damp conditions. Sheep wool insulation is safe to touch and requires no specialized safety clothing or equipment, making it easy and safe to install. Wool does not support combustion and will extinguish itself in the event of fire. Sheep wool insulation does not settle due to the elasticity of the wool fibers, so there is no loss of performance over time.
