Roman History Final Chapters 8-13 . 75%

Theodosius

Theodosius also made compromises w/Persians in East, appreciably decreasing size of Empire. In 388 Theod. defeated usurper Magnus Maximus, who had proclaimed himself emperor in 383; then Theod. w/his son Honorius defeated the Frankish general Arbogast & his imperial pretender Eugenius in 394 at battle of River Frigidus in northern Italy. Theod. died in Milan in 395, the last of the emperor generals.

Octavian as sole ruler (30 onwards). How did Octavian put his rule on secure footing, in contrast to Julius Caesar or others before him (p. 276-78)?

To ensure that he would continue his ruling, he acknowledged that he and Agrippa were coequals. Then he staged a meeting of the senate and handed back all authority to the senate and the people. He consented tyo remain consul and take responsibility for Spain, Gaul, Cilicia, Cyprus and Syria, Eygypt. He restored peace with the Republic.

Women

Women—increasing public visibility for woman in early empire on the model of the more prominent role played by members of the imperial family like Livia, Octavia, and Agrippina (see also the imperial cult below); especially increased in religious roles (as had been the case in the Greek East for a long time; important

Domitian (81-96)

Youngest Son of Vespasian and brother of Titus. He was very suspicious of everything and everyone and would go on and kill many officials and advisors. He also increased taxes which made people not like him, so he got assassinated, stabbed 8 times.

First Settlement

allowed the Republic traditional institutions and offices to function with independence and stability unknown prior.

Massacre of the Teutoberg Forest, Germany

an alliance of Germanic peoples ambushed Roman legions and their auxiliaries, led by Publius Quinctilius Varus.

Figure 11.1

bronze coin depicts the emperor with a laurel crown of victory

Aurelian (270-75)

captures Zenobia and her son Vabalathus at Battle of Palmyra in AD 273; Aurelian is given the title - Restitutor Orbis - restorer of the world (clearly not one of the barracks emperors).

Urban Cohorts

closest thing to a police force, had the task of maintaining order and gaining intelligence

Valentinian I and Valens

co-regents (= Augusti) faced imminent barbarian invasions on all virtually frontiers. Both were extremely competent as administrators, though Valens was not the great general his brother was, and he lost his life in 378 battling the Goths in Adrianople (Turkey).

Claudius (41-54) Gaius' uncle and Tiberius' nephew

creates two praetorian prefects; has more cordial relations w/senate, but elevates imperial "freedmen" to positions of power rankling the elite senators and equites (p. 322); much more active (and successful) militarily than his predecessors, e.g. invades Britain, subdues Judaea, Mauretania becomes a province, exploratory expeditions into Germany, etc.; helped solve the perennial problem of grain supply; perhaps murdered by Agrippina the Younger w/mushrooms.

Figure 9.1 Sword of Tiberius

depicts a young general in military costume presenting a small, winged statuette of Victory to an emperor, enthroned and represented as Jupiter. Can also be seen as Tiberius offering Augustus a victory that he gained in the Alps in 15- 16 AD.

Imperial Cult

developed on the model of Hellenistic Greek ruler cult, esp. Alexander the Great and other dominant rulers, who commanded cults, temples, altars, priests, public sacrifices, and games, i.e. visible signs of unmistakable power; it was only a matter of time / due course that Romans would adopt these practices, beginning in the east and then, eventually, even at Rome, where Julius Caesar emphasized his connection to divinity and was even decreed a temple in the forum romanum; thus the appellation divi filius = "son of a god" became important for Octavian / Augustus, who as pontifex maximus after 12 BCE became intermediary between the people and the gods; after his death there were tributes, which turned into rituals, which required temples and priests; after Augustus the imperial cult spread rapidly: it was clearly an expression of power for the Roman emperor vis-à-vis his subjects.

Antoninus Pius (138-161)

emperor after Hadrian. #4 in the five good emperors. Nerva - Antoinie dynasty Built temples, theaters, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honors and financial rewards upon the teachers of philosophy. Was not involved with the military during his reign. His reign was the most peaceful time period throughout Romes history. Died of illness.

Pater Patriae

father of the fatherland- name given to Augustus by the Senate in 2 BC

princeps

first in time or order; the first, foremost, chief, the most eminent, distinguished, or noble; the first man, first person 1st phase in Roman History termed Principate.

Figure 13.2

fragments of colossal statue of Constantine, started by Maxentius, finished by C. Features: "Trajanic" locks, upraised eyes, seated, hand may have held Christian cross. Eyes up as a sign of looking in to heaven.

Figure 12.2

group portrait of four tetrarchs (c. 300 CE) in hard porphyry stone (marble), originally from Constantinople (now in Venice at St. Mark's Basilica); all 4 are virtually the same w/paldamentum, military cloak. Tries to convey "unanimity."facing differnt directions, Augustus with the beard

Beneficial Ideology

on the model of Augustus, Roman emperors were expected to care for their subjects; only Claudius really completed building projects in the provinces; at Rome itself "bread & circuses" were a form of social control / benefice; there was a broader base for the promotion into elite society, e.g. from southern Gaul and Spain.

Figure 11.5

painting (c. 198) of Septimius Severus, his wife Julia Domna, their two sons Caracalla & Geta, who has been defaced in an act of damnatio memoriae,

Figure 8.9 a, b, c, d

representations of Octavian / Augustus from different periods signifying different things.

Figure 11.3

scene of sacrifice on Capitoline Hill in front of temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus w/M. Aurelius (hooded) and other figures.

Lucius Helvius Pertinax (193)

soldier of M. Aurelius, City Prefect, proclaimed emperor by Senate, but murdered by Praetorian Guard. 2 months. Was not a general, he was justin charge of the city.

Army

standing land-army of 150,000 legionaries + 150,000 auxiliaries, supported by naval installations in Italy and southern Gaul; paying of army led to monetarization of Roman state (p. 330); the army became a vehicle of social change and inexorable Romanization of the areas it occupied (e.g. Rhine & Danube rivers, Northern Spain, North Africa); this was the age of the pax Augusta (peace of Augustus or Roman emperor).

Nero (54-68)

succeeds at 17 w/help of mother Agrippina the Younger (4th wife of Claudius), had good relations w/senate, equites, & army at first; his tutor was Lucius Aennaeus Seneca, brilliant philosopher (p. 325); other tutor: Sextus Afranius Burrus, one of the Praetorian Prefects; Nero exhibited interests in the arts early on which became problematic later; murdered his mother; brought on economic debt by spending lavishly; Pisonian conspiracy of 65 CE; in 68 w/reports of revolts on the borders of Gaul & Germany, N. was declared a public enemy (hostis) and committed suicide; somehow still the most popular of Julio-Claudians, probably b/c of his large public persona (& spurning of elites); the megalomania of the Golden House, 64 CE (p. 326; Plate 9a); great fire of Rome, 64 CE, for which N. blamed Christians.

genius; Augustales

the protective spirit of the emperor Augustus

spolia

the reuse of architectural or sculptural pieces in buildings generally different from their original contexts

Deification of Julius Caesar, 42 BCE, making Octavian the "son of a god" (divi filius)

the senate had him deified posthumously. Julius Caesar's recognition as a god of the Roman state in January 42 bce enhanced Octavian's prestige as son of a god.

