study guide 1

When using a high-probability instructional sequence, one should: A. Provide GCR prior to presenting the next client demand B. Present several low-p client demands before presenting a high-p request C. Offer a terminal reinforcer paired with presentation of the low-p request D. Only make requests that have at least an 80% likelihood of compliance

A. Provide GCR prior to presenting the next client demand Correct: When using the high-p sequence we should provide praise or GCR after compliance with demands that have a history of compliance. The receipt of reinforcement contingent upon compliance may increase compliance with the subsequent low-p request (Cooper, et al, p. 618, 2020). Incorrect: Present high-p requests first and then the low-p one. Not the other way around. <> A terminal reinforcer is a good idea. However, it should be offered contingent on completion of the behavior, rather than paired with the presentation of the demand. <> Requests that are "high-p" are relative and there is no "hard and fast" rule. Personally, I'd want the high-p requests to be much higher than 80%. However, we don't need the low-p request to be above 80%. That's why this answer isn't quite correct.

A light turned on a moment before Doug let out a blood-curdling scream. Later on that evening, a horn honked and Doug bolted upright. A third time, the TV flashed and Doug threw up. How might a behavior analyst categorize the environmental variables surrounding Doug's response? A. As a temporal stimulus class B. As a functional stimulus class C. As a formal response class D. As a topographical response class

A. As a temporal stimulus class Correct: Each of these stimulus changes preceded the behavior, making them a temporal stimulus class. A temporal stimulus class is a group of stimuli that are related by their position in time (usually before/after). In this case, they all occur before the behavior, making them antecedents (Cooper, et al, p. 28, 2020). Incorrect: In order for these antecedents to be a functional stimulus class, they would need to evoke the same behavior in Doug. If they had all made him sneeze or scream, this would be the case. <> A formal response class would be talking about the behaviors or responses instead of the variables surrounding them. However, an example of a formal response class would be the singing of different songs. All of these behaviors involve similar motor movements. This is actually the same as a topographical response class. Form and topography are synonyms.

Brent wanted to ensure that he would finish his 185 question board exam in the allotted 4 hour time limit. During Brent's initial preparation, he would break the studying down into four, 1-hour time periods. During the first hour he would do 46 questions, during the second hour 46 questions, during the third hour 46 questions, and during the fourth hour 47 questions. Based on this information, what is the average IRT of Brent's question-answering behavior? A. 1.3 minutes B. 1 minute C. 40 seconds D. 1.5 minutes

A. 1.3 minutes Correct: Calculating average IRT can be a daunting task but we want to make it a bit easier for you. First, find the IRT of each set of data, remember there is always 1 less IRT than the total instances of a behavior during that observation period. As a visual representation, hold up your hand. Great job! Now, most of you will have 5 fingers. If you look between these fingers, you have 4 gaps. Think of these as the IRT and your 5 fingers as the behaviors you counted. Okay back to our questions: sets 1,2, and 3 we have 46 questions so we have 45 IRTs. Take 60 minutes (1 hour) and divide this by 45 (Time/IRTs instead of frequency/time, like rate) this gives you 1.33. Since all the other hours are the same or real close to this, you're done. That's the IRT for each hour.

When implementing a research program involving receptive identification of prehistoric animals, which of the following best describes each individual participant's fascination with dinosaurs? A. A confounding variable B. A hypothetical construct C. A variable that increases internal validity D. A variable that increases external validity

A. A confounding variable Correct: One's interest in a particular subject, especially one that will be taught, is considered a confounding variable. Confounding variables are uncontrolled variables known to or suspected to impact the dependent variable. If you are interested in dinosaurs, you will be more likely to pay attention and be able to identify them quicker than if you have no interest (Cooper, et al, p. 156, 2020). Incorrect: A hypothetical construct is something such as ADHD, autism, OCD, or other conditions that are used to explain a behavior or class of behaviors. In behaviorism, we account for environmental factors for the behavior and not these hypothetical constructs. <> Internal and external validity will be affected if there are confounding variables at play. We must first try to control for or eliminate these factors. Perhaps one could look at a difference between clients with an interest and those without.

