Stress and Health

Stress response

A reaction that involves the physiological ('bodily') and psychological ('mental') changes people experience when confronted by a stressor.

Distress

A negative psychological response to a stressor, as indicated by the presence of negative psychological states such as anger, anxiety, nervousness, irritability or tension. Distress can result from such situations as lining up before entering a room to sit a very important exam, ongoing difficulties in a relationship, financial pressures, participating in an intense athletic competition with a negative outcome, or watching a horror movie. Distress can be short-term, but can also persist for weeks, months or even years if is not addressed and managed. Prolonged distress can have serious and debilitating consequences for out physical and mental health.

Physiological responses to stress

A pattern of involuntary bodily changes that occur in much the same way in all individuals when we first become aware of an acute stressor.

Eustress

A positive psychological response to a stressor, as indicated by the presence of positive psychological states such as feeling enthusiastic and motivated, excited, active and alert. For example the excitement of a first date, an 18th birthday party, riding on a roller-coaster, meeting a celebrity, or getting an A+ for an exam.

Mediation (strategies for coping with stress)

A specific technique that involves altering one's state of consciousness by focusing attention or thoughts on a single internal stimulus. When meditating, the person is awake, and not asleep, dreaming or fantasising. Rather, their mind in clear, relaxed and inward-focusing; that is, not focused on the external world or events taking place around them. Although techniques for achieving a meditative state differ, they typically involve altering the normal flow of conscious thoughts.

Stress

A state of physiological and psychological arousal produced by internal or external stressors that are perceived by the individual as challenging or exceeding their ability or resourses to cope. It is subjective experience and therefore depends on our personal interpretation of potential stressor.

Problem - focused coping

A strategy to manage or change the cause or sources of a stress. This may include: Reappraising the stressor by examining it from new perspectives. Obtaining more information about the stressor by talking to someone who could help. Redefining the stressor in a way that is more manageable. Generating alternatives ways of dealing with the stressor. Focussing on changing only what is changeable. Learning new skills to more effectively manage the stressor. Problem - focused coping strategies tend to be used when we believe that we have some control over a situation and think that we can change to the circumstances.

Chronic stress reponse

A stress response that produces an increased arousal level that persists over a relatively long time.

Acute stress response

A stress response that suddenly produces a high arousal level for a relatively short time.

Mild stress

A stress that can be stimulating, exhilarating, motivating, challenging and sometimes even desirable. For example, the elevated level of arousal that usually accompanies milf stress can enhance performance in both simple and complex task.

Biofeedback (strategies for coping with stress)

A technique that enables an individual to receive information ('feedback') about the state of a bodily process ('bio'). With appropriate training, the individual can learn to control a related physiological response using thought processes. During biofeedback training, electrical or mechanical sensors, like electrodes used on the EEG or a blood pressure cuff, are attached to the person. These sensors respond to a particular physiological response, such as tension in a particular muscle, blood pressure or skin temperature. The signals that are detected are then analysed and displayed, often visually (e.g. as a graph) or in an auditory form (e.g. sounds coming through headphones), to provide the person with information about the state of a relevant bodily process. The person is then taught a series of physical and mental exercises designed to help them learn how to gain control over the physiological response that is being monitored.

Transactional model of stress and coping

A theory that proposes that stress involves an encounter between an individual and their environment, that a stress response depends upon the appraisal of the stressor and ability to cope with it. According to Lazarus and Folkman (1984), stress is not a result of the individual alone or environment alone. The environment can influence the individual, but the individual can also influence the environment. Furthermore, an individual's appraisal of the situation and their resources for dealing with that situation determine whether or not they experience a stress response and the nature of the response. When there is an imbalance between a person's appraisal of the demands of the situation and their estimation of their ability to meet those demands, then they will experience a stress response. Appraisal is not necessarily a conscious process.

