Stats course final review

The population in the State of HappyLand is 12,000,000. There are 64,133 persons living with cancer and a total of 23,457 new cases diagnosed this year. What is the Incidence Rate of cancer in your state? Round to one decimal. a. 731.9 b. 197.5 c. 729.9 d. 195.5

d. 195.5 (23,457 new cases / 12,000,000 in HappLand) x 100,000 = 195.475 = 195.5

A group of 16 men and 24 women have hypertension. Express the ratio of men with hypertension to women with hypertension. Reduce the ratio to its simplest form.

d. 2:3 16:24 = 8:12 = 4:6 = 2:3

In your hospital this year, there were 50 cases of anal cancer. Three of those patients died. What is the case fatality rate for anal cancer in your hospital? Express as a percent and round to one decimal place. a. 16.0% b. 0.6% c. 1.6% d. 6.0%

d. 6.0%

Which method of calculating survival rate requires accurate cause of death and includes only patients who have died of cancer. a. Relative Survival Rate b. Observed Survival Rate c. Expected Survival Rate d. Adjusted Survival Rate (Cause-Specific)

d. Adjusted Survival Rate (Cause-Specific) You must have good causes of death information to use the adjusted survival rate because you count as deaths only those patients who died from the cancer under study.

To obtain the Relative Survival Rate, one needs to have the following data available: a. Adjusted Survival Rate b. Observed Survival Rate c. Expected Survival Rate (obtained from Life Expectancy Tables) d. Both B and C e. All of the Above

d. Both B and C To obtain the Relative Survival Rate, we divide the observed survival rate by the expected (normal) rate obtained from Life Expectancy Table.

___________________ statistics are used to explain data in ways that are manageable and easily understood. a. Definitive statistics b. Inferential statistics c. Percentile statistics d. Descriptive statistics

d. Descriptive Statistics

A type of program that provides palliative care to patients and supportive services to families is called _____. a. Nursing facility b. Long term care nursing c. Chronic care hospital d. Hospice

d. Hospice

The term death rate is synonymous with __________. a. Morbidity rate b. Complication rate c. Nosocomial rate d. Mortality rate

d. Mortality Rate

A type of sampling method in which every individual has an equal chance of being selected. a. Ethnography b. Tool c. Historical research d. Random sample

d. Random Sampling Random sampling is an unbiased selection of subjects that includes methods such as simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, systematic sampling, and cluster sampling.

In _______ research, the researcher would like to discover new information and use that information to solve some problem. Basic Standard Hypothetical Applied

Applied

Cancer Program Annual Reports are required by the CoC. True/False

False

With the null hypothesis, there is no association between the two variables being compared. True/False

False

True or false? It is not necessary to validate statistical reports in a healthcare setting if they are computer generated. Computers don't make calculation mistakes. True/False

False Many reports give only whole numbers. The HIM professional may need to edit the report and its statistics to ensure consistency with usual reporting procedures, such as reporting numbers to the second decimal place.

Secondary Prevention occurs before the biological onset of the disease. True/False

False Secondary Prevention occurs AFTER the biological onset of disease but before symptoms of the disease present.

The Null Hypothesis usually states that two samples being studied are different. True/False.

False The Null Hypothesis states that there is no difference between two groups or samples.

Median survival is affected by extreme values while these values do not effect an average (mean) survival time. True/False

False. Median survival has the advantage that extreme values do not have as much effect as they do in an average (mean) survival time.

When a distribution is skewed to the left, this means that it has a positive skew. True or False

False. Some curves are skewed; that is, their numbers do not fall in the middle but rather, on one end of the curve. Skewness is the horizontal stretching of a frequency distribution to one side or the other so that one tail is longer than the other.

The mode is the most frequently occurring value in a data set. It is not possible to have two common values or more as a Mode. True/False

False. The mode is the most frequently occurring value in a data set. It is possible to have two common values which makes the distribution bimodal.

The two most important types of tools for data analysis include _______________ and _______________________.

Microsoft Excel and Statistical Software Systems

The rate of occurence of the TOTAL number of alive cancer cases, both new and previously diagnosed in a defined population at a particular time is called a _________ rate.

Prevalence = (Total # of active cancer cases (new cases + previously diagnosed cases) at a point in time / Total # of population at risk) x 100,000

A physician on your staff performed 30 skin biopsies last month. Twenty-four were performed on male patients. What is the proportion of men that had the procedure? Round to one decimal place.