You implement a procedure in your clinic in which all employees with less than 3 months of experience are required to complete a behavior checklist when implementing procedures. If these inexperienced BAs meet this contingency, the entire clinic will no longer be required to meet on Friday mornings. This best represents: A. A dependent group contingency B. An interdependent group contingency C. An independent group contingency D. A token system

A. A dependent group contingency Correct: This is a dependent group contingency where a small group (anyone with less than 3-month experience) must meet the contingency in order for the entire group to contact reinforcement. Dependent group contingencies are also sometimes referred to as the "hero" procedure as they require one person or a small group to meet the contingency to earn reinforcement for the entire group (Cooper, et al, p. 665, 2020). Incorrect: Interdependent group contingencies require that everyone meet the contingency for anyone to receive the reward. All of the newbies have to meet the contingency, true. However, the more experienced BAs also get the reinforcer, even though they didn't change their behavior. <> Independent group contingencies allow each member of the group that meets the reward to contact reinforcement. That would mean that those new BAs that met the goal would avoid the Friday meetings. <> This is not a token system, as there are no backup reinforcers or tokens discussed.

"Every time I put the peanut butter in the cupboard, my wife puts it back in the refrigerator." This statement is best characterized as, which? A. A descriptive assessment of my wife's behavior B. Control of my behavior C. A prediction of my wife's behavior D. Verification of my behavior

A. A descriptive assessment of my wife's behavior Correct: Here we have the fact that I've put the peanut butter in the cupboard (antecedent), my wife putting it back in the fridge (behavior), and the fact that the peanut butter is now in the refrigerator (consequence). It's a pretty good example of a descriptive statement. Incorrect: A prediction would be "The next time I put the peanut butter in the cupboard, my wife will put it back in the fridge." <> This statement might be seen as control of my wife's behavior (the presence of the antecedent controls her behavior), but not mine. <> Verification doesn't really belong here. This is because we are just describing what's happening, rather than making an experimental change and tracking the results.

While studying the impact of a visual schedule on compliance with classroom instructions, your supervisee identifies a few confounding variables that you then report in the final findings of your study. When publishing the study, you should: A. Credit your supervisee B. Present the confounding variables at the beginning of the study C. Redact any information relating to confounding variables D. Replicate the study before publishing

A. Credit your supervisee Correct: We should provide appropriate credit to anyone that assists throughout the study. Your supervisee assisted by discovering these confounding variables. When publishing the study and listing the confounding variables, you should credit the supervisee (BACB ethics code 6.08). Incorrect: You should ensure that the confounding variables are documented and discussed during the study, where you do that is up to you. Generally, this would be in the discussion section. <> You do not want to redact information about confounding variables, as these should be revealed to the readers of the study. <> You might choose to replicate the study, but this is generally done after the first publication and often by others. There is no need for you to do this.

You have found that you and one of your supervisees have irreconcilable differences. You have decided that it is best for both parties to end the supervisory relationship as soon as possible. Which do you need to do next? A. Develop a termination plan with the trainee, while assisting them in finding an alternative supervisor B. Provide the supervisee with a reasonable amount of time to find a new supervisor C. Inform the supervisee of your decision and terminate services as soon as practicable D. Work with the supervisee to finish any agreed-upon supervision hours, as stipulated by the contract

A. Develop a termination plan with the trainee, while assisting them in finding an alternative supervisor Correct: Whenever an analyst chooses to terminate a supervisory relationship, they should create a plan that minimizes harm to the supervisee. This could include assisting them in finding a new supervisor (BACB ethics code 4.12). Incorrect: Providing them with a reasonable amount of time to find a new supervisor is a great start, but we should also create a transition plan and help transition the supervisee, if possible. <> Informing them of our decision to terminate supervision is fine. That's part of your role. However, the better answer is that we need to do more than just "drop the mic" and walk away. <> While you want to follow the contract stipulations, you cannot keep signing off on hours when you have issues with your supervisee's performance. If your contract says "Supervisor must sign off all hours regardless of supervisee performance," you have a crap contract.

