Rhetoric and Society Exam 1

rhetorical constraints

obstacles that must be overcome in order to facilitate both the persuasive and practical effects desired by the rhetor

1. words and images are often mixed together in interesting ways 2. visual rhetoric is not absent from even most ancient traditions 3. scholarship in visual rhetoric is the strongest when it combines resources of the rhetorical condition with conceptual resources developed by scholars in other fields

on what three assumptions did Olson et Al ground their approach to the study of visual rhetoric?

scapegoats

others we can blame for the ills of the world

partisan mindset

perceive evidence and to judge arguments via an "us against them" or "my right view against your wrong view" attitude

prejudice

preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience

method in rhetorical criticism concerned with critiquing texts for dominant theory they express while silencing opposing or contrary ideologies

primary goal of ideological critic

Close Textual Analysis

process that attempts to recognize, describe, interpret, and evaluate how elements of a text interact to produce an intended meaning

How do Keith and Lundberg define identity

set of labels, patterns of behavior, ways of representing yourself

deliberative speech

speech dealing with the future; kcategory of speech by Aristotle. occurs when there is a need to decide about a course of future action. Audience has a role in outcome and rhetor asks them to take course of action.

forensic speech

speech dealing with the past; category of speech by Aristotle meaning legal rhetoric. goal is to argue guilt or innocence, audience is judge, jury, or group of people that can render judgement

epideictic speech

speech dealing with the present; category of speech by Aristotle. This is a ceremonial speech intended to praise or blame.

encomium

speech that hold someone up as an example for others

1. read carefully and reread text, take notes 2. search for patterns, words, focus that are used to achieve some specific rhetorical effect 3. analyze what you discover and apply your own judgement to interpret the text 4. write essay in careful pattern of organization

steps of close textual analysis

Rhetoric defined by Keith and Lundberg

study of producting discourses and interpreting how, when, and why these discourses are persuasive

irony

the expression of one's meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite, typically for humorous or emphatic effect.

exigence

the moment or event that motivates someone to write or to speak about a specific issue, problem, or situation

climax

the most intense, exciting, or important point of something; a culmination or apex.

demonization

the portrayal of something as wicked and threatening.

form

the raising and fulfilling of expectations in an audience, or simply the structure of a rhetorical act

anaphora

the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses

satire

the use of humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule to expose and criticize people's stupidity or vices, particularly in the context of contemporary politics and other topical issues.

audience

those people who can take the appropriate action in response to a message

victimization

to single somebody out unfairly for punishment or ill treatment or to use the perception of victimization as a rhetorical tactic

process and symbolism

two key terms of rhetoric when its considered as a perspective humans take

act, agent, purpose, scene, agency

what are the five elements of the pentad

culture and communication

what are the two most significant influences on the practice of modern rhetoric?

1. choice of events to communicate 2. translation of chosen info into meaning

what are the two steps Vatz argues in communicating situations?

He turned from a focus on the relationship between a speaker and an audience towards a more global view of persuasive processes that give meaning and sense to symbols

what contribution did McGee make to understanding rhetorical situation

looks carefully at what is happening in the short text, but isn't necessarily isolated from references outside the text

what is the focus of close textual analysis

1. action humans perform involves human use of symbols, 2. perspective humans take involves focusing on symbolic processes

what two senses of the term "rhetoric" do Foss, Foss, and trapp recognize?

analyzing how people perform rhetorical action, analyzing how people interpret symbols.

what two ways can we focus on the process of symbolism?

When we analyze how symbols work rather than what the symbols communicate (ex: understand how a world view is created by the communication strategies or an anti-abortion group)

when do we focus on the process of symbolism rather than the content?

all elements of situation are located

when is a rhetorical situation highly structured?

not all elements of situation are located

when is a rhetorical situation loosely structured?

simple- few elements made to interact complex- many elements made to interact

when is a rhetorical situation simple? when is it complex?

make conscious decisions to communicate and make conscious choices about strategies we will employ

when we engage in rhetorical action, we ______ and _______

when it is capable of positive modification

For Bitzer, when is an exigence rhetorical?

Aristotle

"ability, in each particular case, to see the available means of persuasion" is who's definition of rhetoric

Kenneth Burke

"the use of language as a symbolic means of inducing cooperation in beings that by nature respond to symbols" is who's definition of rhetoric

can be treated as a coherent area of inquiry (can take into account qualities of the audience), rhetoric and logic are necessary counterparts,. form/function of speeches shaped by goals of the speech.

3 basic points about rhetoric argued by Aristotle

Logos- logic Pathos- emotion Ethos- credibility

3 types of rhetorical proofs/appeals and their meaning

rhetoric is symbolic, rhetoric involves an audience, rhetoric establishes what is probably true, rhetorical theory is inventive and analytic. (SATIA)s

4 characteristics of rhetoric

performing and seeing, remembering and memorializing, confronting and resisting, commodifying and consuming, governing and authorizing.