Proportion: 24 / (24 + 6) = 0.8

Which type of research methodology uses numbers to describe a study? Qualitative research Quantitative research Basic research Applied research

Quantitative reserach

True or False: Patients who are dead on arrival (DOA) are not included in the gross mortality rate.

True

A Cohort Study identified a group of subjects who do not have the disease and follows them over time to measure the rate at which they develop the outcome. True/False

True Cohort study identifies a group (or cohort) of people who do not have the outcome of interest based on exposure or risk factor and then follows them over time to measure the rate at which they develop the outcome.

When the p-value is less than a 5% probability that two samples are different by chance alone, then the samples can be considered statistically significantly different. True/False

True When the p-value is less than 0.05 - that is, when there is less than a 5% probability that 2 samples are different due to a change alone, then, in general, the samples can be considered statistically significantly different.

If your sample is very small, your generalizations/conclusions may be faulty. True/False.

True. In hypothesis, if the samples do not represent our population, then our outcome could lead to Errors.

Graphs are more attention-grabbing than tables. True/False

True. More attention-grabbing than tables. Show trends more clearly. Bring out facts that will stimulate thinking.

More information can be presented in a table. True/False

True. More information can be presented in a table. Exact values in tables can be helpful. Ordinarily, less work is involved in creating a table.

The Recurrence Rate can only be calculated if the patient first goes into complete remission. True/ False

True. Recurrence Rate =Time of complete remission until time of first recurrence Patient must first go into remission (Disease Free, No Evidence of Disease) The starting point is the date of first complete remission. The end point is date of first recurrence.

Life Expectancy Tables are used to calculate the Relative Survival Rate. True/False

True. To obtain the Relative Survival Rate, we divide the observed survival rate by the expected (normal) rate. Expected survival rates can be obtained from standard life expectancy tables.

The following were the recorded birth weights for babies born July 16, 2011: 8.1 lbs, 6.0 lbs, 4.7 lbs, 6.9 lbs, 5.6 lbs, 7.7 lbs, 6.3 lbs, 7.8 lbs, 6.1 lbs, and 9.2 lbs. What was the average birth weight for the day? Round to two decimal places. a. 6.84 lbs b. 68.4 lbs c. 8.40 lbs d. 0.68 lbs

a. 6.84 lbs 8.1 + 6.0 + 4.7 + 6.9 + 5.6 + 7.7 + 6.3 + 7.8 + 6.1 + 9.2 = 68.4 68.4 / 10 = 6.84 lbs

Which type of statistics allows an analyst to make conclusions about a larger group based on a sample of data? a. Inferential statistics b. Vital statistics c. Descriptive statistics d. Registry statistics

a. Inferential statistics

The net mortality rate removes ___________________. a. Patients that die within 24 hours of admission. b. Patients that die within 48 hours of admission. c. Patients that die within 1 hour of admission. d. Patients that die within 30 minutes of admission.

a. Patients that die within 24 hours of admission.

Examples of primary prevention of disease include all of the following except:

a. Smoking cessation b. Vaccination c. Screening d. Occupational and environmental regulations

A symmetrical or normal distribution is represented by a ___________________. a. bell-shaped curve b. curve skewed to the left c. curve skewed to the right d. bimodal curve

a. bell-shaped curve

A type of graph that that displays components of a whole. a. Pie chart b. Histogram c. Line graph d. Table

a. pie chart, also called a pie graph, is a method of displaying data as component parts of a whole. It is an easily understood chart in which the sizes of the slices of the pie show the proportional contribution of each part.

What are statistics that refer to important events in our lives, such as births, marriages, deaths, and divorces called? a. Health statistics b. Vital statistics c. Human statistics d. Popular statistics

b. Vital statistics

All the following statement is true about correlation except: a. The correlation test calculates an r(rho) statistic which varies from -1 to +1 b. usually leads to a Type I error when our samples may not represent the true populations from which they were chosen c. is often represented by a scatter graph where the two variables are plotted: one on the x-axis and one on the y-axis d. is used to analyze how one variable varies with another vairable

b. usually leads to a Type I error when our samples may not represent the true populations from which they were chosen Correlation is used to analyze how one continuous variable varies with another continuous variable; are often graphed with one variable on the x-axis and the other on the y-axis; the test itself calculates the r (or rho) statistic, which varies from -1.0 to +1.0.