You've taught a client to clap their hands when successfully completing a task in small group settings. You are sure to reinforce this behavior whenever the VR schedule is contacted. You are using which of the following methods for promoting generalization? A. Indiscriminable contingencies B. Teaching loosely C. Mediation D. Programming common stimuli

A. Indiscriminable contingencies Correct: You have used indescribable contingencies by programming in a way that the learner will not know when reinforcement is going to be delivered. Indiscriminable contingencies are important and effective because they resemble a "natural" environment. Reinforcement does not follow every response in the natural environment (usually) and we want to mimic this in the teaching environment to encourage generalization (Cooper, et al, p. 753, 2020). In doing so, we are also strengthening the response. Incorrect: Teaching loosely is changing a noncritical element of the teaching environment. You could change your shirt each day you work with the learner, just to make sure that it's not one shirt that the learner is responding to. This would be teaching loosely. <> Mediation is enlisting those in the environment to reinforce the behavior. There are presumably others in the small group, but this scenario says nothing about using them to reinforce. <> Programming common stimuli is bringing materials in from the natural environment to teach the skill in a contrived setting. It just doesn't seem like anything from the natural environment was specifically "brought in." In fact, this scenario seems to be using a natural setting.

As the clinical director of a small organization, you have implemented a short supervision form that all clinical supervisors are required to complete after supervision sessions. One of your clinical supervisors has disregarded this form. What should your initial actions include? A. Meet with the clinical supervisor to discuss the barrier to implementation B. Modify the form to make it shorter and easier for the supervisor to complete C. Schedule observations for the end of this supervisor's sessions D. Address the ethical implications of failing to complete the form with the supervisor

A. Meet with the clinical supervisor to discuss the barrier to implementation Correct: The first step in addressing the behavior of a supervisee or client is to determine what the contingencies are that are governing that behavior. Some examples might be too much other work for this supervisor, a scheduling problem right after supervision sessions that interferes with getting these done, boredom/fatigue from the supervisor doing these forms every week, etc. These all would likely have a different solution. The first step is to investigate. Then, intervene. Lastly, analyze the results. Incorrect: An observation might reveal what? That the supervisor fills out the form because you're there? That the supervisor doesn't fill out the form? I don't see that you'd learn much from an observation alone. <> We are told that this is a short form. If you require it, the length or difficulty problem seems to have already been addressed. This suggestion also just skips over the "investigation" portion of an ABA procedure. <> Ethically, we must keep a record of supervision sessions and feedback given to supervisees, but this does not need to be a short form. The supervisor may be keeping supervision notes via email or through another avenue to meet the ethical requirements.

When initially implementing a token system you should: A. Minimize the token-to-backup exchange rate B. Maximize the response required to earn a token C. Fade the physical presence of the token D. Limit implementation to about an hour at first

A. Minimize the token-to-backup exchange rate Correct: When first implementing a token system, we want to ensure that the initial token-to-backup reinforcer exchange rate is low. This will allow the individual to contact reinforcement frequently, and come to understand that tokens are valuable (Cooper, et al, p. 661, 2020). Incorrect: We want to begin by minimizing the response requirement, initially. That is, make it easy to earn tokens. When withdrawing the token system, we would increase the response requirement to better represent the natural environment. <> We also want to fade the presence of the physical token and limit the times that the token system is implemented when we withdraw the system. During the initial implementation, the tokens should be noticeable as they represent reinforcement and the system should be implemented frequently to increase contact with reinforcement.

Maximus is a 12-year-old male client diagnosed with ASD. He engages in frequent instances of aggression, SIB, elopement, and throwing items. His BCBA would like to track these behaviors all at once, as they occur. Which of the following would be the best measurement procedure to implement? A. Partial interval recording B. Whole interval recording C. Duration D. Rate

A. Partial interval recording Correct: Due to the logistics involved with recording multiple behaviors simultaneously, partial interval recording would be the best. Partial interval recording records a behavior that has occurred at any point during an interval. As seen in this scenario, one could track if four different behaviors were happening at least once during an interval (let's say 30 seconds), although it would be difficult to get an accurate count of each and every occurrence of all four at one time (cooper, et al, p. 90, 2020). Incorrect: Duration and rate would produce inaccurate measures as the logistics surrounding tracking multiple behaviors simultaneously is extremely difficult, if even possible. Discontinuous measures like PIR are only estimates, but seem to fit this situation better than attempting to count every behavior and missing some. <> Whole interval would also be difficult to track the behavior accurately, because whole interval requires you to observe each behavior for the entire interval in which it occurs. This ends up being just as difficult as tracking duration.