Figure 10.2 Arch of Titus

the triumphal procession of Vespasian and Titus in 71 from the Arch of Titus in the Roman Forum.

illustres

top officials and military officers such as Praetorian Prefects, Consuls, Masters of the Soldiers

Julian the Apostate

tried to de-emphasize Christianity and re-establish paganism in Rome; all his decisions were reversed

second settlement (p. 280): Augustus needed to make his formal authority more sweeping so he; 1. resigns consulship 2. maius imperium 3. tribunicia potestas

1. resigns consulship - Never held office again. 2. maius imperium - he supreme power, held esp by consuls and emperors, to command and administer in military, judicial, and civil affairs, supreme power. 3. tribunicia potestas - oath of the people to defend the tribunes.

Constantine II

337-340 AD Co-ruled with Constans and Constantius II (oldest) held Gaul, Spain, & Britain

Marc Anthony

A daring general in the army of Julius Caesar who rose to become one of Caesar's closest colleagues. After Caesar was assassinated in 44 B.C., he jumped into the struggle for control of Rome. He finally lost to Octavian and committed suicide with Cleopatra.

primus inter pares

A first among equals; the senior or representative member of a group. (emphasis on civil rather than military power)

Figure 9.2 Claudius subdues Britain

A life sized Claudius about to strike down a life sized female personification of Britain.

auctoritas

A private suggestion by Augustus or gesture would ensure a particular action.

Macrinus (217-218)

AD 217-218 - Prefect of Praetorian Guard, killed Caracalla. leader of coup, saluted as Augustus by troops, eques from Mauretania (Africa), i.e. first emperor without senatorial rank, also eventually assassinated by the same troops who had supported him only a year before.

Identify the most salient features of Constantine's rule after the defeat of Maxentius in 313. How did he restructure the "tetrarchy" and create a dynasty based on the family tree? What about his role in ecclesiastical politics (e.g. Council of Nicea in 325)? To what degree was his Christian conversion verifiable? What about his church-building program in Rome and Jerusalem? Finally, what about his confiscation of pagan idols and the establishment of a new coin (solidus) as the basis of monetary exchange and taxation? (see summary p. 465)

After defeating Maxentius in 313, Constantine's rule was characterized by several salient features. He legalized Christianity and promoted its growth, established a new capital city in Byzantium (later renamed Constantinople), reorganized the army and government, and implemented economic reforms. These actions solidified his power and laid the foundation for the Byzantine Empire. Emperor Diocletian restructured the "tetrarchy" by dividing the Roman Empire into four parts, each with its own ruler. He also created a dynasty based on the family tree by appointing his trusted general, Maximian, as co-emperor and later choosing two Caesars to succeed them. This system ensured stability and succession within the ruling family. The Council of Nicea in 325 was a significant event in the history of Christianity. It was convened by Emperor Constantine to resolve disputes about the nature of Jesus Christ and establish a unified doctrine. The council resulted in the Nicene Creed, which affirmed the divinity of Jesus and became a cornerstone of Christian theology. Churches It marked the beginning of a new era where Christianity became an accepted religion, and churches were built to commemorate important events and figures. The construction of these churches also helped to spread the faith across Europe and beyond. The confiscation of pagan idols was a significant move towards establishing Christianity as the dominant religion in the empire. It symbolized a shift away from paganism and towards monotheism, which was an important aspect of Christian doctrine. The establishment of solidus as the basis for monetary exchange also had far-reaching consequences. The new coin was made from pure gold and had a consistent weight and value, which made it more reliable than previous forms of currency. The introduction of solidus helped to stabilize trade within the empire and facilitated commerce with other nations. It also helped to strengthen imperial power by providing a unified currency that could be used throughout all regions under Byzantine control.

Plate 10a

Agrippina the Younger as Priestess, grey Basalt (6ft. tall), found in Temple of Deified Claudius, Rome, 1st cent. CE

What changes did Augustus make to an increasingly professional army to insure its stability: how many legions were there? what role did the centurions come to play that was different from before (291-94)? Was the "oath of loyalty" significant here?

All legionaries would be volunteers citizens who were committed to serving for a fixed number of years, if they remained loyal they would receive an honorable discharge and a fixed bounty payment. They could not legally marry while they were legionnaires. Their services were for 15 years. Prior the centurions had sided with their men during mutanies so to stop this he paid them much more money to stop them wanting to support mutineers in the future. For fear of his safety he required that all soldiers have an oath to his family and not their officers. It did appear to be successful in creating a strong bond.

Figure 8.12 Altar of Augustan Peace

Altar voted by the Senate to mark his return to Rome from Spain and Gaul. A annual sacrifice was to be held there.

Commodus

Ancient Roman Emperor who succeeded his father, Marcus Aurelius, and began the decline of the Roman Empire. fought as a gladiator

Explain at least three facets of Octavian's behavior—i.e. analyze three actions he took—that would have seemed shocking to a figure like Cicero, so devoted to Republican principles (p. 262-3). To what do scholars (Boatwright et al.) tend to attribute this shocking behavior?

Cicero believed that the ideal government is formed by an equal balancing and blending" of monarchy, democracy, and aristocracy. Octavian actions such as; making laws without reference to the senate or people and was to exercise all authority without jurisdiction without appeal. By switching the allegiance of the senate's own troops and giving them to himself. And his demand for consulship. Octavian wanted power.

Latin literature in the late republican / Augustan periods was characterized by two features: 1. literary patronage and 2. "creative imitation" (of earlier Greek models in particular). Who were some of the more important poets of this period and what did they write? Theophanes and Mytilene wrote about Pompey.

Cicero- On His Own Consulship Lucretius - On the Nature of Things Catullus Vergil - Aeneid Homers Iliad and Odyssey Horace and Ovid Odes

Constantinople

City founded as the second capital of the Roman Empire; later became the capital of the Byzantine Empire

Roman law: what are the main divisions of Roman law? What was the emperor's role in the development and adjudication of the laws?

Civil Law: This is the body of law that deals with private matters, such as contracts, property, and inheritance. Public Law: This is the body of law that deals with public matters, such as criminal law, administrative law, and constitutional law. Law of Nations: This is the body of law that deals with relations between different nations, such as international trade and diplomacy. The role of the emperor in the development and adjudication of Roman law evolved over time. In the early Roman Republic, laws were made by the popular assemblies and the Senate, and the magistrates were responsible for interpreting and enforcing the laws. However, as the Roman Empire grew, the emperor became the ultimate source of law and the final authority on legal matters. The emperor had the power to issue edicts, which were legal orders that applied to the whole empire. These edicts could create new laws, modify existing laws, or provide interpretations of existing laws. The emperor also had the power to appoint judges, who were responsible for adjudicating legal disputes and enforcing the law. During the early Empire, the emperor's role in the development of law was relatively limited. The laws were primarily based on the principles of the Twelve Tables, which were established in the early Republic. However, as the empire grew and became more complex, the emperor's role in the development and adjudication of law became more important.

