Social Psychology FINAL
Understand the concepts of authorization, routinization, and dehumanization.
- Authorization: they were "given the authority to kill" the civilians at My lai, with the orders they received from the higher-ups. - Routinization: The soldiers were trained and routinely practiced to be "killing machines." That training to kill desensitized many of the US soldiers. - Dehumanization: Soldiers dehumanized the civilians of My Lai to reduce the cognitive dissonance they had about hurting/killing them; doing it made it "easier" for them to "follow through" with their "orders."
Describe evidence that people are more likely to behave aggressively when they experience pain or discomfort.
- Carlsmith & Anderson study (1979): they had Ps take tests in one of two rooms: one was very hot, the other was a comfortable temperature. The Ps in the hot room showed more aggression towards a stranger than the Ps in the comfortable room. - Riots tend to happen more in hot climates than in cold climates.
Thoroughly understand the research concerning gender and aggression.
- Men: - more likely to use physical aggression to cause pain/injury - aggression more common in men of all ages, than women - they commit 83% of spouse murders & 75% of partner murders - more likely to experience aggression in a positive way - Women: - more likely to use relational and indirect aggression - more likely to be victims of violence from intimate partners - more likely to experience aggression in a negative way - Both Men & Women: - both sexes can become aggressive when provoked - both sexes as likely as the other to use verbal aggression
Understand neural & chemical influences on aggression.
- Serotonin: 1) inhibits impulsive aggression 2) criminals often have LOWER levels of it - Testosterone: 1) Positively correlated w/ aggression (high levels = high aggression) 2) Positively correlated w/ prison inmates, delinquents, military veterans, fraternity members and men - Men have 7x the amount that women have
Identify the most effective means of dealing with your pent-up anger
- actively enabling it to dissipate: - count to 10 - take deep breaths - walk away (take a break) - wait (until you are no longer physically aroused)
Understand the theory of catharsis and what the research tells us about its effectiveness.
- research says catharthis doesn't work; that acting aggressively or viewing aggression increases subsequent aggression and hostility. - eg: beating up a pillow when your mad (an example of catharsis) will not make you feel better, it will only prolong and increase future aggression.
Explain the frustration-aggression hypothesis. When will frustration lead to aggression? When will it not?
- the closer you are to a goal and get delayed from it → aggression - when something delays your goal and it's unexpected → aggression - relative deprivation (feeling u have less than u deserve) → aggression - when the person who makes you mad is smaller than you → aggression - if the frustration is: understandable, legitimate, unintentional, non-personal
Understand the major events of the My Lai massacre. Describe the "clean-up" phase.
-The clean up phase was blowing the whistle on the My Lai massacre. It was "righting" the wrong that the soldiers did. The investigation was also part of the clean up. Finding out who did what and who was responsible for what actions.
Understand the situational factors that influenced the massacre.
1) the troops had been exposed to violent viet-cong attacks weeks before the massacre at My Lai: by the time they got to My Lai, they were "primed" to fight. 2) they did not know who the enemy was - no one was distinguishable: the situation was ambiguous. 3) It was hot and sticky · situational factors § very cohesive group § Hot/ sticky weather § crappy food § bugs § dirty § smelly · frustration aggression theory and aversive stimuli, § negative affect · Primed to expect a battle § What were they told, all the villagers would be at market § the only ones left in the village would be the Viet Cong § there is going to be one hell of a fight § Pinkville was a "known" sight of the Viet Cong Set the stage for how we can explain, when they first got there · expected a hell of a fight · only the Viet Cong to be in the village · Villagers would be gone · primed for violence · trained for violence · frustrated- because someone close to them had been recently killed · commanding officers ordered them to shoot
Understand how social exchange theory explains prosocial behavior. What are the primary motivations for helping according to this theory?
1. Social Exchange Theory- the theory that negates the former definition of pro-social bx a. People help when the benefits of helping outweigh the costs of helping. b. Benefit others as a means to self-benefit a. Motivation is egoistic. a. Motivated to get rewards a. Motivated to avoid punishment i. We help to take care of and protect ourselves or benefit ourselves i. Reciprocity credit- " I help you and you are likely to help me in the future." ii.Gifts iii. Recognition- we want people to think we are good, nice people. iv. Mood enhancement- gives us a lift v.Empathic Joy- The joy you experience when you see other people having their needs met. i. Cognitive dissonance ii.Karma iii. Being Ostracized iv. Fines/imprisonment due to good Samaritan laws v. Sanctions for norm violation i. Shame, guilt, hell (religions)
Explain principlism as a theory of helping.
2. Principlism- helping should be motivated by the desire to uphold some moral principle a. Based on philosophy of Kant i. Focus on justice ii.Greatest good for the greatest human beings. a. Strips away and rejects empathy, sympathy, and compassion as reliable motivators b. Rejects collectivism a. Contends ultimate goal of upholding moral principles should be the motivation for prosocial behavior. b. This is the only way to have a stable population- for everyone to help when needed i. Group identity may lead one to harm out-groups while helping in-groups
Describe three theories for why the presence of others causes arousal.
3 Theories of Social Facilitation Others' presence --> Increased physiological arousal ex. cockroaches. Adaptive purpose to protect oneself Other people --> evaluation apprehension human beings worry that they think we are incompetent Other people --> distraction Other people cause us to become particularly alert and vigilant, they make us apprehensive about how we re being evaluated, and they distract us from the task at hand. pg 260
Understand the Langer, Blank, & Chanowitz (1978) Xerox study and what it tells us about nonconscious cognition.