Clover the cat has the worst "meow" ever. It sounds like someone is being strangled. Clover mostly uses her awful meow to alert everyone she has found a hair rubber band that she is going to carry around like a kitten until someone takes it away. Bliss can't stand the horrible, horrible sound. When Bliss hears it she takes the hair band and hides it. Bella doesn't mind the sound; she thinks it's kind of cute how Clover treats the rubber band like a baby. Bella pets Clover and gives her a tasty treat in exchange for the rubber band. Clover now goes running to Bella when she finds a rubber band. Clover's rubber band delivery behavior is an example of______. A. Positive Reinforcement B. Negative Reinforcement C. Positive Punishment D. Negative Punishment

A. Positive Reinforcement 1) Which behavior are we talking about? Clover, the cat. 2) Is their behavior increasing/maintaining or decreasing? Clover's behavior is increasing. 3) As a result of the behavior, is something being added or removed? Clover get's a pet and a treat for giving up her rubber band.

Lynette was a little tired of doing laundry. Her husband Jim wears clothes for five minutes then puts them in the hamper. Her twin sons Theo and Tally play football, and their uniforms are stanky and stained. Unfortunately, Lynette is picky and she doesn't like the way anyone else in her house does laundry. She decides that she is going to start taking $5 a week out of each boy's bank account and $20 out of her husband's wallet. For some reason she feels better doing laundry now and actually enjoys it. Lynette's fining behavior receives _____. A. Positive Reinforcement B. Negative Reinforcement C. Positive Punishment D. Negative Punishment

A. Positive Reinforcement 1) Which behavior are we talking about? Lynette fining her family. 2) Is her behavior increasing/maintaining or decreasing? Lynette continues to fine her family, weekly.. 3) As a result of the behavior, is something being added or removed? Lynette gets money, although that's not the point. She also receives a better, happier attitude from her actions.

Mr. Miller teaches 5th grade. He has been teaching for 24 years and has perfected his token management system. Each assignment a student turns in receives two tokens, each missing assignment is a one-token fine. Table groups earn an extra token when they are the first ones ready for a lesson, or the first ones who are cleaned up and ready to go to lunch or recess. Mr. Miller seems to have a successful system, in which students work hard to earn tokens. Mr. Miller's "token giving" behavior receives _____. A. Positive Reinforcement B. Negative Reinforcement C. Positive Punishment D. Negative Punishment

A. Positive Reinforcement 1) Which behavior are we talking about? Mr. Miller's "token giving." 2) Is his behavior increasing/maintaining or decreasing? Mr. Miller is maintaining his token economy. He continues to give out tokens. 3) As a result of the behavior, is something being added or removed? The behavior of the students is "added" to the environment. The students "work hard" to obtain tokens. Some of you noticed (you're so smart) that the one-token fine is an attempt at negative punishment and that the tokens are an attempt at positive reinforcement. However, we're asked about Mr. Miller's behavior.

Extinction does not: A. Prevent the behavior from occurring B. Terminate the response-to-reinforcement relationship of a behavior C. Change the environment so that reinforcement no longer follows the behavior D. Often cause response variations

A. Prevent the behavior from occurring Correct: Extinction does not prevent a behavior from occurring. That's an important thing to note! Instead, when the behavior occurs, we fail to provide the reinforcement that was previously offered. Incorrect: When we place a behavior on extinction we are severing the relationship between a response and the reinforcement that previously followed it by changing the environment to remove that reinforcement. <> Extinction does often cause variations in responses, such as client's attempting somewhat different ways to continue accessing the reinforcement that they've been receiving.

Phylogeny is directly responsible for: A. Primary reinforcers B. Generalized conditioned reinforcers C. Conditioned reinforcers D. All the actions of an organism

A. Primary reinforcers Correct: Phylogeny is a species' evolutionary history. Unconditioned or primary reinforcers are a product of the phylogeny of an individual. This allows us to say with relative certainty that all members of a species will be affected similarly by primary reinforcer or punishers (Cooper, et al, p. 263, 2020). Even with the variability among humans, each person is born with some need for sleep, food, warmth/coolness, etc. Incorrect: Generalized conditioned reinforcers and conditioned reinforcers are created due to ontogeny or an individual's learning history. These require pairing with primary reinforcers (or other conditioned reinforcers), in order to gain their relative effectiveness. <> The actions of an individual are also governed by one's environment and consequences or contingencies that follow actions. Thus, behaviors are governed by ontogeny as well.