Figure 12.3

Detail from the Arch of the Emperor Galerius (293-311) in Thessalonica, Greece; the arch was erected after his defeat of the Sasanian King Narses in 298.

Year of the Four Emperors, 68-69

Galba, Otho, Vitellius, & Vespasian (= novus homo) fight a civil war for control of the empire; Tacitus, Histories 1.4: "the secret of the empire ... emperors could be made elsewhere than Rome." I.e. becoming princeps depended on military might first, then currying (social / political) favor in Rome later.

spectabiles

High officials including most prestigious governors and mid-level generals

How did Octavian conquer Sextus Pompey and eliminate Lepidus? What did his victory at Naulochus tend to mean for the triumvirate? Especially when contrasted with Marc Antony's devastating loss in Parthia in the same year?

In 36 he attempted to raise Sicily in revolt against Octavian, but his soldiers deserted his cause. He was removed from even nominal membership in the triumvirate, and, although he was allowed to remain pontifex maximus until his death, he was forced to retire from public life. Octavian gained the loyalty of his adoptive father's veteran troops and loyalists. n 43 BCE, the three grandees pooled their armies and resources intending to avenge Caesar's murder and restore the stability and prosperity of the Roman Republic. The result was a political alliance known as the Second Triumvirate; the legalized murder allowed the triumviri to eliminate all their potential enemies. Then, in 37 BCE, Octavian's friend and admiral Agrippa defeated the fleet of Pompey the Great's last surviving son, Sextus Pompey,

Name at least three elements of the second triumvirate that were different from the first.

It was a legal entity explicitly endorsed by the Senate, not a private agreement among strongmen. It divided the Roman provinces into spheres of influence, with Lepidus taking Spain and Africa, Antony taking the East, and Octavian taking the West. three-man ruling committee

What do you make of the rule of Julian the Apostate (361-63)? What are the intellectual lines of his attacks on Christianity? How did these manifest themselves as policies? What about his military ventures, in particular against Parthia? What is his legacy?

Julian the Apostate, also known as Julian II, was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 361 to 363 AD. He is known for his attempt to revive paganism in the Roman Empire after Christianity had become the dominant religion. Julian's reign was marked by a number of reforms and policies aimed at promoting traditional Greco-Roman culture and religion. However, his rule was short-lived and he died in battle against the Persians. Despite his efforts, Christianity continued to spread throughout the empire and eventually became the official religion under Emperor Theodosius I. Julian Apostate was a Roman emperor who rejected Christianity and sought to revive pagan religion. His intellectual attacks on Christianity were rooted in his belief that it was a threat to traditional Roman values and culture. Julian argued that Christianity was irrational and lacked philosophical depth, and he criticized its reliance on miracles and divine intervention. He also sought to undermine the authority of Christian leaders by promoting alternative religious practices. These attacks manifested in Julian's policies, such as banning Christians from teaching in schools and promoting pagan festivals. Julian's campaign against Parthia was aimed at expanding the Roman Empire's territory and influence in the East. He led his army across the Euphrates River and into Mesopotamia, where he won several battles against the Parthians. However, his success was short-lived as he was forced to retreat due to lack of supplies and reinforcements. Julian's legacy as a military leader remains strong. He also implemented reforms in the army that improved its efficiency and effectiveness. Julian is also remembered for his intellectual pursuits and philosophical writings. He rejected Christianity and sought to revive paganism in Rome. His ideas influenced later philosophers such as Friedrich Nietzsche.

Analyze the rule of Nero (54-68), p. 324-27: what are the driving interests of the emperor? what are some of his more monstrous acts (name at least three)? what are some of the factors that ultimately brought about his downfall?

One of Nero's driving interests was his desire for personal glory and fame. He was a talented performer and musician and often took part in public performances. He also had a fascination with Greek culture and art and spent a great deal of money and resources on building lavish palaces and sponsoring artistic endeavors. Nero's monstrous acts are well-documented. Here are three examples: In 64 AD, a great fire swept through Rome, destroying much of the city. Nero was widely believed to have started the fire himself, in order to clear space for a new palace he wanted to build. He then blamed the fire on Christians and had many of them arrested, tortured, and killed. Nero was notorious for his cruelty towards anyone he perceived as a threat or enemy. He had his own mother, Agrippina, killed when she became too powerful and tried to manipulate him. He also had his wife, Octavia, killed and then married his mistress, Poppaea Sabina. In 68 AD, a rebellion broke out against Nero, led by the governor of Spain, Galba. Nero's own Praetorian Guard turned against him, and he was forced to flee Rome. Before he could be captured, Nero committed suicide. There were several factors that ultimately brought about Nero's downfall. One was his extravagance and the strain it put on the Roman treasury. Another was his increasingly erratic behavior and paranoia, which alienated many of his supporters. Finally, his cruelty and brutality towards his own people and his lack of concern for their welfare made him deeply unpopular

Vigiles "watchmen"

Paramilitary patrols of freedmen, instituted by Augustus to reduce the danger from outbreaks of fire in the city of Rome

Intellectual Life

Rome became in the first cent. CE a juggernaut of intellectual innovation, esp. in technology & engineering (cement, arch, etc.); literary activity (including didactic poetry) was a mark of status and even emperors & members of the imperial family engaged in it (e.g. Germanicus, Claudius, Agrippina the Younger); many practical treatises were written by the likes of Columella (on agriculture) and Pliny the Elder (Natural History of the universe in 37 books) as well as grammar studies & rhetorical exercises: it was an age of florid rhetoric! Schools and state libraries were promoted throughout the empire.

Zenobia

Ruled 267-273 AD. Her full name was Septimia Zenobia and she ruled the Eastern provinces of the Roman empire from 267 to about 273 AD from Palmyra. She claimed descent from Cleopatra. She was captured by Aurelian and displayed along with Tetricus I (& II) as captives in Italy. During her rule, she extended her empire to include Egypt and part of Asia Minor. Aurelian honored her by giving her a villa near Tibur, where she retired and spent the rest of her life.

Figure 12.1

Sasanian King of Kings Shapur I (242-72) had many victories over Roman emperors, one of whom Philip I the Arab is shown here kneeling before the King of Kings, who also appears to be holding Valerian (w/hands raised), another emperor. Obviously, Roman power in the east had waned considerably by this point (c. 260 CE).

Octavia

Second wife of first emperor Augustus.

Septimius Severus (193-211)

Septimius Severus decisively defeated Albinus at the Battle of Lugdunum to become Emperor. from Leptus Magna - in the province of Libya.(African born emperor)

The "republic restored": how genuine is this claim (p. 279f.)?

The first settlement at the time allowed the Republic traditional institutions and offices to function with some degree of independence and stability. This new phase in Roman history was call Principate. Augustus removed all displays of authority, and no longer intervened into senate business. He was able to have them do what he wanted by a simple gesture. Keeping his power more constrained.

