Sociology Final

What are some examples of commonsense racism (briefly describe)?

- " its just in their culture" (black women are welfare cheats) -"problems people of color have has nothing to do with race and everything to do with class" -"immigrants taking away jobs from Americans; taking advantage of the system" (benefits)

Anderson described COVID-19 and protests over the police murder of George Floyd as "twin pandemics". What does she mean? What did these two events expose?

- "the reality of racism was laid bare by the global COVID-19 pandemic and the brutal murder of George Floyd by police" -the pandemic of covid and pandemic of racism; both expose the reality of systemic/ institutional racism in our society

Who are the Hijras and what has been their roles in their communities?

- Hijras are the third gender people of South Africa - role= well respected and powerful in their community for their healing powers

In what ways were the experiences of Latinos/as similar to the experiences of African Americans in the Jim Crow era?

- Latinos subjected to Jim Crow segregations - grouped with african americans and asians as racial "other"

Why would some people with physical disabilities, like this author, choose to perform in freak shows/side-shows/circus today as in the past? To what extent is this a response to discrimination in the U.S. workforce?

- Provided them with a job that a lot of places would not give them. Only option of employment. -employers discriminate against disabled people and consider them not able to perform effective and efficiently

Explain the concept, anti-coolieism and discuss how it has affected Chinese men and women.

- a race and class stereotype applied to chinese men and women - "coolie"= offensive name for low wage asian laborer -tied to history of "cheap" indentured labor that existed throughout the Caribbean and the us -effected chinese bc it made them become alienated in American society

What is ableism? Do you think non-disabled bodies are often treated as the norm in our society? Explain and give evidence

- ableism= prejudice and discrimination against disabled people - yes, given privileges; not all places have ramps or elevators, etc.

Explain the concept, reverse racism? Why is this concept problematic?

- an accusation by white people when people of color call out racism and discrimination or create spaces for themselves... that white people are not part of -presumes racism is a matter of negative judgements about others, but racism is more than prejudiced attitudes -confuses racism with prejudice

what is the difference between an ascribed status and an achieved status? what is an embodied status?

- ascribed= a status we are born with and difficult, if not impossible, to change (gender, (race) - achieved= a status we have earned (occupation, criminal) - embodied= located in our physical selves (beauty, able-bodied)

Compare the Essentialist and Constructionists approaches to Gender identity

- essentialist= see gender as biological and permanent; it is simple, 2 category system - constructionists= view gender as a social construction and acknowledge the possibility that the male and female categories are not the only way of classifying individuals

Racism is not always obvious, sometimes it can be more subtle. Explain this point (be sure to define microaggressions)

- every day, subtle intentional and oftentimes unintentional interactions or behaviors that communicated some sort of bias for a group. -micro aggressions= small scale racial slights, insults, or misperception that play out in everyday interactions between people

What was the Chinese Exclusion Act?

- first to restrict immigrant based on race and class (chinese were radicalized as non-white)

What is environmental racism? How can it affect the health of people of color?

- form of systemic racism whereby communities of color are disproportionately burdened with health hazard including toxic waste facilities, garbage dumps, and other sources of environmental pollution and foul odors that lower the quality of life - More communities with a lot of low-income people of color are disproportionally subject to toxic waste and pollution

What does the word, 'freak' mean and what are freak shows?

- freaks- disabled bodies were constructed as deviant or "freaks" - freak shows= presentation of disabled bodies as "freaks" reinforced a social hierarchy of normalcy vs deviance

What is a hate crime? What is xenophobia?

- hate crime= criminal offense committed against a person, property, or society that is motivated, in whole, or in part, by the offender's bias against race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or ethnicity -xenophobia= the irrational fear and hatred of strangers or foreigners, or of anything that is strange or foreign

Morgan Jerkins argues that as opposed to white men whose ubiquitous power is easily seen, white women's fears represent a less public terror and is just as lethal. How so? Explain her argument and discuss some of the consequences.

- identify themselves as the victims and use state to exercise the power to claim public spaces as theirs - white women call police on black people to have police remove/ handle them for the women - sends message to non-whites that they do not belong and can lead to harassment and racial trauma

(Shapiro)What is the difference between income and wealth?

- income= money earned through salaries, investment returns, or other capital gains - wealth= total value of assets families own minus their debts

What is the difference between individual and institutional/systemic discrimination?