Shena engages in automatically maintained vocal stereotypy and scripting behavior. Her BCBA has conducted an FA to confirm a sensory function, collaborated with a doctor, attempted a token system, NCR, and manipulated MOs. The BCBA wrote an intervention that required staff to ask Shena her name, age, and what city she lives in anytime she engaged in vocal stereotypy. This procedure most closely resembles: A. RIRD B. Response cost C. Time-out D. Restitutional overcorrection

A. RIRD Correct: By interrupting Shena's behavior and requiring that she answer three intraverbal questions, we are implementing RIRD (response interruption and redirection). Typically RIRD is implemented with vocal stereotypy, but can also be used with vocal stereotypy. It involves requiring the learner to engage in around 3 motor or vocal movements that interrupt and redirect the person's behavior to another task. The point is more to interrupt a behavioral chain than it is to develop a new one (Cooper, et al, p. 340, 2020). Incorrect: Response cost is a negative punishment procedure in which an appetitive stimulus is removed as a consequence of a behavior. In our scenario, we see the addition of intraverbal requests and nothing removed. <> A time-out procedure is also a negative punishment, which we do not see here. <> Restitutional overcorrection is a positive punishment procedure in which the learner must better the environment that they destroyed, which does not apply to this scenario.

During the week Danielle gets up at 5 am each morning to work out, meditate, read, and journal before her work day starts at 9. She typically has a response latency of 30 minutes from the alarm to being on the treadmill. However, she noticed that when she has an 8 am meeting, her response latency is only 15 minutes. This can be best described as: A. Stimulus control B. Stimulus generalization C. Maintenance D. An interval schedule

A. Stimulus control Correct: The time of the meeting is controlling Danielle's response latency for getting out of bed after the alarm goes off. An earlier meeting makes Danielle ("controls" her to) get out of bed faster. Stimulus control occurs when a behavior occurs more often in the presence of an SD than in its absence. To break it down, stimulus control just means that you are more (or less) likely to do something because that stimulus is present (or absent). Pretty much every stimulus that you can think of has some degree of "control" over your behavior. If you're in a bar with your friends you are more (or less) likely to order a drink. They don't make you do anything, but the change in your behavior is what we label "control." Incorrect: Stimulus generalization occurs when one response is demonstrated in the presence of multiple stimuli. If she woke up when her desk alarm, phone alarm, and the sun came up, this could be stimulus generalization. <> Maintenance occurs when a behavior continues to occur over time after the intervention is removed. Sure, her behavior continues to happen and seems to be maintained, but this question is about why the change in meeting times has any effect on Danielle's behavior. <> Getting out of bed (and receiving reinforcement for it) at 5am every day could be seen as an interval schedule (FI 24 hours). However, this question posits that Danielle behaves differently when there is a change to her schedule. That's what we need to concentrate on. The answer could be "interval schedule" if that was specifically asked about.

During spring break, we typically purchase a few easy meals such as ravioli, pot stickers, and hot pockets. My son was in the kitchen making a hot pocket when the hot pocket commercial came on the TV. I said, "Son, look. It's a hot pocket, just like the one you are making!." Later that day we went to the store and my son said "Look, Dad. These pizza rolls are like mini hot pockets." Which stimulus relation is being displayed here? A. Stimulus equivalence B. Reflexivity C. Symmetry D. Transitivity

A. Stimulus equivalence Correct: This is the most akin to stimulus equivalence. The son derived that one stimulus (hot pockets) were very much like another (pizza rolls). Noting these relevant similarities, without explicit instruction, is what we know as the derived or generative relation (Cooper, et al, p. 455, 2020). FYI, I would also consider the son's perception as a generic tact extension. Incorrect: Reflexivity would be noting that one hot pocket box is the same as another, for example. This isn't reflexivity, because the son isn't recognizing that one thing is exactly like another. Instead, there's some relevant similarity noticed. <> Symmetry would be demonstrated if the son were shown a box and told that this was a "hot pocket," and then the son was shown a hot pocket and picked up the box. That is A is the same as B, therefore B is the same as A. <> Transitivity is probably going to be the most popular wrong answer here, so let's explain this. If it WAS transitivity, we'd need to have explicitly related pizza rolls to some other stimulus, so that the son could make this relation logically. Instead, nothing was said about pizza rolls and he just figured it out.