In 2019, 599,108 people died from cancer in the United States. The estimated 2019 US population was 325,719,178. Calculate the cancer mortality rate for the US in 2019. Report the answer as per 100,000 to the nearest tenth. a. 184.0 b. 183.9 c. 184.00 d. 183.90

b. 183.9 Answer: 599,108 / 325,719,178 = 0.001839 or 183.9 per 100,000 people

In 2019, a population of 50,000 men between the ages 50-80 had elevated PSA test results. Of the 50,000 men, 125 died of prostate cancer. What is the cancer mortality rate for this population (per 100,000)? a. 50 per 100,000 b. 250 per 100,000 c. 125 per 100,000 d. 80 per 100,000

b. 250 per 100,000 125 / 50,000 = 0.0025 or 250 per 100,000

Calculate the median survival time for the following group of patients. Round to one decimal place. Number of months per patient 4, 5, 3, 1, 2, 5, 5, 6, 1, 2, 18, 3. a. 4.6 b. 3.5 c. 5 d. 10

b. 3.5 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6, 18 (3 + 4)/2 = 7 / 2 = 3.5

The Urology Clinic at the Community Hospital track the PSA values for patients seen daily with a negative DRE(digital rectal exam). The PSA values for one day are as follows (round to one decimal place): G. Turner 4.9 B.Sandoval 5.6 T. Byrd 3.0 J. Dorsey 3.6 M. Donovan 3.9 S.Hicks 2.1 R. McCoy 2.8 a. 5.6 b. 2.1 c. 3.5 d. 3.6

c. 3.5 5.6 - 2.1 (the difference between the spread)

Calculate the modal survival time for the following group of lung cancer patients. Round to one decimal place. #months per patient: 4, 5, 3, 1, 2, 5, 5, 6, 1, 2, 18, 3. a. 4.6 b. 3 c. 5 d. 3.5

c. 5

What type of research focuses on the following 6 areas: Primary prevention, screening, early diagnosis, treatment, rehabilitation, and palliative care? a. Basic Science Research b. Patterns of Care Research c. Cancer Control Research d. Correlation Research

c. Cancer Control Research

The rate of occurrence of NEW cases diagnosed in a defined population in a given time period is called a(n) _____ rate. a. Death Rate b. Crude Rate c. Incidence Rate d. Prevalence Rate

c. Incidence Rate

Which of the following graphs would be best for the cancer registrar to use to display the ten-year survival rates of breast cancer patients at your hospital? a. Bar graph b. Frequency polygon c. Line graph d. Histogram

c. Line Graph A line graph is a type of graph that shows data points collected over time and identifies emerging trends or patterns

A type of graph that is used to illustrate the relationship between continuous measurements / data over time. a. Pie chart b. Table c. Line graph d. Histogram

c. Line Graph A line graph is often used to show data over time (for example, days, weeks, months, or years).

What do the wedges or divisions in a pie graph represent? a. Interval data b. Continuous data c. Percentages d. Frequency

c. Percentages

The type of data collection technique that relies on questions asked of a respondent is _____. a. Observation b. Naturalistic inquiry c. Survey d. Ethnographic study

c. Survey A type of research instrument with which the members of the population being studied are asked questions and respond orally.

Measures of Survival include: a. Survival Rate b. Recurrence Rate c. All of the Above d. Survival Time

c. all of the above. Measures of Survival include Survival Time, Survival Rate, and Recurrence Rate.

When chosen correctly, __________ are considered to be representative of the population. a. Interviews b. Hypotheses c. Samples d. Observations

c. samples

A type of diagram that is used to graphically show the relationship between two numerical variables. a. Line graph b. Pie chart c. Scatter diagram d. Table

c. scatter diagram

A physician on your staff performed 30 skin biopsies last month. Twenty-four were performed on male patients. What is the ratio of males to females who had skin biopsies? a. 6:24 b. 1:4 c. 4:1 d. 30:24

c: 4:1 Ratio: 24:6 = 4:1

A small hospital has 110 full-time employees. Twenty percent are out with the Norovirus. How many employees are sick and how many are healthy?

110 x 0.2 = 22 (sick) 110 - 22 = 88 (healthy)

Which survival time would be considered an Outlier? #months from diagnosis to death: 4, 5, 3, 1, 2, 5, 5, 6, 1, 2, 18, 3.

18

A group of 106 children is seen at the hematology specialty clinic in one week. Thirty-six have classic hemophilia type A; 70 have other bleeding or blood disorders. What is the proportion of people in the group that have classic hemophilia type A? Express in a decimal and round to two decimal places.