3 different groups (Harvard): in a hurry 95% move, no excuse 60% move, bad excuse 93% move; ANY reason increases compliance, even a bad one
Discuss strategies for reducing cognitive dissonance.
4 ways to reduce dissonance 1. Change behavior "I'll never do that again" Go back and redo a task 2. Justify behavior by changing one of the dissonant cognitions engaging in rationalization Jokes about dumb blondes aren't really sexist. It wasn't really a lie 3. Justify behavior by adding new cognitions Some scientists argue that there is no greenhouse effect. So, I can drive my SUV without guilt. I lied so that my friend wouldn't be hurt. I had no choice. 4. Self-affirmation Affirming competence on dimension unrelated to threat focusing on something positive unrelated to dissonance-causing phenomena Applying the theory Why would they have felt cognitive dissonance? Because they're hurting people "Good people don't hurt people" Their high self-esteem was inconsistent with their behavior The theory: they would feel bad with this inconsistency How could they reduce dissonance? Justifying behavior by adding new cognitions Change behavior Justifying behavior by changing a dissonant cognition Justifying behavior by adding new cognition: Created ingroup/outgroup message. They thought they were good, and the enemy was bad, but added additional cognition to reassure the negative beliefs about the enemy Self affirmation: Religion, segregated their roles. Good father, good son...providing for their family Leaving unit, but rare
Discuss human aggression according to evolutionary theory.
According to Charles Darwin s (1859) theory of evolution, natural selection favors genes that promote the survival of the individual (see Chapter 10). Any gene that furthers our survival and increases the probability that we will produce offspring is likely to be passed on from generation to generation. Genes that lower our chances of survival, such as those causing life-threatening diseases, reduce the chances that we will produce offspring and thus are less likely to be passed on. Evolutionary biologists like E. O. Wilson (1975) and Richard Dawkins (1976) have used these principles of evolutionary theory to explain such social behaviors as aggression and altruism.
What are the advantages of nonconscious cognition?
Advantage = quick & efficient Disadvantage = "mindless" errors missing detail, richness Stroop effect Automatic Thinking (aka Nonconscious Cognition) nonconscious unintentional involuntary effortless quick What does it do? allows us to conserve mental effort Rich, complex world Limited capacity Cognitive misers Advantage & Disadvantages
How is thinking about objects different from thinking about people?
Analytic Thinking Style A type of thinking in which people focus on the properties of objects without considering their surrounding context; this type of thinking is common in Western cultures Holistic Thinking Style A type of thinking in which people focus on the overall context, particularly the ways in which objects relate to each other; this type of thinking is common in East Asian cultures (e.g., China, Japan, and Korea)
Describe Olweus's work on reducing bullying in Norway.
Anti-bullying campaign Taught teachers techniques to reduce bullying
Discuss the Asch Line Judgment research and how it relates it to normative social influence. What does this tell us about public compliance and private acceptance?
Asch's Line Judgment research Analyzed conformity to a unanimous majority Methods Start line vs. Comparison line Results 76% of Ps conformed at least one time On average, Ps conformed 1/3 With complete strangers Conformed MORE with people they care about Conformity motivated by desire to be liked or to avoid rejection Conformity leads to rewards or the avoidance of punishment May lead to public compliance without private acceptance
Understand the difference between conscious and nonconscious cognition.
Automatic Thinking Thinking that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless Controlled Thinking Thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful
Understand the causes of the correspondence bias.
Ch 4 Slides - Correspondence Bias: Perceptual Process Factor --> perception, how we see the world Tend to focus on people rather than the environment around them. The person is "perceptually salient" paying attention to this particular person/thing Use the focus of attention as a starting point animals/people are a danger Ignoring the Power of Social Roles People inhabit multiple social roles which influence how we behave in specific situations. We forget this when making attributions Ignoring Constraints on Behavior When we judge people, we assume behavior is indicative to characteristics, but forget... external constraints social rolls to fill Empirical Research: Jones & Harris (1967) Part. asked to read speeches written by college students Pro-Castro or Anti-Castro Parts told Writer chose side Writer assigned side Ignoring compensation offered for behavior ignoring the power of social norms What are the consequences of norm violation We need to be accepted we are social creatures
Understand the factors that increase the use of automatic/nonconscious cognitive processes.
Cognitive Resources Physiological Arousal more likely to use automatic thinking Circadian Rhythms if you're a morning person -> automatic processes at night. Vice versa Positive Feelings "thinking is a downer" Alcohol & Drug Use Thought Suppress & the Rebound Effect
Understand basic concepts of cognitive dissonance theory.
Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that to help yourself feel better about the decision, you will do some mental work to try to reduce the dissonance. powerful force - need to feel good about our self A motivational theory what motivates you? How do your motivations influence behavior/cognitive processes? Based on basic tenants: 1.) Human beings desire to behave consistently Behave or think inconsistently with positive self-image idealized version of our self We're smarter, prettier, more popular we are inconsistent with our behavior... --> Cognitive Dissonance unpleasant psychological arousal has physiological component Motivates Dissonance Reduction strategies Stronger in higher self-esteem people
Discuss how group size influences conformity to groups.
Conformity is a change in one's behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people. Group size research: tend to max out of conformity from 3-5 members
Understand Kelley's covariation model of attribution.
Covariation Model A theory that states that to form an attribution about what caused a person s behavior, we systematically note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether or not the behavior occurs Kelley s theory, called the covariation model, says that you will examine multiple instances of behavior, occurring at different times and in different situations, to answer this question. Has your friend refused to lend you her car in the past? Does she lend it to other people? Does she normally lend you other possessions? According to covariation theory, we use the consistency, distinctiveness, and level of consensus about person s behavior as mainly caused either by the person s situation or by the person s own characteristics or dispositions.