Later Augustus

Caesar won the civil war and was named dictator of Rome. To secure his position, he needed an heir. With no son of his own, he adopted Augustus.Caesar Augustus was one of ancient Rome's most successful leaders who led the transformation of Rome from a republic to an empire. During his reign, Augustus restored peace and prosperity to the Roman state and changed nearly every aspect of Roman life.

Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus

Caesar's nephew, heir to Caesar's wealth and name, successor to Caesar's power. His forces, under the command of Agrippa, defeated those of Antonius and Cleopatra at Actium in 31. B.C.E.

Economy

without expanding borders & tax-base new sources of income were needed; financial crisis of 33 CE (p. 331); extent of Roman commerce: India, Sri Lanka, South Korea (!), sometimes maritime, but often via caravan through western Asia.

Pax Augusta

("Augustan Peace") Descriptive term for the long period of relative peace and stability following Augustus' expansion and consolidation of the Empire. Through the praetorian guard.

Constantius II

(middle) held Asia Minor & the East, had cousins killed (Dalmatius & Hannibalianus), lasted the longest until 361.

Religious Practices and Principles

(p. 339f.)—"the wide array & variety reflects an empire gained by military conquest, yet then consolidated and for the most part ruled by the cooption and collaboration of its indigenous peoples during the Principate." What is interpretatio? evocatio? quindecimviri sacris faciundis? why were Druidism, Judaism, and Christianity considered to be suspect?

Constans

(youngest) held Italy, Africa, & Balkans

Who got the provinces which provinces of Second Triumvirate?

- Octavian controls Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, Italy and eventually Spain; - Antony rules the Greek East, including Egypt; - Lepidus controls Gaul and Further and Nearer Spain. how did they raise money to support the massive amounts of troops they were assigned (20 legions each for Oct. & Ant., i.e. roughly 80-100,000 men or 2/3 of all legionaries in the Roman world).

what were the legal ramifications of Second Triumvirate?

- Rights of the individual were suspended. These included protection from violence and rights over property. A Roman citizen could be subject to summary violence up to an including death. - The powers of the tribune to intervene against magisterial action were removed. - The triumvirs had the right to lead armies, seemingly without the territories in which they held that power being defined. - The triumvirs appear to have taken control of the financial and military machinery of government. - They appointed persons to military commands and as governors in the provinces. - They seem to have designated magistrates for several years in advance. The exact procedure here is unclear. It may be that elections occurred, but that no candidates other than those designated by the triumvirs were allowed to stand for election.

Identify the key features of the Antonine (Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, & Commodus) and Severan (Septimius Severus, Caracalla, Elagabalus, Alexander Severus) dynasties? How are they similar? How are they different?

Antonine Dynasty: The dynasty lasted from 138 to 192 CE and included the reigns of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, and Commodus. The emperors were known for their philosophical interests, especially Marcus Aurelius, who was a Stoic philosopher and wrote the book "Meditations." The dynasty saw a period of relative stability and prosperity in the Roman Empire, known as the Pax Romana, which lasted from the reign of Augustus until the death of Commodus. Antoninus Pius was known for his administrative skills and good governance, while Marcus Aurelius is remembered as a philosopher-king who faced significant military challenges, including the Marcomannic Wars. Commodus, the last emperor of the dynasty, was known for his excesses and erratic behavior, which ultimately led to his assassination. Severan Dynasty: The dynasty lasted from 193 to 235 CE and included the reigns of Septimius Severus, Caracalla, Elagabalus, and Alexander Severus. The emperors were from North Africa and were known for their military prowess, particularly Septimius Severus, who was a successful general before becoming emperor. The dynasty saw significant military expansion, including campaigns in Britain, Mesopotamia, and North Africa. Caracalla was known for his policies of granting Roman citizenship to all free men in the empire, while Elagabalus introduced the worship of the Syrian sun god Elagabalus to Rome, which was met with controversy. The dynasty saw significant instability and violence, including the murder of several emperors, including Caracalla and Elagabalus. Alexander Severus was the last emperor of the dynasty, and he attempted to restore stability to the empire, but he was ultimately assassinated in a military coup. n terms of similarities, both dynasties saw periods of expansion and military campaigns. Both also saw periods of relative stability and prosperity, with the Antonine Dynasty being known for the Pax Romana and the Severan Dynasty seeing significant military expansion. However, the Antonine Dynasty was characterized by philosophical interests and good governance, while the Severan Dynasty was characterized by military prowess and instability. Additionally, the Antonine emperors were all from Italy, while the Severan emperors were from North Africa.

Nerva (96-98

Appointed as emperor after Domitian was assassinated. he tried to restore the trust between the Roman people and the Senate. One of his big achievements os appointing Trajan as his heir. He also had to deal with things such as revolts in Britain and Germany as well as pushback against his power from the Senate. (First thing he said when he became emperor "I will kill no senators"). his motto (on his coins) was: Equality, Liberty, Safety, and Justice;

Choose at least three areas of important "economic and social change" (from the list above) in the Roman empire after Augustus and under the Julio-Claudians and comment on the salient features of those changes, e.g. in the army, economy, intellectual, etc. What do they have in common? How are they different?

Army: Under the Julio-Claudians, the size of the Roman army continued to expand rapidly, and soldiers were increasingly recruited from outside of Italy. This brought about changes in the makeup of the army, which became more diverse in terms of ethnicity and culture. Additionally, the introduction of new military technologies and tactics, such as the use of auxiliaries and cavalry, further changed the nature of the Roman army. Economy: The Julio-Claudians oversaw a period of economic growth and expansion in the Roman Empire, marked by increased trade and commerce both within the empire and with other regions of the world. This was facilitated by the construction of new roads, bridges, and harbors, as well as the expansion of the Roman currency system. However, this economic growth also led to inflation and increasing social stratification, with wealth becoming increasingly concentrated among the elite. Intellectual: The Julio-Claudians saw a flowering of intellectual and cultural achievement, with important contributions in fields such as literature, philosophy, and the arts. The reign of Augustus in particular saw the rise of the "Golden Age" of Latin literature, with writers such as Vergil, Horace, and Ovid producing some of the greatest works in the Latin language. At the same time, there was also a growing interest in Greek philosophy and culture, which had a significant impact on Roman thought and intellectual life. These changes have in common that they all represent a period of growth and expansion in the Roman Empire. They also reflect a greater openness and engagement with the wider world, whether through military conquest, economic exchange, or cultural exchange. However, they are also marked by increasing social stratification and inequality, as wealth and power become concentrated in the hands of a small elite. Additionally, these changes were not uniformly positive or beneficial, as they also brought about inflation, social unrest, and other challenges for Roman society.

Trajan (98-117)

As emperor, Trajan is best known for his military conquests, which expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest territorial extent. He launched campaigns against the Dacians in modern-day Romania and conquered the kingdom of Nabatea in the Middle East. He also annexed the province of Arabia and expanded the Roman Empire's borders to the greatest extent in history. Stability and shit, he was nice to people. Liked art and shit and created the Column of Rome.