36 / (36 + 70) = 0.34

A gynecologist sees 75 women in one week. Forty-two were seen for their annual preventive exam and received Pap smears. Express the rate of Pap smears performed in this week. Express the answer in percent.

42 / 75 = 0.56 Convert to a percent: 0.56 x 100 = 56%

Geospatial epidemiological analysis using cancer registry data also helps identify cancer clusters. True/False

True

Match the following reports with the agency that produces it: A.Cancer Facts and Figures B. Amercian Cancer Society C. Cacer Statistics Review D. Cancer In Five Continents Surveillance Epidemiology, End Results Program International Association of Cancer Registries North American Association of Central Cancer Registries American Cancer Society

A. International Association of Cancer Registries B. American Cancer Society C. North American Association of Central Cancer Registries D. Surveillance Epidemiology, End Results Program

Which of the following are unprocessed facts and figures? a. Numbers b. Data c. Statistics d. Knowledge

B.Data

Health statistics provide information about the health of which of the following? a. Terminally ill patients b. Healthcare employees c. Family practice physicians d. The population in general

D. The population in general

A super group of 575 physicians practiced in the Midwest. The following specialties made up part of that figure. Using the information below, what percentage of the whole did these specialties make up? Round to two decimal places. Specialty Total Dermatologists 22 Orthopedists 53 Cardiologists 98 Gastroenterologists 18 Pulmonologists 14 Family Practice 207 Internal Medicine 102 Other 59

Dermatologists= 3.83% Orthopedists= 9.22% Cardiologist= 17.04% Gastroenterologists= 3.13% Pulmonologists= 2.43% Family Practice= 36.00% Internal Medicine= 17.74% Other= 10.26%

Match the Terms with the Description below: Random Sample Sample Population Statistical Tests A.Every Individual has an equal and independent chance of being chosen C.A set of individuals having some common observable characteristic D.Compare descriptive values between two populations or samples to determine whether the populations differ in a meaningful way B.A subset of the population under study

Random Sample: One in which every individual in the population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen for a sample. Population: Any set of individuals (or objects) having some common observable characteristic that we are interested in studying. Statistical Tests: Will help determine the difference between the median age at diagnosis of US female vs. the U.K female Sample: Subset of a population under study

Choose one or multiple options below that may lead to a censored event. a. When a patient dies of a cause that is not the event of interest. b. When a patient is no longer followed, that is, loss to follow-up. c. When a patient dies from a car accident. d. When a patient dies of a cause that is the event of interest.

a. When a patient dies of a cause that is not the event of interest. b. When a patient is no longer followed, that is, loss to follow-up. c. When a patient dies from a car accident. The event of interest is the outcome being measured and depends on the research question. Patients who experience an end point other than the event of interest during the study period are no longer at risk of experiencing the event of interest and are therefore censored. Censored patients contribute to the analysis only up to the time they are censored.

Which of the following is the lead agency responsible for protecting the health of the US population? a. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention b. Department of Health and Human Services c. Food and Drug Administration d. Environmental Protection Agency

a. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

The Null Hypothesis is true when a. There is no difference between the two groups under study b. The two groups being compared are different c. The samples may not represent the population under study d. The alternative hypothesis is accepted

a. There is no difference between the two groups under study Null Hypothesis (Ho): there is NO difference between two groups. Example: For a clinical trial of a new drug: the new medication is NO better than the current one

Patients who die in the emergency room are included in the hospital death rate. a. This is a FALSE statement. b. This is a TRUE statement. c. None of the above. d. It depends.

a. This is a FALSE statement.

The Urology Clinic at the Community Hospital track the PSA values for patients seen daily with a normal DRE(digital rectal exam). The PSA values for one day are as follows (round to one decimal place): G. Turner 4.9 B.Sandoval 5.6 T. Byrd 3.0 J. Dorsey 3.6 M. Donovan 3.9 S.Hicks 2.1 R. McCoy 2.8 a. 2.1 to 5.6 b. 4.9 to 2.8 c. 2.8 to 4.9 d. 5.6 to 2.1

a. 2.1-5.6 2.1 to 5.6 or 5.6 to 2.1; 2.1 is the lowest PSA result and 5.6 is the highest PSA result.