- individual= discrimination carried out by one person against another - systemic/ institutional= discrimination carried out by social institutions that affects all members of a group who come into contact with it (harder to identify bc overt )

Explain the terms, intersex and transgender. In what ways are they similar and different?

- intersex= a person born with reproductive or sexual anatomy that does not fit typical definition of female or male - transgender= intersex relates to a physiological designation, while being transgender is about how someone identifies and expresses their gender identity

What is mainstreaming? How has it helped and harmed Hijras?

- mainstreaming= Brought awareness from western point of view to south Asian culture (western gaze) -Harmed Hijras= imposed bias and essentialist views on gender and norms of gender binary

What is a meritocracy? Why do Scott and Leonhardt argue that our meritocracy is classed based? (Explain their argument)

- meritocracy= system of stratification in which rank is based on purely achievement - those with more many can provide and give their children more opportunities to achieve more. better eduction leads to ultimately more power

Explain the concept, racial resentment. What is it and why is it problematic?

- more subtle form of racism that hides in the belief that black people violate American work ethics - beliefs that black people are "getting something for nothing"/ "getting benefits just bc they are black" -fuels racial divide bc stems from belief well-being whites are being threatened by supposed success of people of color

Defining something as deviant requires us to examine the group norms and how the group reacts to the behavior. How so? Explain.

- nonconformity to a given set of norms that are accepted by a significant number of people in a community or society; the majority determines what and who is deviant

Anderson argues that prejudice is not just some vague or abstract feeling. Prejudice emerges in the context of power relationships. Explain.

- not just about ideas, how we think; there are unequal power relationships within systems of inequality and prejudice emerges from them

Describe the "one drop rule." What was this rule and what was its purpose?

- one drop rule= social classification that assigns a child a mixed race ancestry to the race of their more socially subordinate parent - keeps the white population "pure" and lumped all non-whites together as the 'other' -produces and reinforces the color line/ racial stratification and guaranteed an endless supply of slaves to "white" masters / after slavery, maintained colorline

why is it that white parents are reluctant to talk about race and racism to their children as opposed to parents of color?

- parents of color talk about race to prepare their children against systemic racism - white parents understand race on the individual level, not the institutional level; they are reluctant to talk about whiteness and white privilege

What is poverty? Why should we examine poverty in America through a lens of gender and race?

- poverty= not having enough money to meet basic needs including food, clothing, and shelter - gender and race wealth gaps, America; racial and gender minorities make less money and are more likely to be in poverty compared to majorities.

Stuart Hall, a well-known sociologist, urges that we ought to understand "not racism in general, but racisms." What does he mean and how does it apply to the experiences of Asian Americans?

- practiced and experienced in a variety of ways by diff racial groups - must pay attention to the special contexts, histories, and environments that produce specific kinds of racisms -it applied to asian americans bc their racism is called an invasion and unwelcome

What is the difference between primary, secondary deviance, and tertiary deviance?

- primary= initial act of deviance committed by a person (pre- label), no/ little reaction, still considered normal, forgotten quickly - secondary= continued acts of primary - tertiary= occurs when a person who was labeled as deviant seeks to normalize the behavior of re-labeling it as non-deviant; redefining to something positive

What is the 'prism of difference' and why is it important to examine men and women's experiences through this prism of difference?

- prism of difference= gender is organized and experienced differenced differently when examined through other categories of difference like race, class, sexuality, etc - to capture complexity of human experiences, diversity among human beings, and avoid overgeneralization

Anderson argues, "racism produces race, not the other way around". Explain

- race images from a system of social inequality that assumes one racial group is inherently superior to another and should be treated as such

What is Race? How is it similar and/or different from Ethnicity?

- race= a social construct based on real or presumed biological/ genetic heritage resulting in distinguished physical characteristics - ethnicity= a social construct based on common ancestry, language, religion, nationality, history, or another cultural factor -similar bc both socially constructed

Systemic racism is not new. An early version of this is the Jim Crow era. What are Jim Crow Laws?

- racial caste system which operated primarily, but not exclusively in southern and border states, between 1877- mid 1960s

Everyday racism plays out in the spaces where we live. How so?

- racial segregation places us in racialized spaces; unequal asses to different things such as education, employment, transportation, housing, parks, restaurants

What does Shapiro mean by a 'racial wealth gap' and how does it intensify racial inequality?