Council of Nicea

At the Council of Nicea, Emperor Constantine presided over a group of church bishops and other leaders with the purpose of defining the nature of God for all of Christianity and eliminating confusion, controversy, and contention within the church. The Council of Nicea overwhelmingly affirmed the deity and eternality of Jesus Christ and defined the relationship between the Father and the Son as "of one substance." It also affirmed the Trinity—the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit were listed as three co-equal and co-eternal Persons.

The Roman family in the Augustan period. How do you explain the emperor's moral legislation of 18/17 (p. 281f.)? In one law penalties were introduced, first, for the failure to have children; then, restrictions were placed on marriage among the different classes (e.g. senators could not marry beneath themselves, e.g. ex-slaves or entertainers); third, there were rewards for having children. In another law, adultery was severely punished. What was different about these laws in terms of how Romans exercised personal morality? Were they effective?

Augustus comprised legislation of 18/17 due to what he considered was a crisis. He believed that Roman citizens showed no respect for marriage and its vital role for rearing children . Family was an important part of Ancient Roman culture and society. Much of Roman law was written around protecting the basic structure of the family. The laws differed in that what was normally considered a private matter between two individuals now became a public matter. It was disruptive and many people did not follow as there was no one to prosecute them. So therefore, it was not effective.

What changes did Augustus make to the senate and the role of the equites in Roman public life and how did these redound to increasing the highly centralized power of the princeps (288-91)?

Augustus reduced the senate to 600 members. He made 1,000,000 sesterces the minimum level of wealth for any senator. Throughout the principate the equestrians were a powerful body of men who played key roles in running the Empire. They were procurators who organized taxation of the provinces and payment of the troops, civilian officials, centurions, military tribunes in the legions and prefects of auxiliary units. He created more higher positions in the army to the equites which was needed to hold a post in the Princeps.

Figure 11.4 Bust of Commodus as Hercules

Bust of Commodus as Hercules (c. 190 CE) corresponds to ancient writers' claims that Commodus "accepted statues in the costume of Hercules and sacrifices were made to him as a god."

Figure 8.2 Bust of Marc Antony

Bust of Marc Antony

Identify the rationale behind Diocletian's establishment of tetrarchy? How was it formed? Did it work? Why or why not?

Diocletian, a Roman emperor, established the Tetrarchy in 293 AD to address the political instability and military threats that plagued the empire. The Tetrarchy was a system of government that divided the empire into four regions, each with its own ruler. Diocletian believed that this would make it easier to govern and defend the vast territory. The Tetrarchy was formed by Diocletian appointing three co-emperors: Maximian, Galerius, and Constantius Chlorus. Each co-emperor was given control over a specific region of the empire. This system allowed for more efficient governance as each ruler could focus on their own region without having to worry about other parts of the empire. The Tetrarchy did work initially as it brought stability to the empire and allowed for better administration. However, it eventually led to power struggles between co-emperors and weakened the unity of the empire. The system also failed to address underlying issues such as economic decline and social unrest.

Diversity

Diversity: Local languages and culture—many different languages were spoken in the provinces, especially Greek, which was the (other) official lang. of the eastern empire; still local lang. & practices persisted, e.g. Aramaic in Judaea.

Plate 9a

Domus Transitoria (of Nero) decoration, 64 CE, scene from Homer's Odyssey

What are some of the features of political and military life under the Dominate (p. 449-57)? How do you explain the massive increase in bureaucracy? The increasing divisions of established units like provinces, legions, etc.? What is your assessment of Diocletian's reforms (cf. p. 456-57)? Was he successful? Why or why not?

During the Dominate, political and military life underwent significant changes. The emperor held absolute power and was surrounded by a large bureaucracy. Military commanders were given more authority and were responsible for maintaining order in their regions. The army became increasingly professionalized, with soldiers receiving regular pay and benefits. However, this system also led to corruption and instability as power struggles ensued among the ruling elite. He reorganized the government, military, and economy to strengthen the state's central authority. His administrative system divided the empire into smaller regions, each with its own governor and army. Diocletian also introduced price controls and forced labor to stabilize the economy. However, his reforms were harsh and unpopular among many citizens. They led to increased taxation, inflation, and social unrest. Overall, while Diocletian's reforms brought short-term stability, they ultimately contributed to the empire's decline.

Constantine

Edict of Milan. Emperor of Rome who adopted the Christian faith and stopped the persecution of Christians (280-337)

Titus (79-81)

Eldest son of Vespasian and had a succesful miltary career before he became emperor. When he became emperor, he worked on infrastructure (Colosseum) and getting rid of poverty and famiine by distributing large amounts of grain out to the people. Known for his kindness towards the people. Arch of Titus.

Tetrarchy

Emperor Diocletian's division of the Roman Empire into four seperate administrative districts

Vespasian (69-79)

Emperor of Rome and founder of the Flavian dynasty who consolidated Roman rule in Germany and Britain and reformed the army and brought prosperity to the empire. Before he was emperor he served under Nero and was known for his success in putting down the Jewish revolt. During his rule he worked on fiscal policy as well as infactructure. Con structed the Colosseum.

Diocletian (245-313)

Emperor of Rome who was responsible for dividing Rome into different provinces and districts. Eventually, the eastern portions of the Empire became known as the Byzantine Empire. Ceremony where he became emperor - chopped someones head off Swore to Jupitor - Hercules

Caracalla

Emperor who had many public works and structures built, including many amphitheaters and public baths. He gave citizenship to every free man in the empire. responsible for the constitutio Antoniniana (needed money so taxes but to accommodate all the new money, he had to make more money, inflation made the money worth nothing )

Battle of Philippi, 42 BCE, and the deaths of Cassius and Brutus

End of the Republic

Transformation of the city of Rome. Augustus is said to have claimed that "he found Rome a city of brick, and left it one of marble." On what basis might he have claimed this? I.e. what were his most significant building projects and how did they serve to glorify his rule? Moreover, how did they fit into the emperor's desire to place himself at the center of Roman public life (religion, law, politics, etc.)?

His claim that "he found Rome a city of brick, and left it one of marble could be seen as a metaphor for him transforming a republic into an empire. However, he did transform Rome from a city filled with bricks and build large structures made of marble. Augustus commissioned several large marble structures; Rome's now vast empire needed better organization. It was carved up into provinces, those on the fringes were vulnerable to foreign powers and governed directly by Augustus himself, he divided Rome into 14 regiones (wards) and these into vici (precincts), each with officials who performed both administrative and religious functions. Augustus targeted religion too, constructing several temples and reinstituting old festivals. His boldest move was 12 BCE when he declared himself the pontifex maximus, the chief high priest. From then on, it became a natural position of the Roman emperor and was no longer an elected office and he built many temples like the Temple of Apollo Palatinus, He built his own Forum Augustum to complement the congested older Forum Romanum, the historic heart of the Roman government, was more ostentatious. It was more spacious and monumental than its predecessor, adorned with a series of statues. In the center was and that of Augustus himself, placed in the center on a triumphal chariot.,

Severus Alexander

Last emperor of the Severan dynasty. His peace time reign was prosperous. He alienated his legions by engaging in diplomacy and bribery, and they assassinated him. acceded to emperorship at 14;

Marcus Aurelius (161-80)

Last of the "Good Emperors", Wrote "Meditations" personal reflections of his beliefs, End of the Pax Romana emperor after Pius #5.