Reba works for a large ad agency. She has submitted her last 8 projects at least 2 weeks past their deadlines. Her supervisor has worked with a BCBA to develop a behavior analytic strategy to change Reba's behavior. They have added a bonus structure for on-time submission, added additional staff members to her team, and reduced Reba's workload. Which is the best other recommendation? A. That her supervisor send Reba to a time-management conference B. That her supervisor delay any bonuses or promotions for 6 months, when Reba submits projects late C. That her supervisor does half of the projects for Reba D. That her supervisor add regular breaks throughout the day for Reba

A. That her supervisor send Reba to a time-management conference Correct: When we select a behavior to decrease such as late submission of projects we should select an alternative behavior to increase. By sending Reba to a time-management conference we can teach her to better allocate her time along with time-management skills which will serve as alternative replacement behavior to procrastinating. We are assuming here that Reba will learn some concrete strategies that we can work with. The other answers here just ain't any good. Incorrect: Attempting to punish Reba might be appropriate after we attempt to teach her a replacement behavior and that does not work. Punishment should be reserved as one of our last options, at least in terms of changing behavior. The company can choose to do this, of course. <> Having her supervisor do projects for her sounds contrary to the point of changing REBA's behavior. <> Regular breaks are not the issue; procrastination is. If Reba is a procrastinator, she likely already takes ample breaks throughout the day.

The major commonality between a DRA, DRO, and DRI is: A. The increase of alternative behaviors B. The usage of extinction C. Their effect on MOs D. A focus on behavior function

A. The increase of alternative behaviors Correct: All of these DR procedures are meant to weaken target behaviors. They also strengthen or increase other behaviors. This is either a functionally-equivalent behavior class like the target (DRA), but not necessarily (DRI & DRO). Incorrect: Extinction may be implied and is often necessary, but don't forget that you can also pair these procedures with punishment, too. DRI may be effective without either extinction or punishment in place for the target behavior. <> These interventions may be more effective when manipulating MOs first, but do not do so by themselves. <> Especially with DRA, it is important to address a target behavior's function. DRI and DRO may be effective without understanding the function. Regardless, these procedures focus on reinforcing one (or more) behavior class(es) rather than on considering a function.

Let's say that you serve one client and have been allowed to observe and assist in developing and implementing a plan for behavior in the classroom. Which is your highest ethical responsibility? A. To develop targeted interventions with the teacher B. To provide consultation when students in the class engage in maladaptive behaviors C. To facilitate group contingency management D. To share best practices concerning classroom management

A. To develop targeted interventions with the teacher Correct: A critical component of effective care is to identify relevant stakeholders and our responsibilities to these stakeholders. One major responsibility is to ensure that the teachers are taught how to effectively manage the behavior of the client that we serve. We should ensure that our client is the sole focus of our scope of training with the teacher (BACB ethics code 3.02). Incorrect: Any choice relating to the general work of the teacher with their entire class or other students in the class would not be appropriate unless we had a service contract to do so. We are there to provide support to our particular client. Our ethics code prevents us from providing support to individuals with whom we do not have a service contract.

Which of the following is the best operational definition of a behavior? A. Martin will be more assertive B. Martin will name 5 state capitals when he is ready C. Martin will investigate the behavior chain D. Martin will feel remorse for his actions

B . Martin will name 5 state capitals when he is ready Correct: Operational definitions of behavior should be clear, complete, objective, and concise. Complete meaning they cover exactly what their behavior looks like and sometimes include examples and non-examples. Concise means only the needed information. Objective means anyone that reads it should be able to interpret it in the same way. The best definition provided is that Martin will name 5 state capitals, even though we don't know "when he's ready." This goal is easily interpreted and allows anyone that reads it to score it the same. Also, even if you don't like the answer, you still have to pick one that you hate the least. Incorrect: Being more assertive is too subjective and not likely measured the same by all observers. <> "Investigating" sounds good, but what does that look like? Yeah, I don't know either. <> I'm pretty sure that measuring remorse is beyond our current technology. Behaviorally, how would we measure it?