- racial wealth gap= black families only posses 10cents to every white families dollar in wealth; black inherits 8cents to every white inherited dollar -relates class minorities and racial minorities. connects people of color with lower class

Explain what Anderson means by the term "everyday racism" and give examples.

- refers to common and repetitive behaviors that display racism on a regular basis - mild= suspicious glances/ slurs -severe= offensive comments/ aggression

Explain the concept, color-blind racism. Why is this concept problematic?

- refuses to acknowledge race as a factor impacting experiences/ white people see themselves and children as race-less -wants to ignore race and assume all people are alike; ignores institutional racism

Charles Gallagher argues that 'race and ethnicity are slippery concepts'. What does he mean by this and how to the experiences of Irish and Italians immigrants in the turn of the twentieth century support this claim?

- social construction stoa change over time and place ; not fixed or set in stone - italian and irish were not consider white in twentieth century, but over time into the present, they are not categorized in the white group

What is social mobility? Discuss the various types of social mobility

- social mobility= the movement of individuals or groups within the hierarchical system - closed system= very little opportunity to move from one stratum to another (India/caste) - open system= ample opportunity to move from on stratum to another (US, class)

Anderson argues, "race is a process, not a thing'. Explain what she means

- sociologists use the term racialization to describe the process of race -racialization= extension of racial meaning to the previously racially undefined group

what is a status, role, master status?

- status= position one occupies in a social hierarchy that comes with certain expectations - role= set of behaviors expected from a particular status - master status= a status that overrides the others

What is a stigma? Describe the three types of stigmas discussed by Goffman

- stigma= attribute that is socially devalued and discredited; label or stereotype that links a person to unfavorable characteristics - physical= physical disfigurement, reality apparent, known at first glance - moral= flawed character, inferred from known records, or experience; may be less apparent - tribal stigma of race, nation, or religion: stigma because of group identity rather than individual

What is systemic racism? How does it differ from individual racism? How can systemic racism be changed?

- systemic= policies and practices within institution that produce racial/ ethnic inequality -individual= expression of racist attitudes for behaviors by individual people - chaining systemic racism means not just ferreting out racist individuals and changing their minds but untangling the underlying patterns and practices that produce racial inequality

What is cultural racism (give an example)? What is an effect of cultural racism?

- the implicit and explicit messages that "affirm the assumed superiority of whites and assumed inferiority of people of color" -rosa parks is the biggest example i can think of that represents cultural racism in the past. whites were seen as superior based on the idea that they sit in the front of the bus and people of color must sit in the back - it deeply influences our self-concept, our understanding of each other, and our knowledge and info about race in our society

Explain the concept, sedimentation of racial inequality. What are some examples of this (discuss strategies such as the New Deal, redlining, GI Bill)

- the intergenerational impact of de facto and de cure racism that limits the abilities of black people to accumulate wealth - de jure= designates what the law says -de facto= designates what actually happens in practice - in the new deal, the programs and projects that were designed to restore prosperity were denied to the minorities. and the benefits were denied for the minority soldiers and veterans

The author, Cleall, tells us that while the history of the person, Kraos, is unclear she was exhibited in freak shows as the "missing link". What does this mean and what kind of stigma does this represent

- the missing link between humanity and the animal kingdom - physical stigma= physical disfigurement known at first glance

Explain the concept, anti-racism. Why is it considered an active process?

- the process of activity identifying and opposing racism; must reject colorblindness and accepting the color consciousness -active process= involves working to understand how race and racism affect people; requires examining your own beliefs and actions critically

What sort of challenges does the US Census pose to Puerto Ricans living here (U.S.)?

- the race categories in the census do not reflect the lived experiences of PR and their views of race -who am i?

What is the gender pay gap (define)? Why does it exist?

- then gender pay gap refers to the difference in earnings between men and women; women consistently earn less than men and the gap is wider for most women of color -it exists because of structural inequality patterns of inequality built into our society; used to rationalize/ justify paying certain people/ groups less than others

How has Elmore Bolling's murder affected his children and grandchildren's ability to accumulate wealth?

- there was no inheritance for him to pass down bc it was all taken away

Throughout the 19th century Mexican immigrants were welcomed in the U.S. but Anti-Latino sentiment grew along with this immigration. Why?

- they were a source of cheap labor for the railroad and other companies - they were begrudged for the wealth they were accumulating and they were accused of stealing US jobs

what is social inequality? what do we mean when we say social inequality is structured?