Second Triumvirate

Octavian, Mark Antony, Lepidus. increase their power and control a government. The triumvirate was a magistracy which came into being through the passing of a law, the lex Titia, through a popular assembly. It was constitutional in form. The magistracy was 'the three men for the making of the Republic'. Those three men were Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus. The title recalls the dictatorship of Sulla and the closest equivalent of the position of the triumvirs was that of dictator.

clarissimi

Mid-range governors & some bureaucrats

Identify at least three distinguishing features of Augustus' reign as first emperor that were missing from the Julio-Claudian emperors' reigns, e.g. Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, & Nero. You might talk about relations w/the senate, w/the military and praetorian guard; Rome's borders, fiscal policy; etc.

Relations with the Senate: Augustus was able to establish a harmonious relationship with the Senate, which had been severely weakened during the civil wars that preceded his reign. He maintained the facade of the Republic and made the Senate an advisory body, while in reality, he held all the power. However, he was careful to show deference to the Senate, and his reign was characterized by cooperation and compromise with the senatorial class. In contrast, the Julio-Claudian emperors often had contentious relations with the Senate, and some, like Caligula and Nero, were outright hostile and disrespectful. Fiscal Policy: Augustus implemented several financial reforms that helped stabilize the Roman economy, such as the creation of a permanent standing army, the establishment of a system of tax collection, and the implementation of public works programs. He also introduced a new coinage system and established a public treasury. These policies helped to ensure that the state was well-funded and could meet its financial obligations. In contrast, the Julio-Claudian emperors were often criticized for their lavish spending and poor financial management. Borders: Augustus established a system of secure borders for the Roman Empire, which included natural barriers like rivers and deserts, as well as man-made fortifications like walls and watchtowers. He also maintained a powerful and professional army, which helped to deter potential invaders and maintain order within the Empire. In contrast, the Julio-Claudian emperors had mixed success in maintaining the security of Rome's borders, with some, like Caligula and Nero, neglecting the military and leaving the Empire vulnerable to attack.

Map 9.1

Roman Empire in 69 CE

Figure 8.7 a, b, c, d, e, f

Roman portraits of the first century BCE. Since competition for public life made Romans to promote themselves so images were created of them.

Write an analytical essay about Roman religious practices and principles in the early empire, including the most important religio-historical development of this period, the Imperial Cult (p. 339-45). What are the salient features of this vibrant polytheism and what conditions at Rome made possible their survival? Which religions were held suspect and why (e.g. druidism, Judaism, Christianity)?

The Imperial Cult was the most important religio-historical development of this period. The cult began during the reign of Augustus and was used to promote the worship of the emperor as a divine figure. The emperor was seen as the embodiment of the Roman state and the personification of its power. The Imperial Cult helped to reinforce the idea of Roman superiority and was an essential part of the political and social order. The conditions that made the survival of Roman religion possible were its adaptability and the acceptance of other religions. Roman religion was able to adapt to new circumstances, and it absorbed elements of other religions into its practices. For instance, the worship of the Egyptian goddess Isis became popular in Rome during the early empire, and the Romans incorporated her into their pantheon. Similarly, the worship of Mithras, a Persian god, became popular among Roman soldiers. Not all religions were held in high regard in Rome. Druidism was viewed with suspicion, and the Roman state outlawed it. Judaism was also viewed with suspicion, particularly after the Jewish revolt of 66-70 CE. Christians were also viewed with suspicion and were persecuted because of their refusal to worship the emperor as a divine figure. In conclusion, religion played a crucial role in the early Roman empire. Roman religion emphasized ritual and the performance of public ceremonies and believed in the protective power of the gods. The Imperial Cult was the most important religio-historical development of this period and helped to reinforce the idea of Roman superiority. Roman religion was adaptable and accepting of other religions, but some religions such as druidism, Judaism, and Christianity were held in suspicion. Understanding these features of Roman religion is essential to understanding the religious landscape of the early Roman empire.

The Empire and its expansion (p. 294-99). Is there a contradiction in bringing peace and being willing to wage campaigns to expand the empire? Where were the empires (natural) borders when the princeps died in 14 CE? What was the emperor's advice to Tiberius, his successor?

The Roman Empire's expansion was driven by various factors, including a desire for power, wealth, resources, and the belief in Rome's cultural and political superiority. However, the expansion of the Empire also brought peace and stability to the regions it conquered, as the Roman government provided security, infrastructure, and trade opportunities to the newly acquired territories. There was not necessarily a contradiction in bringing peace and being willing to wage campaigns to expand the empire. The Roman leaders believed that expansion was necessary for the security and prosperity of Rome, and they justified their campaigns as defensive or preemptive measures against potential threats. When Augustus died in 14 CE, the natural borders of the Empire were the Rhine and Danube rivers in the north and east, respectively, the Sahara desert in the south, and the Atlantic Ocean in the west. However, the Empire continued to expand beyond these borders in the following centuries, with varying degrees of success and lasting impact. Augustus advised his successor Tiberius to maintain the existing borders and avoid further expansion, as he believed that the Empire had reached its natural limits and that further conquests would be costly and difficult to defend. However, Tiberius did not completely follow this advice and continued some limited campaigns of expansion during his reign.

Give an account of the new elites of the empire in the fourth century (p. 478-82). Where was the senate (or senates)? How were senators made? And what were their various grades? What about bishops? Why were they significant? And how did they exercise power? For example?

The fourth century marked a significant shift in the Roman Empire's social hierarchy. The rise of new elites, including wealthy landowners and military commanders, challenged the traditional aristocracy's dominance. These elites gained power through their connections to the imperial court and their ability to amass wealth and influence. However, this new class also faced challenges, such as increasing taxation and pressure from barbarian invasions. Despite these obstacles, they continued to shape the empire's political and economic landscape for centuries to come. The emergence of these new elites marked a turning point in Roman history, reflecting both its strengths and weaknesses as an empire. During the 4th century in Rome, there were two senates: the Senate of Rome and the Senate of Constantinople. The former was the traditional governing body of Rome, while the latter was established by Emperor Constantine in his new capital city. The two senates had different powers and responsibilities, with the Roman Senate retaining more authority over domestic affairs. However, as Constantinople grew in importance, so did its senate, eventually becoming a rival to its Roman counterpart. The Roman Senate in the 4th century was divided into various grades, each with its own privileges and responsibilities. The highest grade was reserved for former consuls and praetors, who held the title of "illustrious." Below them were the senators who had served as quaestors or aediles, followed by those who had held lesser magistracies. Senators without any previous political experience were at the bottom of the hierarchy. Despite these differences in rank, all senators had a voice in legislative matters and played a crucial role in Roman politics. In the 4th century, bishops played a crucial role in the governance of Rome. They were responsible for overseeing the administration of the church and ensuring that its teachings were upheld. Bishops also had significant influence over political affairs, as they often served as advisors to emperors and other rulers. Their importance continued to grow throughout the century, setting the stage for their continued prominence in later centuries. In the 4th century, bishops exercised control over their congregations by enforcing strict rules and regulations. They were responsible for maintaining order and discipline within the church, and they often used their authority to punish those who disobeyed.