Stressor: Psychological Stimulus

An argument with a friend Running late for a class, failing an exam Changing schools Being bullied

Fight - Flight response (stage 1)

An involuntary reaction resulting in a state of physiological readiness to deal with a sudden and immediate threat by either confronting it ('fight') or running away to safety ('flight'). This reaction was first identified by American doctor and physiologist Walter Cannon (1871-1945), one of the earliest researchers on the effects of stress. Cannon (1932) found that the fight-flight response involves both the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine (hormones) system. He described the fight-flight response as involving changes such as: Increased heart rate and blood pressure Redistribution of blood supply from the skin and intestines to the muscles Increased respiration rate (to increase oxygen supply) Increased glucose secretion by the liver (for energy) Dilation of the pupils (so the eyes can take in as much light as possible) Suppression of functions that are not immediately essential in order to conserve energy, such as digestion. When a threat (or any other acute stressor) is perceived, the hypothalamus is activated. This almond-sized gland (located just above the brainstem) activates the sympathetic nervous system within milliseconds. The sympathetic nervous system then stimulates the adrenal medulla, which is the inner part of the adrenal gland (located just above each kidney). When the adrenal glands are stimulated, they secrete hormones called catecholamines into the bloodstream. Two of these hormones are called adrenaline (also called epinephrine). and noradrenaline (also called norepinephrine). These 'stress hormones' circulate in the bloodstream activating various organs including the heart, lungs, liver and kidneys, and resulting in the physiological reactions that characterise the fight-flight response.

Stressor

Any person, object, situation or event that produces stress.

HPA axis

Chain of reactions in the in the physiological response to stress involving the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and the adrenal cortex. The HPA axis involves the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland and the adrenal cortex (the outer layer of the adrenal glands. The hypothalamus stimulates the nearby pituitary. In turn, the pituitary gland secretes hormones such as adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) into the bloodstream. Among other things ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex (the outer surface of the adrenal glands) to secrete additional 'stress hormones' called corticosteroids and its main effect is to energise the body (by increasing blood sugar and metabolism). The level of cortisol circulating in the bloodstream is a commonly used measure of a stress by researchers. Unlike the fight-flight response, the HPA axis takes significantly longer (seconds to minutes) to exert its influences. Its effect also persist for a much longer time (minutes to hours).

Psychological responses to stress (COGNITIVE CHANGES)

Cognitive functions can also be adversely affected as a result of stress. Cognitive changes associated with a stress response influence a person's mental abilities, such as their perceptions of their circumstances and environment, their ability to learn and how to think. People often report that they have difficulties concentrating maintaining attention, making decisions and thinking clearly, and are more forgetful. A related phenomenon is commonly described as catastrophizing, which is considered to occur when we dwell on and overemphasise the potential consequences of negative events. Problem-solving and decision-making are other cognitive functions that can be affected by stress. People in a stressful situation are less likely to come up with efficient or effective solutions to what would normally be relatively simple problem.

Environmental factors that influence the stress response

Environmental factors that can influence the stress response include crowding, loud noise, air pollution, extreme temperatures and catastrophes such as technological nd natural disasters. The term crowding is used in psychology to refer of being cramped, of having less space then preferred. Crowing is a subjective experience. Although it can arise in situations when many people are crammed into a small place, it can also arise in situations in which there are few people and a great deal of space. One explanation of crowding involves the concept personal space refers to the immediate and small area (up to about 50 centimetres) with an invisible boundary that surrounds each person.

Psychological responses to stress (EMOTIONAL CHANGES)

Exposure to a stressor can produce emotional changes, which influence the way a person feels. When people do not have an opportunity to recover their emotional equilibrium ('balance') following exposure to an unavoidable stressor they often report feeling anxious, tense, depressed, angry, irritable and short-tempered. In some situations, people may also report feeling a sense of hopelessness and helplessness, feeling trapped in a situation from which they feel there is no escape. These feelings are often accompanied by a negative attitude to themselves, to their work or school and to life in general.