5 categories of rhetorical action according to Olson, et al

analogy

A comparison of two different things that are similar in some way

metaphor

A comparison without using like or as

syllogism

A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.

euphemism

An indirect, less offensive way of saying something that is considered unpleasant

1. forensic- for use at a trial 2. epideictic- for use at a funeral 3. deliberative- for use in the senate

Aristotle's three types of speeches and their functions

Aristotle: The place where the speech happens -Cicero: the intentions behind the speech: the situation is defined by the speaker's intent/purpose -Bitzer: rhetorical action in a context: the specific combination of exigence, audience, and constraints : specify what makes the occasion unique -McGee: a total of events, actors, and processes: it includes the occasion and the intended change embodied in a persuasive claim: it is determined by culture (need to understand the culture of where the situation is happening)

How did Aristotle, Cicero, Bitzer Vatz, and McGee characterize rhetorical situations?

influence on the audience

If we view communication from a rhetorical perspective, which is more important, theintent of the rhetor or the influence on the audience?

procrastination

Intentionally putting off doing something that should be done

alliteration

Repetition of initial consonant sounds

hyperbole

exaggeration

herd instinct

natural reaction to follow others rather than act alone

controlling exigence

The organizing principle that specifies the audience to be addressed and the change to be effected

occupational psychosis

The way that our thinking in general, our perspective or filter through which we interpret symbolic acts, is controlled by our ways of living and working

he believes the rhetor creates the situation

Vatz's central objection to Bitzer's rhetorical situation

Plato

____'s criticism of rhetoric: it lacks a central ethical concern/philosophical system

Olson et al

_____'s definition of rhetorical action is when humans use symbols to persuade/invite cooperation from others

Olson et al

______'s definition of visual rhetoric: symbolic actions, primarily through visual means, made meaningful through culture derived ways of looking, seeing, and endeavoring.

Burke; persuade

______'s meaning of identification: suggests that whenever someone attempts to _______, identification occurs: one party must "identify" with another. That is, the one who becomes persuaded sees that one party is like another in some way.

Rhetorical Situation (Bitzer)

a complex of persons, events, objects, and relations presenting an actual or potential exigence which can be completely or partially removed if discourse, introduced into the situation, can so constrain human decision or action as to bring about the significant modification of the exigence

ideological criticism

a method in rhetorical criticism concerned with critiquing texts for the dominant ideology they express while silencing opposing or contrary ideologies

provincialism

a narrow, limited, and self-interested view of the world

culture lag

a period of maladjustment when the nonmaterial culture is still struggling to adapt to new material conditions

identification

a proposal which produces in the audience a powerful feeling of affinity with another person or group, often the speaker

terministic screen

a screen composed of terms through which humans perceive the world, and that direct attention away from some interpretations and toward others

example

a specific case used to illustrate or represent a group of people, ideas, conditions, experiences, or the like

Apologia

a speech that defends, justifies, and/or apologizes for an action or statement

ideology

a system of ideas and ideals, especially one that forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy.

hierarchy

a system or organization in which people or groups are ranked one above the other according to status or authority.

rhetorical action

actions that humans perform when they use symbols to persuade or invite cooperation from others

cynicism

an attitude or quality of belief that all people are motivated by selfishness

Rhetorical consciousness (Gronbeck)

an awareness of the ways that persuasive communication is context dependent, contingent, and strategically crafted by agents with particular purposes in mind.

rhetorical perspective

analyzing the means of persuasion, field of study, formal study of persuasion

performing and seeing

category of rhetorical action: art/music/expression

confronting and resisting

category of rhetorical action: symbolic actions of those who confront authorized institutions and resist the established order through the use of visual images, artifacts, symbols, bodies, and performances

commodifying and consuming

category of rhetorical action: transform experiences into products; buying/selling

Remembering and Memorializing

category of rhetorical action: turning history into memory

confirmation bias

cherry pick info that confirms existing beliefs or ideas

eulogy

commemoration speech at a funeral

he believed that the rhetorical situation of a speech is categorized by the place that the speech was givenkd

did Aristotle believe that speeches should be categorized by context?

yes

did Cicero believe that speeches should be categorized by speaker intent?

suppression is consciously ignoring feelings, denial is unawareness of the existence of certain feelings

difference between suppression and denial

wishful thinking- believing what we would like to be true self deception- consciously believing what we know is false deep down

difference between wishful thinking and self deception

interpreted, created by rhetor

does Vatz think meaning is interpreted or discovered

he believes it is a cause of meaning and creates meaning through course of language

does Vatz think that rhetoric is a cause or effect of meaning

act

element of pentad- what happens; symbolic action (what)

scene

element of pentad- where an act takes place (where)

agent

element of pentad-doer of the rhetoric (who)

agency

element of pentad-medium, means of channeling message (how)

purpose

element of pentad-reason for the message (why)

eloquence

fluent or persuasive speaking or writing

trained incapacity

functional blindness; workers become so specialized that they develop blind spots and fail to notice obvious problems

crescendo

gradual increase in intensity

Sophists

group of wandering Sicilians who started teaching Athenians how to speak persuasively with the goal of navigating the courts and the senate

hegemony

leadership or dominance, especially one which forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy

governing and authorizing

leading by right, justifying leaders actions

rationalization

most common form of self deception; ignore unpleasant evidence that refutes your claim