What was the origin of Diocletian's "Great Persecution" of the Christians? How did it play out and how long did it last? How does Galerius' Edict of Toleration (311) figure here?

The persecution was initiated by Diocletian, who ruled the Roman Empire from 284 to 305 AD. The origin of this persecution can be traced back to Diocletian's belief that Christianity posed a threat to the stability and unity of the Roman Empire. Diocletian believed that Christianity was a subversive force that undermined traditional Roman values and beliefs. He also saw it as a threat to his own authority, as many Christians refused to worship him as a god. In response, he ordered the destruction of Christian churches and scriptures, and demanded that all Christians renounce their faith or face severe punishment. The Great Persecution played out over several years, with thousands of Christians being martyred for their beliefs. Many were tortured or killed in brutal ways, such as being burned alive or thrown to wild animals in arenas. Despite the severity of the persecution, however, it did not succeed in eradicating Christianity from the Roman Empire. Instead, it only served to strengthen the faith and resolve of many Christians who refused to renounce their beliefs even in the face of death. Galerius' Edict of Toleration, issued in 311 AD, marked a significant turning point in the history of Christianity. It granted Christians the right to worship freely and ended the persecution they had faced for centuries. This edict paved the way for Christianity to become a dominant religion in the Roman Empire and beyond.

The problem of succession (p. 283-88): how was the principate to carry on after Augustus? How did Tiberius ultimately become the acknowledged successor to the first princeps?

The problem of succession in the Roman Empire arose because Augustus, the first emperor, had not clearly designated a successor. He had no natural heirs, and his choice of potential successors was limited to his immediate family, specifically his wife Livia and her son Tiberius. After Augustus' death, the Senate and the Praetorian Guard were left with the task of selecting a new emperor. Tiberius was ultimately chosen as Augustus' successor, but his path to the principate was not without obstacles. Initially, Tiberius was reluctant to assume the imperial mantle and refused to accept the title of princeps. However, after a period of political maneuvering, he was persuaded to accept the position. One of the key factors that helped Tiberius secure the principate was his military experience and reputation. He had served as a successful general under Augustus, and his military achievements helped to establish him as a strong and capable leader. Another factor that worked in Tiberius' favor was his relationship with Augustus. As the stepson of the first emperor and the husband of Augustus' daughter Julia, Tiberius was seen as a legitimate heir to the principate. Finally, Tiberius was able to gain the support of the Praetorian Guard, the elite imperial bodyguard that played a critical role in selecting and supporting new emperors. Despite these factors, Tiberius' path to the principate was not without challenges. He faced opposition from some members of the Senate, who were wary of his reputation for cruelty and his perceived aloofness. Tiberius also had to navigate the complex politics of the imperial court, where rival factions vied for influence and power. In the end, however, Tiberius was able to secure the principate and establish himself as the second emperor of Rome. His accession marked a critical moment in Roman history.

Christianity & Rome: what made the relationship of Christianity to Roman (imperial) culture "uneasy"? When did the early persecutions come about and why? When did Christians start becoming members of the municipal elite? Why were the state sanctioned persecutions from mid-third to early-fourth centuries so virulent? What made Christianity so appealing to so many?

The relationship between Christianity and Roman imperial culture was uneasy for several reasons: Religious Diversity: Rome was a religiously diverse empire with a pantheon of gods and goddesses. Christianity, with its monotheistic belief system and rejection of the Roman gods, was seen as a threat to the traditional Roman religion and culture. Political Threat: Christianity also posed a political threat to the Roman Empire, as it taught that there was a higher authority than the emperor, and encouraged its followers to be loyal to God above all else. This was seen as a challenge to the authority of the emperor and the stability of the empire. Social and Cultural Differences: Christian beliefs and practices were also seen as socially and culturally different from the norms of Roman society, which further contributed to the uneasy relationship between Christianity and Roman imperial culture. The early persecutions of Christians began in the mid-first century, primarily under the reign of Emperor Nero. The reasons for these persecutions were complex, but they were often linked to the suspicion and fear of Christians as a subversive and potentially dangerous group, as well as to the idea that Christians were responsible for natural disasters and other calamities. Christians started becoming members of the municipal elite in the early third century, as Christianity began to gain more widespread acceptance and influence. Many members of the Roman elite were drawn to Christianity for its moral teachings, emphasis on charity, and sense of community. The state-sanctioned persecutions from the mid-third to early-fourth centuries were particularly virulent due to a combination of political and social factors. Emperors such as Diocletian and Galerius saw Christianity as a political threat to the stability of the empire, and sought to eliminate it. Additionally, the social and cultural differences between Christians and the rest of Roman society contributed to the hostility and violence of these persecutions. Despite the persecution and hostility towards Christianity, it continued to grow and eventually became the dominant religion of the Roman Empire. Christianity was appealing to many for its message of hope, salvation, and the promise of an afterlife, as well as for its emphasis on morality, compassion, and community. The religion also provided a sense of belonging and purpose for many people in a world that was often uncertain and chaotic.

Marcus Aemilius Lepidus

The third member of the triumvirate and the weakest, both politically and personally. Lepidus's rather desperate attempts to keep the peace between Caesar and Antony fail when Caesar imprisons him after the defeat of Pompey.

Reflect on Trajan's rule (98-117), in particular his campaigns to expand the borders of the empire in Dacia, Armenia, and Parthia (cf. p. 367f.). How would you evaluate the period of his rule in this regard? Was expansion always beneficial?

an's rule from 98 to 117 was marked by significant military campaigns to expand the borders of the Roman Empire, particularly in the regions of Dacia, Armenia, and Parthia. Trajan is often remembered as one of Rome's greatest military leaders, and his conquests are considered by many to be some of the most impressive in Roman history. In Dacia, Trajan led two successful campaigns in 101-102 and 105-106, which resulted in the annexation of the region as a Roman province. The conquest of Dacia brought significant economic benefits to the Roman Empire, including access to valuable mineral resources and fertile land for agriculture. Trajan's campaigns in Armenia and Parthia were also successful, with the conquest of Armenia leading to increased stability in the region and the capture of the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon marking a major military victory for Rome. However, while Trajan's military campaigns brought significant benefits to the Roman Empire, they also came at a cost. The conquests in Dacia and Parthia required significant resources and manpower, and the campaigns were marked by high casualties and widespread destruction. In addition, the conquests led to the incorporation of new territories and peoples into the Roman Empire, which created new challenges for administration and governance. Moreover, Trajan's expansionist policies were not universally popular, and some within the Roman Empire criticized the cost and scope of his military campaigns. The burden of taxation and conscription fell heavily on the citizens of Rome, and many resented the constant demands placed on them by the imperial government. In conclusion, Trajan's rule was marked by impressive military campaigns that expanded the borders of the Roman Empire and brought significant economic benefits to Rome. However, the conquests were not without cost, and the burden of expansion fell heavily on the citizens of Rome. While Trajan's rule was marked by significant achievements, it is important to recognize the costs and challenges associated with the pursuit of expansion and conquest in the ancient world.