How does culture relate to cognitive dissonance?
Culture Individualistic & Collectivistic Cultures Triandis (1992) found less dissonance in collectivistic cultures group harmony is important concept as individual, your job is to maintain harmony However, dissonance likely when behavior shames or disappoints group members
Define deindividuation and describe the effects of deindividuation on behavior.
Deindividuation lose sense of individuality lose sense of responsibility to be called on deviant acts US Lynchings (1899-1946) More likely to happen when people wore KKK uniforms Warrior Cultures facepaint uniform to separate them from their individuality Explanations Feel less accountable Increases obedience to group norms Deindividuation doesn't always lead to aggressive or antisocial behavior Depends on the group norm and situation Aggressive norms & situations --> aggressive behavior Cyberspace people have sense of unaccountability online
Distinguish between internal and external attributions.
External Attribution Inference that a person's behavior is due to something about the situation he or she is in Internal Attribution Inference that a person's behavior is due to something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality.
Discuss the factors that increase the likelihood that people will conform to normative social influence?
Factors that Increase Normative Social Influence Group cohesiveness & importance Group size research: tend to max out of conformity from 3-5 members Absence of allies
Understand how personal responsibility influences cognitive dissonance.
Feel Responsible for Negative Consequences Most likely when behavior is perceived as freely chosen. More likely if we can engage in counterfactual thinking Makes it more difficult to justify bad outcome "Torture- for whatever purpose and in whatever name - requires a torturer, an individual responsible for planning and causing pain to others."
Describe the effects of harsh versus mild punishment on aggression.
For children: mild punishments: - works in the long term to stop bx (children learn to internally justify why they are not behaving a certain way when there is mild punishment and no external justification) harsh punishments: - works in the short term to stop bx (in the presence of the enforcer/punisher) - may backfire: harsh punishment may teach children to fear you and/or cause them to model (mimic) that aggression w/ others. For adults: mild punishments: harsh punishments: - can act as a deterrent, but it must be swift (immediate) and certain (which is not how it ever happens, given our justice system).
Who is Kurt Lewin? Understand his contributions to Social Psychology.
Founder of social psychology; leadership styles (laissez-faire, democratic, autocratic), and field theory, regions (each contains an attitude towards something) & boundaries (fluid, more differentiation and permeable connections; vs. rigid, little differentiation and influence between systems and often indicate high stress situations or mental retardation) Father of scientific Social Psyc Forefather* Born 1890 in Germany Worked at prestigious Psychological Institute of Berlin Jewish - persecuted influenced his research and his life his students - Russian women Began and created entire branch of psychology* Emigrated to U.S. 1933 ESSAY QUESTION: Kurt Lewin is awesome? why? first person to create systematic program of experimental social psychology experiment vs. introspective He developed very first theory of soc psyc: Field Theory B = f(P,E) Behavior is the function of the person and the environment
Understand Heider's approach to attribution theory.
Fritz Heider "Father" of attribution theory belief - humans interpret causes of people's behavior as internal - internal factors* Attribution Theory Addresses how we infer the causes of other people's behavior
Describe the relationship between gender and prosocial behavior.
Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior In many cultures, the male sex role includes helping in chivalrous and heroic ways, whereas the female sex role includes helping in close, long-term relationships. Consider two scenarios. In one, someone performs a dramatic, heroic act, like storming the cockpit of United flight 93 to fight the terrorists. In the other, someone is involved in a long-term helping relationship, such as assisting a disabled neighbor with chores around the house. Are men or women more likely to help in each situation? The answer is males in the first situation and females in the second (Eagly & Crowley, 1986; Eagly & Koenig, 2006). In virtually all cultures, norms prescribe different traits and behaviors for males and females, learned as boys and girls are growing up. In Western cultures, the male sex role includes being chivalrous and heroic; females are expected to be nurturant and caring and to value close, long-term relationships. Indeed, of the 7,000 people who received medals from the Carnegie Hero Fund Commission for risking their lives to save a stranger, 91 percent have been men. In contrast, women are more likely than men to provide social support to their friends and to engage in volunteer work that involves helping others (Eagly & Koenig, 2006; McGuire, 1994; Monin, Clark, & Lemay, 2008). Cross-cultural evidence suggests the same pattern. In a survey of adolescents in seven countries, more girls than boys reported doing volunteer work in their communities
Describe the effects of group discussion on attitudes that are initially risky or initially cautious. Describe the persuasive arguments and social comparison interpretations of group polarization.
Group Polarization: Going to Extremes Group polarization causes groups to make more extreme decisions in the direction toward which its members were initially leaning; these group decisions can be more risky or more cautious, depending on which attitude is valued in the group. Group Polarization: Going to Extremes Why? Persuasive arguments interpretation persuaded by like-minded people, inched attitudes toward extremity Social comparison interpretation We want to be liked and be different to maintain individuality American phenomena - do not like to conform Way to show individuality tend to go to extremes continue to compare ourselves Group Polarization in Everyday life People tend to associate with like-minded folks People are becoming more polarized US becoming increasingly polarized; even in our shopping research --> found correlation political belief systems and places that people shop ex. Whole foods - 89% shoppers voted for Obama People want to insulate themselves
Understand groupthink and how it can be avoided.