- unequal distribution of wealth, resources, prestige, power among members in society -they are built into society and often reinforced by culture (shared ideas and values)

what is social stratification and what is its relationship to social inequality?

- where members of a society are categorized and divided into groups which are then placed in a hierarchy - social stratification produces patterns of social inequality in society (it is structured)

Explain Memmi's analysis of racism. Do you think Memmi's definition and analysis of racism can be applied to other forms of oppression? Try applying his analysis to sexism, heterosexism, homophobia and classism and discuss the ways it is useful and/or the ways in which it is not applicable.

-4 part process= 1)differences identified 2)values assigned to those with difference 3)differences treated as absolutes and never changing 4) used to treat people unequally -yes, there are other differences than race

Why do you think there is a general reluctance among many to talk about race and racism? Have you ever experienced this reluctance?

-Americans minimize importance of race and reluctance bc talking about it can make people uncomfortable/ people think we live in a post-racial and meritocratic society

Why is Jagadish critical of the Western gaze when it comes to understanding Hijras? Would you say the western gaze is ethnocentric (in terms of how it viewed the Hijras and their culture)?

-Bc it imposed essentialist view on gender and since they do not conform to gender binary, treated as deviant -yes, Hijras were once celebrated in their communities but the exposure of this group through western media has changed social perceptions of them in their environment

Explain the concept, commonsense racism. Why is common sense racism problematic?

-Commonsense racism= uninformed assumptions about a group of people and often used to blame people of color for own predicament -deflects attention away from race and places it on something else... like class or culture

What are food deserts and food swamps? What affect can they have on the health of people who live there?

-Food deserts= neighborhoods without access to fresh and healthy food -food swamps= no grocery stores, but have access to an abundance of fast food and advertisement - limit their food options and affect their nutrition which overall has a negative impact on their health

How can race and ethnicity negatively impact a person's health, education, work, family and the kinds of criminal justice he/she receives? (see textbook)

-Health= medical racism, food swamps, food deserts -education= not enough money to get good education -work= discrimination in hiring process -family and criminal justice= police and judges act different towards minority groups

Explain in your own words, Frye's metaphor of the birdcage and discuss how this metaphor applies to the experience of women in our society.

-One single bar can't keep the bird in the cage. Bunch of different bars keep bird in prison -Similar bc not one single issue, multiple working together to create women in "prison".

What is the difference between overt and covert racism?

-Overt= very observable and intentional and cause obvious harm -Covert=difficult to observe=>systemic

What, according to Anderson, is the difference between racism and prejudice?

-Prejudice= Widely held belief. Preconceived ideas about an individual based on membership to a group. Stereotype can lead to prejudice -Stereotype= overgeneralized assumptions about a group - racism can be reflected in individual attitudes, but it is also present even when prejudice attitudes are not expressed

Explain the US policy of "repatriation" that was developed during the Great Depression. What was its goal and what was its effect on Latino/as?

-Removal of people of Mexican descent from US. -Goal to stop from taking jobs. -Latinos were losing opportunity to provide for themselves and families based on origin and skin color.

Today's racial wealth gap is perhaps the most glaring legacy of American slavery and the violence that followed. How so?

-Since people of color are still viewed as inferior, they are not given as many jobs or opportunities for work. Therefore, they are left with lower paying occupations or their employers pay them less than white Americans. -Similar to slavery, they are not paid equivalently compared to the amount of work they do.

Rodriguez and Guzman argue that in the U.S. race is understood as an ascribed status. What do they mean?

-Something that you can't change no matter what you do. In us, understood at something you are born into and can't be changed. - if born black, will be treated in a different way than other races

Explain the concepts, 'white flight' and "White flight 2.0"? how are they similar and different?

-White flight= phenomenon white people moving out of urban areas into suburbs -White flight 2.0= white families move to cities from suburb areas and view black families as the problem and removing them from those spaces with use of police

Explain the concept, white supremacy. How does it relate to white nationalism?

-White supremacy= belief that particular race is naturally superior to others -White nationalism= centered on assertion that white race in danger of extinction who are controlled and manipulated by jews/ based on a feeling of white superiority and identify with the concept of white nation and accompanied by threat and racial other

Underhill argues "whiteness exists as a system of power." Explain.

-Whiteness= racial category little to do with culture and more to do with social position; it exists whether or not white people are aware

What is a social class how is it similar and different from a social caste?