The great 18th-cent. English historian Edward Gibbon praised the period of Roman history between 96-180 as "the period in the history of the world, during which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous." Why reason might he have to say that? This is a question about the post-domitianic era (96 CE) ushered in first by Nerva and Trajan and continued by a succession of responsible emperors.

ard Gibbon's praise of the period of Roman history between 96-180 as a time of great prosperity and happiness for humanity was based on a number of factors. This period is often referred to as the "Five Good Emperors" period, which refers to the reigns of Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius, all of whom were seen as responsible and capable rulers. During this period, the Roman Empire was at the height of its power and influence, and enjoyed a period of relative peace and stability. The reign of Trajan in particular is often seen as a high point of Roman achievement, as he presided over a period of military expansion and economic prosperity. The Five Good Emperors were known for their administrative skills and their commitment to good governance, which helped to create a sense of stability and predictability throughout the empire. They also made significant investments in public works projects, such as roads, aqueducts, and other infrastructure, which helped to stimulate economic growth and improve the quality of life for many Romans. Additionally, the Five Good Emperors were known for their patronage of the arts and culture, which helped to foster a sense of intellectual and artistic vibrancy throughout the empire. This period saw the flourishing of Roman literature, philosophy, and the arts, with figures like Tacitus, Plutarch, and Marcus Aurelius producing some of their most significant works. Overall, the period of Roman history between 96-180 was seen by Gibbon and others as a time of great achievement and prosperity, marked by good governance, economic growth, and cultural flourishing. The reigns of the Five Good Emperors were seen as a high point of Roman civilization, and a testament to the potential of enlightened and responsible leadership to bring about positive change and progress.

What was the effect on civil society and the running of the Roman government that the Flavians-Vespasian, Titus, & Domitian-started to use more senators and equites, rather than freedmen, in the imperial service (p. 350)? How is this related to Vespasian's role in restoring the senate to its former total of 600 (from a low of about 200 caused by Nero's treason trials and civil war of 68-69)? I.e. where did many of the "new men" come from and what was their attitude toward traditional Roman values like virtus and thrift? Why did Vespasian style himself a founder of a new Rome? How did he do so? What other benefits did Vespasian in particular and the Flavians generally institute at Rome that helped put the empire on stable footing after the profligacy of the Neronian years?

asian's efforts to restore the Senate to its former total of 600 senators was a part of his broader agenda to restore traditional Roman values and institutions, which had been undermined by the chaos of the civil wars that had plagued the Roman Empire in the preceding years. Many of the "new men" who were added to the Senate during this period were drawn from the ranks of the equites, or Roman knights, who were a wealthy and influential class of non-aristocratic Romans. These new senators tended to be more pragmatic and less concerned with traditional Roman values like virtus and thrift, which had been more closely associated with the old senatorial elite. However, Vespasian's efforts to restore the Senate and promote traditional Roman values were part of his larger project of presenting himself as a founder of a new Rome, which would be marked by stability, order, and prosperity. To achieve this goal, Vespasian implemented a range of reforms and initiatives aimed at restoring the economy and promoting public works projects throughout the empire. These included the construction of the Colosseum and other public buildings in Rome, as well as the expansion of the Roman road network and the rebuilding of key infrastructure such as aqueducts and harbors. Vespasian also instituted a range of economic reforms, such as debasing the currency and imposing new taxes, which helped to stabilize the Roman economy after the profligacy of the Neronian years. Additionally, he was known for his frugal and austere personal lifestyle, which helped to promote a sense of discipline and restraint throughout the empire. Overall, the Flavian period marked a significant turning point in the history of the Roman Empire, as it saw a return to traditional values and institutions, as well as a renewed focus on stability and prosperity. The reforms and initiatives instituted by Vespasian and his successors helped to put the empire on a more stable footing, and laid the groundwork for the peace and prosperity that would characterize the subsequent centuries of Roman history.

optimus status

best condition. Augustus referring to his regime

Imperial Cult

in the Roman world, a partly political and partly religious ceremony in honor of the emperor who was recognized as a superhuman or divine figure

Elagabalus (218-22)

is remembered for his scandalous personal life and his attempts to introduce the worship of the sun god Elagabalus to Rome.

Constitutio Antoniniana

issued by Caracalla in 212 AD, a law granting nearly all of the free men within the Empire citizenship. Bro needed money so he made more citizens to have more taxes but to accommodate all the new people, he had to make more money, inflation's a bitch and bro didn't take macroeconomics, so the money was worth nothing and his plan failed.

Arius

known for his role in the Arian controversy, which had significant implications for the development of Christianity. Arius taught that Jesus Christ was not co-eternal with God the Father, but rather was a created being. He argued that there was a time when Jesus did not exist and that he was therefore inferior to God the Father. This position was controversial, as it challenged the traditional doctrine of the Holy Trinity, which held that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit were all co-equal and co-eternal.

dominus

lord master

Figure 10.4 Column of Trajan

marble-relief scene from the column of Trajan, dedicated in 113, depicting the Dacian Wars of 101-02 and 105-06. Be able to identify what's on the panel, e.g. difference in garb of legionaries (w/sturdy armor) and auxiliary troops (w/overshirts & neckcloths).

Gaius (Caligula) (37-41) grandnephew if Tiberius

name means "Little Boot" (Lat: caliga, army boot), since as the son of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder he was raised in the Roman army camps [the world's first identifiable "army brat"!]; started out more personable than the morose Tiberius, but suffers from mental illness and begins to present himself as divine, plans a consulship for his horse, Incitatus (p. 317).

Cities and Provinces

the empire, which encompassed perhaps 50-60 million inhabitants during the first & second centuries, depended on cities & urbanization for its massive administrative complex; tripartite system of government in local cities was crucial: a) magistrates (= office holders), b) advisory council, c) citizen body; these were often set up as timocracies (i.e. w/minimum wealth requirements); peace & Roman engineering were responsible for the growth of cities: e.g. forums, aqueducts, fountains, streets, sidewalks, temples, baths, spectacle buildings, and multistoried dwellings; cities tended to be on coasts, rivers, and major inland roads, hence major benefaction of the emperors was the maintenance of roads & harbors (Augustus & Claudius).

Figure 13.1 Arch of Constantine

was built after C.'s victory over Maxentius (the "tyrant") in 312; reused spolia