The survival time from diagnosis until death for a group of prostate cancer patients was as follows: 4, 5, 3, 1, 2, 5, 5, 6, 1, 2, 18, 3 months. Calculate the mean survival time. Round to one decimal place. a. 4.6 b. 55.0 c. 5.0 d. 3.5

a. 4.6 Add all the months together divide by the # of patients = 55 / 12 = 4.58 round to one decimal point 4.6

The following is a list of list of survival times for a group of breast cancer patients: 51,57,60,51,52,49,53,57,61,50 What is the Mode? a. 51 and 57 b. 51 c. 60 d. None of the above

a. 51 &57

Round the following to two decimal places: 6.7890 a. 6.79 b. 6.78 c. 6.80 d. 6.77

a. 6.79

What is the number of cases received divided by the number of expected cases? a. Completeness b. Data Submission c. Timeliness d. None of the above

a. Completeness

A type of diagram that is used to display frequency distributions for continuous numerical data (interval or ratio data). a. Table b. Pie chart c. Line graph d. Histogram

a. Histogram

The type of research that examines past events is called ________________. a. Historical research b. Tool c. Ethnography d. Random sample

a. Histroical research Historical research is a research design to investigate and analyze of past events.

This committee has the primary responsibility to protect the right and welfare of human research subjects: a. Institutional Review Board (IRB) b. Human Research Committee (HRC) c. Scientific and Ethical Assessment Board d. Investigation Review Commission (IRC)

a. Institutional Review Board (IRB) Healthcare organizations that conduct research on human subjects are required to have an Institutional Review Board (IRB). The IRB is a committee primarily responsible for protecting the right and welfare of research subjects.

What is used to monitor data in preparation for its release to the public and other stakeholders? a. Management Reports b. Data Submissions c. Completeness Reports d. None of the above

a. Management Reports

Examples of screening methods include all of the following except: a. Radiation treatment b. PAP and HPV Tests c. Mammogram d. Colonoscopy

a. Radiation Secondary prevention begins after possible biological onset of disease, but before symptoms of the disease present, and mainly includes screening, such as mammograms; tertiary preventions begins after a disease is diagnosed and includes preventing the disease from becoming more severe, such as treatment and palliative care.

How is the measure of risk expressed? a. Rate b. Percentage c. Fraction d. Occurence

a. Rate The measures of risk of developing, having, or dying from cancer are expressed in the form of a RATE.

Which of the following Observed All-Cause Survival Rate Method will yield a higher Survival Rate? a. The Observed Survival Rate by Actuarial (Life-Table) Method b. The Relative Survival Rate c. The Observed Survival Rate by Direct Method d. None of the Above as all methods of used to calculate the Survival Rate will yield the SAME rate,

a. The Observed Survival Rate by Actuarial (Life-Table) Method The Life Table Method or Actuarial Method uses information about all the patients in the study interval period including all follow-up information accumulated up to the closing date of the interval being studied. One advantage of the life-table method is that it provides information about changes in the risk of dying in successive intervals of observation for example at year 1, then year 2, the year 3 and so on. While the Direct method only accounts for patients exposed to the risk of dying for at least five years. The direct method does not use all the information available like the Actuarial method.

What is the ultimate goal of every cancer registry? a. To enhance patient care and reduce the overall cancer burden by providing quality data to clinicians, researchers, legislators, administrators, and the public. b. Collecting data for clinical research. c. To understand the country's cancer burden and design and conduct studies. d. Assist researchers by outlining what data are collected in the cancer registry

a. To enhance patient care and reduce the overall cancer burden by providing quality data to clinicians, researchers, legislators, administrators, and the public.

The physicians at Northeast Community Clinic have received several complaints that patients have to wait an inordinate amount of time to see specialists in the clinic. The administrator asks the office manager to construct a graph that will show how long patients had to wait to see the gastroenterologist, endocrinologist, and dermatologist. She wanted the graph to include the number of patients who waited more than four weeks, three to four weeks, one to two weeks, less than one week, and the number who were able to have an appointment on the day they called for all three specialties. Which would be the best graph to show this information? a. Line graph b. Bar graph c. Scatter diagram d. Pie chart

b. Bar Graph Bar graph, also called bar chart, are appropriate for displaying categorical data. Data representing frequencies of categories are often displayed using bar graphs

What compare data items between 2 records and identifies a match only if the values on the matching items are identical? a. Blocking b. Deterministic c. Probabilistic d. Matching

b. Deterministic

The term hospital death rate is synonymous with ________________: a. Case fatality rate b. Gross death rate c. Net death rate d. Institutional death rate

b. Gross Death Rate

A statement of the predicted relationship among variables in measurable terms is called a/the _____. a. Historical review b. Hypothesis c. Sample d. Observation

b. Hypothesis In formal research, hypothesis is formed. A hypothesis is a statement of the predicted relationship among variables in measurable terms.