Stressor: Physical Stimulus

Extreme temperatures Intense lights Loud noise A heavy object

Social support (strategies for coping with stress)

Help or assistance provided by other people when needed. The people who provide social support can vary and include anyone with whom we may have a relatively stable or ongoing interpersonal relationship, although this does not necessarily mean a close interpersonal relationship or an intimate relationship. social support can take four main forms: • appraisal support - is help from another person that improves the individual's understanding of the stressful event and the resources and coping strategies that may be needed to deal with it. • tangible assistance - involves the provision of material support, such as services, financial assistance or goods, that may help offset the effects of a stressful event. The giving of food to someone who has lost a job or experienced a death of a loved one is an example. • information support - information about how to cope with a stressful event. For example, a person having a problem managing their workload may get information from school friends or co-workers about how they manage their own workloads or about how best to approach their team leader or supervisor about restructuring their job. • emotional support - targets these emotional reactions by reassuring a person under stress that they are an individual who is cared for and valued. The warmth and nurturance provided by other people can enable a person under stress to approach the stress with greater confidence, based on the realisation that if they are feeling emotionally overwhelmed by the stress at some time in the future, there are others they can rely upon.

Reappraisal

In the transactional model of stress and coping, a re-evaluation of a potential stressor in relation to coping resources. This involves a dual process: Reappraising the situation while taking account of the coping resources thata re available. Reapprasing the coping resources while taking account of the reappraised threat.

Secondary appraisal

In the transactional model of stress and coping, an evaluation of internal and external coping options and resources for dealing with a stressor.

Primary appraisal

In the transactional model of stress and coping, an evaluation of the significance of a potential stressor resulting in a decision that it is either irrelevant, benign-positive or stressful. If we decide that the situation is stressful, then we engage in additional appraisals: Harm/loss - which involve an assessment of how much damage has already occurred (e.g. 'I have lost my job') Threat - which involves an assessment of harm/loss that may not have yet occurred but could occur in the future (e.g. 'I mightn't be able to afford the rent'), and Challenge - which involves an assessment of the potential for personal gain or growth from the situation (e.g. 'I'll get any other job I can and will learn to budget and save money').

Allostatic overload

Is considered to represent the point at which a person actually develops a serious health problem, such as a physical disease and/or mental disorder.

Physical exercise (strategies for coping with stress)

Is physical activity that is usually planned and performed to improve or maintain your physical condition. Physical exercise increases demands on the body for energy and in the process uses up the stress hormones.

Limitations of the transactional model

It is difficult to test through experimental research. This is mainly because of the subjective nature, variability and complexity of individusl responses to stressful experiences. Primary and secondary appraisals can interact with on another and are often undertaken simultaneously. This also makes their study difficult as they aredifficult to isolate for study as seperate variabled. Some psychologists also doubt that we actually nees to appraise somthing as causing stress in order to have a stress response.

Psychological determinants of the stress response

Prior experience with stressors and stress responses Attitudes Motivation Level of self-esteem General outlook on life (e.g. optimism versus pessimism) Personality characteristics Coping skills Perception and how much control we have over a stressful situation or event.

Psychological responses to stress (BEHAVIOURAL CHANGES)

Psychological responses to stress can also cause a person's behaviour to change in a number of ways. Behavioural changes are apparent in a how a person looks, talks, acts and so on. Strained facial expressions, a shaky voice, hand tremors or muscle spasms and 'jumpiness' are common behavioural response to stress.

Allostatic load

Refers to the cumulative negative effects of the wear and tear that the body and brain experience due to repeated cycles of allostatic changes and/or the inefficient turning on and turning off of these responses. Increased allostatic load occurs with increased frequency of exposure to stressors, increased intensity of these stressors or decreased efficiency in coordinating the onset ('turning on') and termination of ('turning off') the allostatic response. The concept of allostatic load helps to explain the cumulative negative effects of chronic and acute stress and how stress can influence the onset of mental disorders such as major depression and anxiety

Social factors that influence the stress response

Social factors that can influence the stress response include our relationships and social interactions with others. Such factors range from other people or the wider community to change in one's existing social relationships. Social factors also include lack of social skills in forming and maintaining relationships with others, lack of social support, being in a bad relationship, making a new friend or gaining a new family member, experiences during social and recreational activities, being a victim of discrimination or bullying, and virtually anything else that involves some kind of interaction (or lack of) with one or more people.