Groupthink: Many Heads, One Mind A kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner Ex. Kennedy's administration to attack Cuba When larger groups get together and make decisions, and tend to focus on maintaining cohesiveness vs. rationalizing and weighing pros and cons and making a good decision - We look at powerful groups are together and they make powerful decisions - When this happens, they make really bad situations with terrible consequences Group Characteristics that Promote Groupthink Cohesive group Group homogeneity Vocal directive leader Structural Faults that Promote Groupthink Insulation from contrary opinions Lack of methodical decision-making procedures History of close-minded leadership Contextual Issues that Promote Groupthink Recent failures High stress from external threats/events Time pressures Groupthink Symptoms Overestimating the group illusion of invulnerability Belief in the moral correctness of group morality Close-mindedness collective rationalization (group reducing cognitive dissonance) stereotyped view of others Uniformity pressures self-censorship Pressure on dissenters to conform Mindguarding Illusion of unanimity Avoiding groupthink Impartial leaders Soliciting outside opinion Breaking the group into subgroups that bring their ideas to the broader group
Discuss the social psychological basis of obedience to authority (i.e., factors that increase the likelihood we will obey a destructive authority figure).
Historical aberration Flaws in national and human character A social psychology theory too simplistic Examined obedience to a destructive authority figure Normative social influence Informational social influence ambiguous situation crisis situation: events occur very quickly Authority figures have visislbe badges or signs of their status "nurse's study" (late 1980's" Nurses were ordered on the phone by a doctor they never heard of to inject a deathly amount of a medicine to a randomly chosen patient The nurses knew it was a deadly dose but followed orders from a stranger anyway Authority figure relieve those who obey of the responsibility of their own actions. Social Psychology Basis of Destructive Obedience Increased obedience if we have no allies Gradual escalation of obedience We underestimate the influence of situational factors
Explain the relationship between cognitive dissonance and aggression.
If a person feels too much dissonance there is increased feelings of aggression because of the guilt that is felt. This aggression may be used as a way of coping with the person's dissonance. Also, a bully can feel less dissonance (and have less empathy) by dehumanizing their victim.
Understand the influence of the amygdala on aggression.
If the amygdala is stimulated, organisms will be aggressive. Situational to some extent - found that if you stimulate the amygdala of a chimp, he will be aggr essively but if you do this in the presence of other dominant chimps, he will run away. clip Board example from "im italian"
What does research tell us about gender and conformity?
In a review of more than 150 studies of social loafing, the tendency to loaf was found to be stronger in men than in women (Karau & Williams, 1993). As discussed in Chapter 5, women tend to be higher than men in relational interdependence, which is the tendency to focus on and care about personal relationships with other individuals. Perhaps it is this focus that makes women less likely to engage in social loafing when in groups Women and members of Asian cultures do engage in social loafing when in groups; they are just less likely to do so than men or members of Western cultures
Thoroughly understand how internal and external justification influence cognitive dissonance.
Increase/decrease likelihood of dissonance ^ Humans willing to work hard for the things they want Hard work --> substantial payoff no dissonance because we can externally justify hard work Hard work --> weak payoff dissonance how do you reduce that say it wasn't really that big of a deal emphasize great things about your job look for internal justification for hard work increased liking External Justifications External Justification --> Lessens dissonance there are these external factors that are important - Justify by making external/internal justification --> "I had to do it" -internal justification --> more likely to experience dissonance
What is informational social influence? What motivates it?
Informational Social Influence The influence of other people that leads us to conform because we see them as a source of information to guide our behavior; we conform because we believe that others interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more correct than ours and will help us choose an appropriate course of action Conformity motivated by desire to be accurate Look to other people for information when we are uncertain When Will People Conform to Informational Social Influence? Situation is ambiguous Motivated to be right & situation is important or a crisis Others seem to be experts Informational social influence ambiguous situation crisis situation: events occur very quickly Authority figures have visislbe badges or signs of their status "nurse's study" (late 1980's" Nurses were ordered on the phone by a doctor they never heard of to inject a deathly amount of a medicine to a randomly chosen patient The nurses knew it was a deadly dose but followed orders from a stranger anyway Authority figure relieve those who obey of the responsibility of their own actions.
How does insufficient justification influence cognitive dissonance?
Justification of effort Increase/decrease likelihood of dissonance ^ Humans willing to work hard for the things they want Hard work --> substantial payoff no dissonance because we can externally justify hard work Hard work --> weak payoff dissonance how do you reduce that say it wasn't really that big of a deal emphasize great things about your job look for internal justification for hard work increased liking
Thoroughly understand how decisional processes influence cognitive dissonance.
Making Decisions In any decision, the chosen alternative is seldom entirely positive, and the rejected alternative is seldom entirely negative. ex. taking job or not; marriage not a clear winner Post-Decisional Dissonance focus on the good & downplay negative of decision we did make we look at the negatives for the decision we did not make
Explain gender and cultural differences in the occurrence of social loafing.
Men > Women (men are more likely than women to social loaf) Western > East Asian (Westerners are more likely than E. Asians to loaf) Not that social loafing does not occur in East Asian women at all, but the tendency is higher if they are male and western.
Understand the Festinger & Carlsmith Study (1959)
Method Ps come in lab and do boring task turn peg clockwise and counterclockwise for 1/2 hour asked them to agree to lie to stranger to help them out results: they lied Randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups Asked to lie for $1 - $7.50 today Asked to lie for $20 - $150 today Control group (no lie) Ps then completed a questionnaire measuring their true enjoyment of the task AFTER the lie predicted - people enjoy the task the most would be those who got $1 Insufficient Justification Results Control group - hated $20 - hated $1 - liked it add cognitions to feel better about themselves
Thoroughly understand Milgram's original obedience research and what it tells us about obedience to authority.