While speaking with your supervisor you report that over the course of your observations, a client has engaged in 14 instances of aggression, 10 instances of aggression, and 5 instances of aggression. Your supervisor's response should be which of the following? A. "The behavior seems to be improving." B. "Convert your measures to a rate." C. "The rate appears to be decreasing." D. "Your measures are valid."

B. "Convert your measures to a rate." Correct: If the time periods associated with the reported measures are different, they can impact our interpretation of the data. Whenever possible, use rate over frequency as rate gives us a better picture of the behavior when comparing to other time periods or environments (Cooper, et al, p. 76, 2020). Incorrect: We cannot say the behavior is improving. If 14 instances were reported during a 2 hour observation and 5 instances were reported during a 10 minute observation, the behavior got worse (as measured by rate). This is why reporting rate is more valuable than frequency when possible. <> We don't know the rate, so can't tell if the behavior is decreasing. <> It sounds like aggression is what you want to measure, but there isn't enough information to tell whether this is valid information or not.

Craving freshly squeezed lemonade, I reached into the fridge, grabbed three large lemons, walked to the cabinet, and grabbed a glass. I then opened the drawer and saw that my lemon squeeze was missing. The lemon squeeze in this scenario best represents: A. A CMO-R B. A CMO-T C. A CMO-S D. An EO

B. A CMO-T Correct: The lemon squeeze is a CMO-T. It has increased in value because we need it to access the original reinforcer of lemonade. (Cooper, et al, p. 388, 2020). Notice that the lemon squeeze WAS an SD for squeezing the lemons. When that's not available, we suddenly cannot complete the behavior chain. The squeeze becomes a CMO-T, because it now represents a new contingency with a motivation to get the juice outta these here lemons! Incorrect: A CMO-R signals the worsening or bettering of conditions. In this scenario, things aren't going to get worse if we don't find a squeeze. Unless, of course you have a lemonade stand and a bunch of angry customers:) <> A CMO-S is an item that has taken on the evocative or abative effect of a stimulus due to its repeated pairing with that stimulus. A relevant example with this scenario might be if you often drank lemonade when you were thirsty and then saw some lemonade available when you weren't thirsty and still had some anyway. That is, the repetition of lemonade with thirst caused you to ACT thirsty - when seeing lemonade - <> The EO here might be being thirsty in the first place. Yes, it's also an EO that you now want a lemon squeeze, but more specifically this is only a temporary desire in the larger contingency of wanting some lemonade.

After completing a direct observation for a 4 year-old client, you note that the client speaks in two-word sentences, walks independently, is not toileting independently and requires feeding assistance. You tell the caregivers that this client has delayed skills. You have referenced: A. A standardized developmental assessment B. A criterion-referenced assessment of development C. A curriculum-based developmental assessment D. A valid developmental measure

B. A criterion-referenced assessment of development Correct: By comparing the individual to typically developing individuals of their age, you are using a criterion-referenced assessment of development. Criterion-referenced assessments measure an individual's skill and performance across recognized developmental milestones. (Cooper, et al, p.55, 2020). The point is to compare a client to a criterion, such as "Client is able to answer questions, such as "What's that?" or "Where's your ear?" and report whether they meet this expectation or not. Incorrect: Standardized tests administer the same set of questions using specific procedures (given in the same way). These produce norm-referenced results. <> A curriculum-based assessment assesses a learner's progress based on a particular curriculum. For example, providing the learner with a set of spelling words and then testing at the end of the week. <> In order to know if this measure is valid, we'd want to know if it's measuring what we intended to measure. We don't know enough about our intention or the procedures used for us to make a determination on the validity of the measure.