Emotion - focused coping

Strategies to attend to emotional responses to a specific stressor. This typically involves strategies that are directed towards decreasing the emotional component of a stress response. Emotional - focused coping strategies include such efforts as: Denial (e.g. 'I'm not stressed') Distancing (e.g. 'I don't let it get to me') Avoiding (e.g. 'I'm not entering the public - speaking competition') Minimising (e.g. 'It's not that bad') Wishful thinking (e.g. 'I wish that the situation would go away or somehow be over with') Acceptance (e.g. 'I accept that this has happened and can't be changed') Venting emotions (e.g. 'I feel angry') Seeking emotional support from family members or friends. Emotional - focused coping strategies tend to be used when we believe that we have little or no control over a situation and therefore can't do anything to change the circumstances.

Social readjustment

The amount of change, or 'adjustment', lifestyle a person is forced to make following a specific event in their life.

Homeostasis

The body's ability maintain physiological environment by keeping certain body conditions constant. involves achieving ability by staying the same. When internal and external events cause deviation from ideal physiological conditions, homeostatic mechanisms take corrective action and operateto restore the steady state or balance. Changes associated with homeostasis occur within a relatively narrow range with upper and lower limits. For example, consider body temperature. In order to survive in an environment in which there is constantly changing temperature, there exists a very narrow range of acceptable temperatures. Even though the temperature of the external environment can change more than 20 degrees in the course of single day, our body temperature remains constant. When we experience conditions that push our body temperature above or below its normal set limits, homeostatic mechanisms trigger responses such as sweating or chills as a part of the body's attempts to restore our temperature to its set point. Although homeostasis is a useful construct for understanding mechanisms important for environmental adaptation and survival, it has limitations. One limitation is that it excludes the role of cognitive processes and is therefore of limited usefulness in explaining the human stress response and other states with a psychological component. Another limitation is that our body also needs to be able to adjust to wide-ranging internal changes, both to adapt to a changing environment in situations that do not challenge survival and also to meet significant demands imposed by stressors.

Allostasis

The body's ability to maintain a stable physiological environment by adjusting and changing to meet the internal and external demands. Allostasis involves achieving ability by changing. Allostatic systems act to protect the body by responding to internal and external stimuli. When an individual perceives a situation as stressful and experiences a stress response, their brain activates, or 'turns on', their body's allostatic response. The most common allostatic response involves activation of the sympathetic nervous system for the fight-flight response. Then, when an individual has been successful in coping with the demands of a stressor, or the stressor has passed, the brain 'turns off' the allostatic response. Inactivation returns the allostatic systems to 'normal', which usually happens when the threat has passed, the infection is contained, the living environment is improved, or the speech has been given. Allostasis therefore enables an individual to adapt to the demands of stressors by initiating and supporting a state of physiological arousal, which is then shut off when it is no longer needed. Allostasis emphasises that healthy functioning requires continual physiological fluctuations and adjustments.

Coping

The process of 'constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific internal and/or external stressors that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person.

Relaxation (strategies for coping with stress)

The process of reducing psychological and/or physiological arousal. This may be achieved via a number of different activities such as meditation, resting, going for a walk or a jog, reading a book, watching television or engaging in a hobby.

Strengths of thetransactional model

Unlike the fight-blight model and HPA axis, which focus on involuntary physiological responses to stressors and mostly overlook cognitive processes and individual differences in the stress response the transactional model focuses psychological determinant of the stress response over which we do not have control and emphasises the personal nature and individuality of the stress response. The model views stress as involving an interpretation with the environment in which the individual has an active rather than passive role. The role involves personal appraisalof a situation or an event that may be a stressor, thereby emphasising each individual's role in interpretating what that situation means to them from their perspective rather than from some else's. This allows for much more variability in the human stress response and helps explain why different individuals respond to different ways to the same tyoes of stressors.