Milgram's Study Examined obedience to a destructive authority figure What was his hypothesis? virtually no one would obey assumed Holocaust occurred because Germans were evil Situational factors Yale University credible situation/context is important researcher in lab coat Participant characteristics adult men Diverse SES Volunteered for the study voluntary --> would experience an increase of cognitive dissonance Method No one stopped before reaching 300 volts 62.5% totally obeyed up to 450 volts 80% continued after "learner" (confederate) started yelling "my heart!" Research Suggests that obeying destructive commands is more a function of a situation than of individual personality, values, or beliefs Follow up research:
Discuss the effects of having an ally on conformity to normative social influence.
Minority Influence The case where a minority of group members influences the behavior or beliefs of the majority Minority Influence: When the Few Influence the Many Under certain conditions, an individual (or small number of people) can influence the majority. The key is consistency in the presentation of the minority viewpoint. The minority introduces new and unexpected information to the group and causes the group to examine the issues more carefully. Such careful examination may cause the majority to realize that the minority view has merit, leading the group to adopt all or part of the minority s view. In short, majorities often obtain public compliance because of normative social influence, whereas minorities often achieve private acceptance because of informational social influence (De Dreu & De Vries, 2001; Levine, Moreland, & Choi, 2001; Wood, Pool, Leck, & Purvis, 1996.)
What factors increase conscious cognition?
Motivation college students who pass "need for cognition" Cognitive Energy - Mild Sadness more interested in cognitive processing "crossword puzzle" Depression conscious cognition drops Unexpected events mildly unexpected - not notice very unexpected - noticed
How do attributions influence the happiness of married couples?
Nature of Attribution Process Happy couples internal attributions - positive behaviors of partners external attributions - negative behaviors Unhappy couples internal attributions - negative behaviors external attributions - positive behaviors
Understand the Ross and Samuel (1993) Wall Street study.
Next, Ross invited these students to play the game in a psychology experiment. There was one added twist: The researchers varied a seemingly minor aspect of the social situation what the game was called. They told half the participants that the name was the Wall Street Game and half that it was the Community Game. Everything else about the game was identical. Thus people who were judged as either CHAPTER 1 Introducing Social Psychology 11 Fundamental Attribution Error The tendency to overestimate the extent to which people s behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors, and to underestimate the role of situational factors 12 CHAPTER 1 Introducing Social Psychology competitive or cooperative played a game that was called either the Wall Street Game or the Community Game, resulting in four conditions. When it was called the Wall Street Game, approximately two-thirds of the people responded competitively, whereas when it was called the Community Game, only a third of the people responded competitively. The name of the game sent a powerful message about how the players should behave. It alone conveyed strong social norms about what kind of behavior was appropriate in this situation. In Chapter 7, we will see that social norms can shape people s behaviors in powerful ways. Finally, subtly changing the norms about what kind of behavior is expected can have large effects on how cooperative people are. One study found that simply changing the name of the game from the Wall Street Game to the Community Game increased the percentage of people who cooperated from 33 percent to 71 percent (Liberman, Samuels, & Ross, 2004).
What is normative social influence? What motivates it?
Normative Social Influence The influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them; this type of conformity results in public compliance with the group s beliefs and behaviors but not necessarily private acceptance The desire to be accepted and liked by others can lead to dangerous behavior. Here, Brazilian teenagers surf on top of trains because it has become the popular thing to do in their peer group. Conformity motivated by desire to be liked or to avoid rejection Conformity leads to rewards or the avoidance of punishment May lead to public compliance without private acceptance
Understand the correlational and experimental research on media violence and aggressive behavior.
One act is not likely to influence a child to be violent but some evidence shows repeated images of violence and aggressive or gory situations may increase the child's risk of aggression and sometimes (some people argue) it can lead to events like The Columbine shootings .
According to the empathy altruism theory of prosocial behavior, how can altruistic people reduce empathy they experience in response to other people's need?
Our motivation for helping others is to reduce another's distress or increase their welfare i. Research with children shows this motivation a. People high in empathy can't escape like those in the social exchange theory. They have to Help! a. Batson, 1991 i. Measured participants empathy ii.Had participants watch target receive painful shock iii. If high in empathy will focus on the feelings of the targets getting shocked, while those not will be focused on how they feel iv. Participants given chance to take some of the shocks for the targets v.Escape was manipulated i. Measured helping 1. Easy situation- if you don't want to help you can just go 2. Difficult situation- People had to stay and watch people be shocked 1. Found that in Easy escape situation low empathy participants helped very little 1. Found that in Difficult escape situation, low empathy participants were significantly more likely to help 1. Found that in Easy escape situation, high in empathy were extremely likely to help. 1. Found that in Difficult escape situation, high in empathy was the same as the easy escape, they were extremely likely to help. i. Major criticisms of the Empathy- Altruism hypothesis 1. Altruistic Helping- said didn't exist a. Helping always leads to self-benefit i. Pride, admiration from others, empathic joy i. You can't help but feel good a. Reduce negative effects of not helping by helping ii.Response to criticisms of the Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis 1. Need to untangle the cause of bx from 2. effects of bx a. What comes first? Empathy or benefit b. Social Exchange Theory -See someone in need → Experience person distress (self- directed),→ We then want to feel better, →we help or run away→, personal distress is reduced weather help or not. c. Empathy Altruism- See someone in need,→ Experience empathy (other directed),→ Primary motivation is to reduce other's pain,→ motivated to help or get someone else to help, →Others pain is reduced → Reduced empathy is a residual benefit ( a benefit you didn't work for but just got). 1. Empathy→ Behavior→ Self-benefit NOT Self- interest →Behavior →self-benefit 2. Empathic people exist and drive bx because have found that people high in empathy are just as happy if someone else helps and are also likely to help even if they can justify not helping. a. To reduce empathy need to help, cant just justify not helping a. Likely to help even if the costs are high. b. Likely to help even if escape is easy. *People tend to try and avoid organizations that will pull at their empathy i. People high in empathy actually help less because of avoidance.