-a social class is a ranking system based on economic resources/ room for social mobility -caste= system of stratification based on heredity/ born in to a caste/ determined by religious, economic, and political lines/ no room for social mobility

What is Deviance? What do we mean when we say, 'deviance is socially constructed'

-behaviors, attributes, and ideas that do not conform to social expectations -4 ways: helps reinforce group boundaries, violation of norms brings to light group boundaries, exposes what is acceptable and unacceptable, promotes conformity to help stabilize group

What is the difference between cisgender and transgender identities?

-cisgender= a person who's gender identity conforms to the biological sex assigned at birth - transgender= a person whose gender identity does not conform to the biological sex assigned at birth

What are some factors contributing to the recent rise of Anti-Asian hate crimes in the U.S.? Why are these hate crimes often under-reported?

-covid 19 and its association with people of asian descent (scapegoating); stigmatization by politicians including Trump (Chinese disease) -experts and advocates say the comprehensive and accurate statistics on anti-asian hate are sparse (cultural factors, fear, problems with police recording)

"difference per se" vs "politics of difference"; what is the distinction?

-difference per se= actual difference of humans, our individuality -politics of difference= values attached to these differences and how they are used in a hierarchy and express inequality

What is a 'disability' (how do we define it)? Would you say that disabilities, especially mental and physical, are treated as master statuses in our society? Explain (be sure to discuss what is a master status).

-disability= socially constructed view associated with body or mind impairments that do not conform with society -yes, master status is a status that overrides all the others; disability is typically the first thing you noticed; therefore making it the most prominent and thus master status.

Ferris and Stein argued that to understand our lived experiences we must understand that our lived experiences is one of intersectionality. Explain what they mean.

-everyones experiences are different, so what i experience on a day may be completely different than someone else -example, a white wealthy man typical day is different from a black, low income woman

Although racial designations have changed throughout US history making these categories imprecise, Anderson argues that counting and classifying people really matters, why?

-for research purposes, political representation, distribution of federal benefits - undercounting certain groups/ people means less representation and fewer federal and state resources

Explain the Functionalist theory of deviance. How is it similar/different from the Conflict theory and Labeling theory of deviance (explain each)?

-functionalist= deviance serves as a function in our society -conflict= deviance is a result of social conflict; in order for powerful to maintain their power, they marginalize and criminalize the people who threaten it -labeling theory= suggests that people become 'deviant' bc certain labels are attached to their behavior by political authorities and others; not inherently deviant, but seen/labeled as deviant by others

Explain the concepts Gender identity and Gender expression.

-gender identity= an individuals self identification or sense of gender -gender expression= an individuals behavioral manifestations for gender

What is critical race theory and what is it NOT (as opponents tend to assume)?

-highly specialized branch of legal studies (grad level), and it is not the idea of society after racism. it is the theory that we must acknowledge racism and not try to solve it by throwing all the "racist" out

How according to Anderson, is the federal interstate highway system racially biased?

-in many places the highway was built to block of communities of color/ keep blacks and hispanics out of suburban areas

In chapter 6, (Getting Smart about Race)Anderson argues that instead of using a color blind approach to achieve racial equality, we must instead us a race conscious approach. Explain what she means.

-instead of trying not to see color (colorblindness), be conscious about the different races and colors in society, and aware of the unequal treatment of them

What is a master status? How can membership in a minority group serve as a master status (explain and give an example)?

-master status= status that overrides all the others - your minority status can be status that overrides all the others, such as female, black, or disabled

What is a minority? How do they differ from a majority group (define majority)?

-minority= social group that is systematically denied access to power and resources available to dominant groups of society - majority= group with most power, privileges, and status - built into our society

Racial segregation can have an impact on access to food, how so

-people of color live in areas that do not have access to grocery stores. they have limited food options and most are very unhealthy choices. since people of color live in most of the low income areas due to their race, it connects racial segregation and food options.

Although the coronavirus knows no social boundaries, Latinos and Black Americans are more susceptible to it. Why?

-pre-existing health conditions, lived in crowded spaces, limited access to healthcare/insurance, primary essential workers, no change to social distance (all factors)

Anderson argues that race is a social construction. Does this mean that race is not real?

-race and how that meaning develops and changes over time and in different contexts is a matter os societal generated ideas, not just one's individual identity - constructions of race are real in there effects -thinking about it not as a individual attribute but as a social process race is generated and sustained in society

Explain the concept, a 'racial tax'. What are some of the costs of everyday racism?

