Sociology Chapter 2: Sociological Research Methods

deductive approach

(1) theories generate hypotheses, (2) hypotheses lead to observations (data gathering), (3) observations lead to the formation of generalizations, and (4) generalizations are used to support the theory, to suggest modifications to it, or to refute it.

dependent variable

a variable that is assumed to depend on or be caused by the independent variable(s).

In the deductive approach, the researcher

begins by proposing a theory.

probability sampling

choosing participants for a study on the basis of specific characteristics, possibly including such factors as age, sex, race/ethnicity, and educational attainment.

Quantitative research is likely to involve

data that can be measured numerically.

A(n) __________ is a detailed study of the life and activities of a group of people in which researchers may live with that group over a period of years.

ethnography

Survey data are collected by using all of these methods EXCEPT

field research.

Sociologists conducting research may formulate a(n) __________, which is a statement of the relationship between two or more concepts.

hypothesis

experimental group

in an experiment, the group that contains the subjects who are exposed to an independent variable (the experimental condition) to study its effect on them.

control group

in an experiment, the group that contains the subjects who are not exposed to the independent variable.

hypothesis

in research studies, a tentative statement of the relationship between two or more concepts.

Sociologists obtain their knowledge of human behavior through _____, which result(s) in a body of information that helps us move beyond guesswork and common sense in understanding society.

research

Which research method is a poll in which the researcher gathers facts or attempts to determine the relationships among facts?

survey

inductive approach

(1) specific observations suggest generalizations, (2) generalizations produce a tentative theory, (3) the theory is tested through the formation of hypotheses, and (4) hypotheses may provide suggestions for additional observations.

LO6 What is survey research, and what are the three types of surveys?

The main types of research methods are surveys, secondary analysis of existing data, field research, and experiments. Surveys are polls used to gather facts about people's attitudes, opinions, or behaviors; a representative sample of respondents provides data through questionnaires or interviews. Survey data are collected by using self-administered questionnaires, face-to-face interviews, and telephone or computer surveys.

unstructured interview

an extended, open-ended interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee.

LO4 What are the key steps in the quantitative research process?

A conventional research process based on deduction and the quantitative approach has these key steps: (1) selecting and defining the research problem; (2) reviewing previous research; (3) formulating the hypothesis, which involves constructing variables; (4) developing the research design; (5) collecting and analyzing the data; and (6) drawing conclusions and reporting the findings.

LO5 What steps are often taken by researchers using the qualitative approach?

A researcher taking the qualitative approach might (1) formulate the problem to be studied instead of creating a hypothesis, (2) collect and analyze the data, and (3) report the results.

LO8 What ethical issues are involved in sociological research, and what professional codes protect research participants?

Because sociology involves the study of people ("human subjects"), researchers are required to obtain the informed consent of the people they study; however, in some instances what constitutes "informed consent" may be difficult to determine. The American Sociological Association (ASA) Code of Ethics sets forth certain basic standards that sociologists must follow in conducting research.

LO7 How do the following compare: research methods used in secondary analysis of existing data, field research, experiments, and triangulation?

In secondary analysis, researchers analyze existing data, such as a government census, or cultural artifacts, such as a diary. In field research, sociologists study social life in its natural setting through participant observation, case studies, unstructured interviews, and ethnography. Through experiments, researchers study the impact of certain variables on their subjects. Triangulation is the use of multiple methods in one study—not only research methods but also multiple data sources, investigators, and theoretical perspectives in a study.

How does the qualitative research model differ from the quantitative research model?

Qualitative research begins with a general approach rather than a highly detailed plan.

LO3 How does quantitative research differ from qualitative research?

Quantitative research focuses on data that can be measured numerically (comparing rates of suicide, for example). Qualitative research focuses on interpretive description (words) rather than statistics to analyze underlying meanings and patterns of social relationships.

Which guideline is included in the American Sociological Association's Code of Ethics for conducting research?

Researchers must disclose all interpretations of the data they collect.

LO1 Why is sociological research necessary, and how does it challenge our commonsense beliefs about pressing social issues such as suicide?

Sociological research provides a factual and objective counterpoint to commonsense knowledge and ill-informed sources of information. It is based on an empirical approach that answers questions through a direct, systematic collection and analysis of data.

LO2 How do the deductive and inductive approaches in the theory and research cycle compare?

Theory and research form a continuous cycle that encompasses both deductive and inductive approaches. With the deductive approach, the researcher begins with a theory and then collects and analyzes research to test it. With the inductive approach, the researcher collects and analyzes data and then generates a theory based on that analysis.

experiment

a carefully designed situation in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects' attitudes or behavior.

interview

a data collection encounter in which an interviewer asks the respondent questions and records the answers.

ethnography

a detailed study of the life and activities of a group of people by researchers who may live with that group over a period of years.

Hawthorne

a phenomenon in which changes in a subject's behavior are caused by the researcher's presence or by the subject's awareness of being studied.

survey

a poll in which the researcher gathers facts or attempts to determine the relationships among facts.

questionnaire

a printed research instrument containing a series of items to which subjects respond.

correlation

a relationship that exists when two variables are associated more frequently than could be expected by chance.

participant observation

a research method in which researchers collect systematic observations while being part of the activities of the group being studied.

secondary analysis

a research method in which researchers use existing material and analyze data that were originally collected by others.

random sampling

a study approach in which every member of an entire population being studied has the same chance of being selected.

independent variable

a variable that is presumed to cause or determine a dependent variable.

A(n) __________ is a carefully designed research method in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects' attitudes or behavior.

experiment

respondents

persons who provide data for analysis through interviews or questionnaires.

research methods

specific strategies or techniques for systematically conducting research.

field research

the study of social life in its natural setting: observing and interviewing people where they live, work, and play.

content analysis

the systematic examination of cultural artifacts or various forms of communication to extract thematic data and draw conclusions about social life.