How does behavior that threatens our self-concept relate to cognitive dissonance?
Our self-concept is threatened more likely to experience cognitive dissonance Make a small, but important mistake Moral dilemmas with implications for one's self-esteem.
Compare and contrast Personality Psychology and Social Psychology.
Personality psychology - study of individuals what makes them unique Central focus Assumes behavior remains stable across situations and time The individual in the context of a social situation Major Assumption Human behavior is primarily explained by factors within the person Behavior remains stable across time and situations Primary Research Methods correlational studies, case studies, personality tests in regards to consistency - your behavior IS consistent Major Goal identify fixed personality traits that can be used to predict human behavior Big Five Big differences between Social & Personality psyc external vs. internal behavior changes ← social psychology change the situation, behavior changes reality is defined by our perceptions ← social psychology Social Psychology Central Focus individual in the context of a social situation Human behavior is primarily influenced by 1.) Situation factors 2.) The interaction of situational and personal factors behavior changes over time and in different situations Major goal identify universal processes all people have in common Primary Research Methods Experiments, followed by correlational research
Understand the correspondence bias and the role of perceptual salience in creating correspondence bias.
Pg 101 AKA the Fundamental Attribution Error** Tendency to believe people's behavior matches (corresponds to) their dispositions This tendency to infer that people s behavior corresponds to, or matches, their dispositions and personality has been called the correspondence Even when people knew that the author s choice of an essay topic was externally caused (i.e., in the no-choice condition), they assumed that what he wrote reflected how he really felt about Castro. That is, they made an internal attribution from his behavior. (Adapted from Jones & Harris, 1967) Correspondence Bias The tendency to infer that people s behavior corresponds to (matches) their disposition (personality) Manipulating perceptual salience. This is the seating arrangement for two actors and the six research participants in the Taylor and Fiske study. Participants rated each actor s impact on the conversation. Researchers found that people rated the actor they could see more clearly as having the larger role in the conversation. Perceptual salience, or our visual point of view, helps explain why the correspondence bias is so widespread. Perceptual Salience The seeming importance of information that is the focus of people s attention
Understand the following studies Computer Dating Service Study
Post-Decisional Dissonance Computer Dating Service Study Post-decisional dissonance alters perceptions changes how you construe the situation Method Ps asked to evaluate new computer dating service Shown picture of a very attractive or moderately attractive person of the opposite sex Asked to rate attractiveness of pictured person Asked how committed they were to current relationships
Understand the following studies. a. Knox & Inkster (1963) racetrack betting study
Post-Decisional Dissonance Knowx & Inkster "Betting" Study (1968) Asked people how certain they were that their horses would win Either before making bet or after betting People much more sure their horse would win after betting Computer Dating Service Study Post-decisional dissonance alters perceptions changes how you construe the situation Method Ps asked to evaluate new computer dating service Shown picture of a very attractive or moderately attractive person of the opposite sex Asked to rate attractiveness of pictured person Asked how committed they were to current relationships More committed to your relationship, the less attractive the attractive people were rated "Giving up" features of a person outside of your current relationship may cause dissonance
Understand the Rose et al., 1977) TV Quiz Game Study.
Precursor: Jeopardy - people think Alex Trebek is smart People think contestants are dumb for getting questions wrong What does research tell us? game is fixed, Trebek has all the answers Who is creating the game? Who is playing the game? Participants randomly assigned to play the role of Quizmaster (Alex Trebek) Contestant Audience Game was fixed Quizmaster told to compose 10 hard questions based on their area of expertise Audience & contestants knew this... Everyone played the game Contestants averaged 4 correct answers After the game, Participant estimated the general knowledge of contestants and quizmasters Quizmaster was perceived smarter by contestants and audience Whereas, quizmaster thought contestants were just as equally smart QM realized contestants were at a disadvantage Tend to believe that people's actions are what they really are on the inside Part. ignored the fact that quizmaster had the inside scoop. Implications People often ignore the power of social roles -Why would quizmaster be more aware that the game was a cheat? - perceptual salience ---> Alex Trebek - he's the focus of the game - HOWEVER quizmaster is not perceptually salient to herself or himself
Who is Norman Triplet and why is he important to Social Psychology?
Saw that cyclists perform best when in competition. (Social Facilitation) conducted first social psychological experiment 1897 bicyclists - w/ other people vs. themselves fishing - children reeling w/ others Social Facilitation*
Discuss Sherif's Autokinetic study and how it relates it to informational social influence. What does it tell us about public compliance and private acceptance?
Sherif's Autokinetic Study Purpose Examine conformity to an ambiguous reality Method Used the autokinetic effect Wanted an experiment where there's no objective right answer Method Participants estimated how much a light 15 feet away moved The light seemed to move usually about 2-4 inches Days later, the Ps did it again in the presence of 1-2 other people Publicly announced estimates - When asked Ps alone, there was variability - When multiple trials together, Ps started converging in estimates - Lasted over time Results Estimates began to converge Denied being influenced by others Effect lasted Conclusion Led to public compliance & private acceptance Private Acceptance Conforming to other people s behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right Public Compliance Conforming to other people s behavior publicly without necessarily believing in what the other people are doing or saying
Discuss the effects of social facilitation on the performance of simple and difficult tasks.