-race tax is the psychic tax on an individual brought on by racism. -cost can be cultural or social cost, and for white people a feeling of guilt, lack of empathy, and loss of relationships

According to Anderson, "the power of race comes not from genetic information but from the social stereotype that notions of race have created." Explain.

-race would mean nothing but a characteristic. but its the social stereotypes that make it into something more. its the thought process that people generalize all behaviors, traits, and attitudes of all members of a specific race.

What is racism? Racism can express itself through prejudice and discrimination. How so? (be sure to define prejudice and discrimination).

-racism= set of beliefs about the supposed superiority of one racial group; used to justify inequality (the unequal distribution of resources, power, privilege, and prestige among people) - prejudice= thought process (an idea about the characteristics of a group) -discrimination= an action (an unequal treatment of individuals bc of their social group; usually motivated by prejudice)

Define in your own words, what is Sex and what is Gender?

-sex= a social construct that refers to the physical and biological attributes that societies use to assign people in the category of male or female - gender= a social construct that refers to the social norms, attitudes, and activities that society deems appropriate for its male and female members

What is sexuality?

-sexuality= inclination to feel sexual desire towards people of a particular gender, toward both genders, or neither gender

Anderson argues that 'everyday racism happens at the individual or "micro level of society, but it originates within a broader power structure. What does she mean?

-since everyday racism is racism that happens on a regular basis, it typically happens at the individual level. However, individual's views and opinions that fuel their racial comments and behaviors comes from broader structure of inequality. if a person sees people of color being treated inferiorly by greater power, then they are going to think they are in fact inferior and treat them as such.

Explain the concept, stereotype threat. What effect can this have on minority groups?

-stereotype threat= individuals fear that their actions will support negative ideas about a group which they belong (Example- may perform poorly on exam bc told women not good at math)

Ferris and Stein argue that one way in which a group may display their ethnicity is through symbolic ethnicity. What is this and how is it different from situational ethnicity?

-symbolic= ethnic identity only relevant of specific occasions and does not impact everyday life -situational= ethnic identity that can be either displayed or concealed, depending on its usefulness in a given situation

What are implicit biases? What does Anderson mean when she says implicit biases are "how culture leaves and invisible imprint on our minds"?

-when we have attitudes towards people or associate stereotypes with them without our conscious knowledge -stereotypes that circulate in our culture can become part of our subconscious; we can internalize these ideas if we are not careful

What are the four principles of social stratification?

1. characteristic of society rather than a reflection of individuals difference 2. persists over generations 3.difference societies use different criteria to rank their members 4. maintained through beliefs that are widely shared by members of society

While no one is free from prejudice there are certain facts that can predict the likelihood of someone being prejudiced or not. What are they?

1. education (the more educated, the less prejudice) 2. age (the older generation vs younger) 3. fundamentalist religious belief

In this book, Anderson wants the reader to "get smart about race". What does "getting smart about race" mean on her view?

Acknowledge that systemic racism is permeating every part of our lives and ignored/rejects idea of colorblindness.

Anderson argues, "although race is not real, racism is". Explain what she means by this.

Discrimination that people experiences based on race is real but race they identify as is social construct

How is race in the US similar and different from Puerto Rico? (compare the two)

US= ascribed status; race is static/ fixed; based on binary system (black vs white); one drop rule; race is biological fact PR= achieved status; race more fluid; racial continuum; various categories used to identify diff mixed race groups; race based on phenotype and social class

How is the treatment of Caster Semenya in the Olympics tied to a long history of white supremacy in the medical field and sports world? What assumptions around femininity/womanhood existed then and now (how was/is it understood)?

in the history, as an athlete, the black females were viewed as the other, unfeminine and animal-like. and in both the sports and medical fields, their bodies were dehumanized

Was the plundering of black wealth in the post-Reconstruction era an example of personal, or institutional racism? Explain

institutional racism bc it was apart of the law and policies during that time. the government purposely excluded black people from these programs supporting institutional racism

In freak shows, Krao was viewed and treated as the racial, gendered and disabled 'other'. What does this mean?

she was not white, male, abled, and a part of subordinate groups of each social category

The author, K. Kim, argues there is no way to discuss the history of freakshows without talking about exploitation, racism and ableism. Explain

they are treating these people differently, have prejudice about the "freaks" and how them off to others for their "weirdness". they exploited these people to show them off and promoted racism and ableism by pointing out their differences and "inhuman like qualities"