Measuring the survival of a patient group for a specific period of time after diagnosis is known as: a. Mean Survival Rate b. Observed Survival Rate c. Mortality Rate d. Median Survival time

b. Observed Survival Rate Observed survival rate is a measure of survival of a patient group for a specific period of time after diagnosis (or treatment).

Mortality rates are typically presented as a _________________. a. Fraction b. Percentage c. Ratio d. Range

b. Percentage

A discharge from a hospital occurs when _____. a. A patient is sent home. b. All of the above. c. A patient is transferred to another facility. d. A patient dies.

b. all of the above

What is an important element among the tools of cancer surveillance? a. Blocking b. Cancer mapping c. Methodology d. Data linkage

b. cancer mapping

A researcher at your hospital request that your cancer registry pulls the following patients for an epidemiological study: 120 women diagnosed with breast cancer in OceanView county in the year 2018, which she called the Case Group. She then pulls randomly 120 women from Oceanview county who have had negative screening mammogram during the same period, which she called the Control group. What type of Study Design is she using? a. Cohort Study b. Case-Control Study c. Cross-Sectional Study d. Random Study

b. case control In a case-control study, the cases represent those with the disease/condition, and the controls represent those without the disease/condition of interest.

Which of the following groups accredit cancer registries? Selected Answer:c. American College of Surgeons Answers:a. American Cancer Society b. American Hospital Association c. American College of Surgeons d. American College of Pathologists

c. American College of Surgeons

The type of statistics that describes the characteristics of a group or population is called _____. a. Inferential statistics b. Generalized statistics c. Descriptive statistics d. Mathematical statistics

c. Descriptive statistics

Which of the following is considered a source of primary data? Selected Answer:c. The health record Answers:a. The master patient index b. The card catalog c. The health record d. The Department of Health and Human Services

c. The health record

Observed survival rates underestimate survival from cancer because they group deaths from all causes in the calculations. What other methods of calculation can be used to yield an improved survival rate? a. Adjusted survival rate b. Relative survival rate c. Both A and B d. None of the above

c. Both A and B Observed survival rates underestimate survival from cancer because they group deaths from all causes in the calculations. Two other calculations you might be able to use are: 1) the adjusted survival rate and 2) the relative survival rate. These calculate based only on cancer deaths.

The Radiology Department tracks the # of patients who obtain a low-dose CT scan as part of the Lung Cancer Screening Program over the past eight weeks.. The following table lists the number of patients seen each week. What is the median for the following values? # of Patients who obtained a low-dose CT scan Week 1 20 Week 2 18 Week 3 27 Week 4 17 Week 5 15 Week 6 9 Week 7 9 Week 8 5 a. 9 b. 27 c. 16 d. 32

c. 16 5, 9, 9, 15, 17, 18, 20, 27 (15 + 17)/2 = 32 / 2 = 16

Which type of bias occurs when there is a difference in the characteristics of study participants compared to those who are not in the study, and that difference subsequently affects the interpretation and generalizability of the study results? a. Suppression Bias b. Confounding Bias c. Misclassification Bias d. Selection Bias

d. Selection Bias Selection bias occurs when all the subjects in a population do not have the same opportunity to be included in a study, so that the control subjects who are selected for a study have a different distribution (e.g., difference in characteristics) of exposure than that of the population from which the cases were chosen. That difference subsequently affects the interpretation and generalizability of the study results.

An organized arrangement of data, usually in columns and rows. a. Histogram b. Pie chart c. Line graph d. Table

d. Table

If a researcher is able to measure what he intended to measure, this is referred to as _____. a. Competence b. Reliability c. Consistent d. Validity

d. Validity

Categorical Data can be represented by a. Bar Graphs b. Bar Chart c. Pie Chart d. All of the Above

d. all of the above Frequency tables, pie charts, and bar charts are the most appropriate graphical displays for categorical variables

The number obtained by dividing the numerator of a fraction by the denominator is called _____ a. Ratio b. Decimal c. Fraction d. Quotient

d. qoutient

What does GIS stand for and what is it?

geographical information systems; computer software that takes the data points from GPS receivers and converts it to useful information