Social Facilitation The tendency for people to do better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated * Social Facilitation: When the Presence of Others Energizes Us When people s individual efforts on a task can be evaluated, the mere presence of others leads to social facilitation: Their performance is enhanced on simple tasks but impaired on complex tasks. Social Loafing: When the Presence of Others Relaxes Us When people s individual efforts cannot be evaluated, the mere presence of others leads to relaxation and social loafing: Performance is impaired on simple tasks but enhanced on complex tasks.
Discuss social facilitation and how task complexity influences it
Social Facilitation Zajonc (1969) cockroach study Study with cockroaches running through simple maze When they were in the presence of other cockroaches, they performed better Found that the mere presence of other cockroaches improves performance on simple tasks worsens performance on complex tasks Consistent with Triplett's (1898) research Defined as the strengthening of dominant response in the presence of others
Describe social loafing and discuss why it occurs.
Social Loafing The tendency for people to relax when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated, such that they do worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks. Tendency for people to exert less effort when working in a group than when they are held accountable for their individual work. Based on the premise that in the presence of others, individual efforts often can't be identified. Merging into group --> relaxation --> social loafing. Performance is impaired on simple tasks enhanced on complex ones Social loafing stronger among Men than women Western cultures than Eastern cultures Social loafing is reduced when The task is challenging and/or appealing Group has unreliable or incapable members Group incentives available Group is cohesive Eastern cultures - group harmony and group success Western - individuality and individual success
Discuss the major trends in the field of Social Psychology today.
Social Psychology is the study of social influence Is based on the real & imagined presence of other people The Early years Most important - Environment Second important - Interaction
Describe the effects of mood on helping
The Effects of Mood on Prosocial Behavior People are more likely to help if they are in especially good moods, but also if they are in especially bad moods.
Discuss the two-step process involved in making attributions.
The Two-step process Will engage in the 2nd step if we Consciously think carefully before reaching a judgment, Are motivated to be accurate Are suspicious (e.g., we suspect lying). When we make judgments about them, there are two types of inferences we make: 1.) Internal Attribution 2.) External Attribution we tend to focus on more than the other: ext vs. int Ex. reason why student goes to school everyday? --> external - parents pay her $100 a day --> internal - she wants to learn and advance her knowledge about the world
Understand the Jones & Harris (1967) Castro study.
The correspondence bias. Even when people knew that the author s choice of an essay topic was externally caused (i.e., in the no-choice condition), they assumed that what he wrote reflected how he really felt about Castro. That is, they made an internal attribution from his behavior. (Adapted from Jones & Harris, 1967) an essay written by a fellow student that either supported or opposed Fidel Castro s rule in Cuba and then to guess how the author of the essay really felt about Castro (see Figure 4.5). In one condition, the researchers told the students that the author freely chose which position to take in the essay, thereby making it easy to guess how he really felt. If he chose to write in favor of Castro, clearly he must be sympathetic to Castro. In another condition, however, the students learned that the author had been assigned the position as a participant in a debate. One should not assume, then, that the writer believed what he or she wrote. Yet the participants in this study, and in dozens of others like it, assumed that the author really believed what he wrote, even when they knew he could not choose which position to take. As you can see in Figure 4.5, people moderated their guesses a little bit there was not as much difference in their estimates of the author s attitude in the pro-Castro and anti-Castro conditions but they still assumed that the content of the essay reflected the author s true feelings. The correspondence bias is another by-product of this shortcut. When making attributions, people use the focus of their attention as a starting point. For example, when we hear someone argue strongly in favor of Castro s regime in Cuba, our first inclination is to explain this in dispositional terms: This person must hold radical political views. We realize that this explanation might not be the whole story, however. We might think, On the other hand, I know he was assigned this position as part of a debate, and adjust our attributions more toward a situational explanation. However, the problem is that people often don t adjust their judgments enough. In the Jones and Harris (1967) experiment, participants who knew that the essay writer did not have a choice of topics nevertheless thought he believed what he had written, at least to some extent. They adjusted insufficiently from their anchor, the position advocated in the essay (Quattrone, 1982).
What is psychological reactance & how does it relate to conformity?
The tendency to resist being influenced or manipulated by others, usually by doing the opposite of what is desired or expected. It's the resistance to conform.
What is the fundamental attribution error? What are the major causes of this dispositionist bias?
Theme 5: Humans often underestimate the power of social situations We assume people's behaviors are stable and consistent across different situations Leads to the fundamental attribution error** the tendency to attribute other people's behavior in terms of personality traits FIVE MAJOR THEMES IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Principles of Subjective construals** How people perceive, comprehend, and interpret their social world is influenced by their subjective understanding of their social world Rooted in Gestalt Psychology Subjective understanding of the world more important than objective reality Contrary to Behaviorism's perspective Naive realism - Theme 2: People are motivated to maintain self-esteem Most people need to view themselves as good, competent, likeable influences our construals we often construe the world in a way to maintain a favorable self-image justify behaviors Theme 3: Humans are social creatures Need to be accepted by others Our need for social contract influences all aspects of our behavior and cognition Theme 4: People are motivated to process information accurately & efficiently We are cognitive misers - overwhelmed by info reserving cognitive energy We are motivated tacticians
Distinguish between theories of aggression proposed by Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Locke & Freud.
Thomas Hobbes: Humans are self-interested by nature (aggressive, self-centered)-thoughts Out for ourselves Thought that at the core humans are bad and aggressive Society reigns in human aggression Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Humans are gentle noble savages Situational factors lead to aggression Basically good at our core John Locke: Tabula rasa (blank slate) Aggression is entirely situational We are neither good or bad, but born neutral Freud: Ero & death instincts = instincts that make us want to create and kill but kept in check by super-ego (society) Society regulates and helps people sublimate them into acceptable activities
Explain how culture affects the correspondence bias.
Thought FAE was initially universal White male Americans -->white male american college students... First wave of research Asians based on situational factors and more prompt to take situational actions Second wave of research individualistic cultures vs. collectivistic cultures Collectivistic cultures... ARE initially stereotyping, THEN adjusting Pg. 103 Research has shown that when forming attributions, people in collectivistic cultures like Japan are more likely to take situational information into account than are people in individualistic cultures.
Identify the tit-for-tat strategy and describe why it is effective.
Tit-for-Tat Strategy A means of encouraging cooperation by at first acting cooperatively but then always responding the way your opponent did (cooperatively or competitively) on the previous trial The tit-for-tat strategy is usually successful in getting the other person to respond with the cooperative, trusting response
What is the need for individuation & how does it relate to conformity?
We think of ourselves as a nation of rugged individualists, people who think for themselves, who stand up for the underdog, who go against the tide for what they think is right. This cultural self-image has been shaped by the manner in which our nation was founded, by our system of government, and by our society s historical experience with western expansion the taming of the Wild West When we subsequently act like everyone else, we are conforming, but not because we are weak, spineless individuals with no self-reliance. Instead, the influence of other people leads us to conform because we see them as a source of information to guide our behavior. We conform because we believe that others interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more accurate than ours and will help us choose an appropriate course of action.
What factors increase the likelihood that people will conform to informational social influence?
When Will People Conform to Informational Social Influence? Situation is ambiguous Motivated to be right & situation is important or a crisis Others seem to be experts
Discuss the effects of aggressive stimuli (e.g., guns) in the presence of angry or frustrated individuals.
When you get angry and there is a gun around (in the house) you act more aggressively than you would if there was no weapon around.
Explain collectivism as a theory of helping.
a. Motivated to benefit others as a means to benefit some group as a whole a. Ultimate goal is the group's welfare: i. Not our own welfare ii.Nor group individuals, but the group at large a. Strength of theory i. Can explain pro-social bx toward abstract social problems or categories such as humanity, the poor, or victims of the Haiti earthquake a. Problems with Theory i. It takes a village to raise a child- try to help each other by focusing on the feeling of connection to one another 1. In the US this thinking may be counterproductive a. In European-American culture independence functions as a "foundational schema." a. Thus, interdependent action is not as motivating to most EuropeanAmericans. 1. Euro-Americans more likely to be motivated to help if they can maintain their sense of individuality. 2. This theory applies more to collectivistic cultures instead of individualistic 3. We are more likely to care about our in-group i. Sets foundation for how we see the world and treat others a. Often we may help our in-group by harming or derogating an out-group. 1. It is possible to care about out-groups, but problematic still because we may misjudge what is in the groups best interest when we are not part of the group (we know what's best and we are going to help you).
Understand the empathy altruism theory of prosocial behavior. How does this contrast with social exchange theory?
a. Proposed that empathy produces altruistic motivation which leads to pro-social behavior. i. The benefit of others and other organisms a. Empathy- a negative unpleasant emotional state because when you are experiencing empathy you are trying to experience the same pain and emotions that others are feeling. i. Different from personal distress because personal distress focuses on how "I" feel. ii.Different from sympathy because you are taking on the perspective of others; putting yourself in others shoes. a.
According to social exchange theory, what role does personal distress play in prosocial behavior? How can people reduce any personal distress they may experience in response to other people's needs?
ii.Personal distress 1. Unpleasant arousal; preoccupied with anxiety, fear or helplessness we feel when seeing victim's plight. Physiological response that has psychological ramifications. 2. When we feel personal distress, reduction of aversive arousal is our primary motivation (we want to stop this feeling). 1. Experience caused by external factors that cause us internal distress. *How can we reduce personal distress? ß Escape or help • We have evolved to have a physiological response so that we will help to reduce this feeling. Kind of like a fight or flight response. * Helping predicted by a cost/benefit analysis ß Weigh the ß Likely to help only when the benefits of helping outweigh the costs of helping. • Cost of helping • Costs of not helping • Benefits of helping • All helping is related to what you are going to get out of it.
Thoroughly understand the relationship between justification of effort and cognitive dissonance.
justification of effort Increase/decrease likelihood of dissonance ^ Humans willing to work hard for the things they want Hard work --> substantial payoff no dissonance because we can externally justify hard work Hard work --> weak payoff dissonance how do you reduce that say it wasn't really that big of a deal emphasize great things about your job look for internal justification for hard work increased liking
Discuss the relationship between gender and leadership.
pg 307 Loafing: Who Slacks Off the Most? Social loafing is more prevalent among men than women, and more prevalent in Western than Asian cultures. . Although strides have been made, women are still underrepresented in leadership positions. Women who become leaders often face a glass cliff whereby they are put in charge of work units that are in crisis and in which the risk of failure is high. Further, there is a double bind for women leaders: If they conform to societal expectations about how they ought to behave, by being warm and communal, they are often perceived as having low leadership potential. If they succeed in attaining a leadership position and act in ways that leaders are expected to act namely, in agentic, forceful ways they are often perceived negatively for not acting like a woman should.