Jacob keeps a picture, a vase, a candle, and a watch on top of the mantle. He keeps other items on the coffee table. What are these? A. An arbitrary stimulus class B. A formal stimulus class C. A functional stimulus class D. A temporal stimulus class

B. A formal stimulus class Correct: These items are all spatially related as they are on the top shelf as compared to other items. A formal stimulus class is a group of stimuli that share the same shape, size, color, weight, or spatial position relative to other objects (Cooper, et al, p. 28, 2020). Incorrect: An arbitrary stimulus class is a group of items that essentially share the same function or are classified by our verbal behavior such as classifying a sinker, hook, and worm as fishing equipment. You could see the items on the mantle as belonging to an arbitrary stimulus class of "decor" or "knick knacks", but you don't know what's on the coffee table. This leaves the spatial arrangement as the only thing the items have in common.<> A functional stimulus class is the same as an arbitrary stimulus class. It's one in which all stimuli result in the same effect on the environment. Scissors, a knife, and a paper cutter are all "things that cut." <> Temporal stimulus classes are stimuli that are related in time. Examples are events that happen "before this" or "between the hours of..." or "after 10pm," etc.

Brenda says that her mother's standards are unfair and her mother says that Brenda is rebelling and acting like the kids that she hangs out with. They decided to formulate a written agreement. It states that Brenda will arrive home each night before 11 pm and that her mother will write down house rules and discuss them with Brenda before enforcing them. They each wrote down their desired rewards, should they meet their goals and signed the document. What did they miss? A. The consequences of failing to meet goals B. A progress record C. Reinforcement for meeting goals D. The responsibilities of each party

B. A progress record Correct: When completing a behavior contract you must include the task, the reward, and how "task completion" will be measured. Brenda and her mom missed the task record. They should include a place to keep track of their progress toward the goal, and a clear way to measure it (Cooper, et al, p. 672, 2020). Incorrect: They did record what each party desired upon meeting the goals. <> The two also mentioned some responsibilities of both parties. <> It's implied here that a failure to meet the goals means a failure to earn the given rewards. Additional negative consequences can be added to a contract (e.g., "If Brenda comes home late, here's what happens..."), but aren't always necessary or desirable.

Israel works for a large company and is required to complete at least 14 products per hour. Israel creates gloves, shoes, socks, and other articles of clothing. The way that he creates each of these items is extremely similar. You wouldn't know which he is creating unless you saw the object itself. Israel's behavior(s) can be best classified as which of the following? A. Response generalization B. A topographical response class C. Stimulus discrimination D. Maintenance

B. A topographical response class Correct: Israel's behaviors all look the same. Thus, they form a topographical response class. A topographical response class is a group of behaviors that share the same form or topography. In other words, they all look the same (Cooper, et al, p. 27, 2020). This is also known as a formal response class. Incorrect: Israel's behaviors do not change, so it's not response generalization. If anything, we could say this is stimulus generalization. <> Stimulus discrimination might be demonstrated through making gloves when the glove material is in front of him and making shoes when the shoe material is in front of him. Each stimulus evokes differing behaviors. <> Maintenance would be demonstrated through continuing to make the products even after an intervention or training is removed.

Your client engages in SIB when requested to terminate access to her tablet. This learner has a generalized tacting and listener responding repertoire. You ask the learner to touch their head, to tell you their name, and then to give you the tablet. This effectively eliminates the display of SIB. You have created: A. An indiscriminable contingency B. Behavioral momentum C. Reinforcement D. RIRD

B. Behavioral momentum Correct: Behavioral momentum is the effect of a high-p sequence. In this situation, you have used a high-p sequence to create behavioral momentum (Cooper, et al, p. 619, 2020). It's a fascinating thing that people get in the "habit" of responding "Yes," and are much more likely to respond in the same way immediately after this. Incorrect: An indiscriminable contingency would be if your learner was on some intermittent schedule. Here, it looks like it's a continuous (CRF or FR1) one. <> Reinforcement probably was (and should be) used, but the scenario does not display the usage of reinforcement. <> RIRD (response interruption and redirection) is a punishment procedure. We aren't told of any incorrect response or failure to respond that this might be used with.

The primary difference between chained and tandem schedules is that: A. Chained has an SD and tandem has an S-Delta B. Chained has an SD and/or an S-Delta, while tandem does not C. Tandem only has an S-Delta, while chained has an SD and/or S-Delta D. These schedules are unrelated

B. Chained has an SD and/or an S-Delta, while tandem does not Correct: Chained and tandem schedules of reinforcement are the same, except that chained schedules have an SD and/or S-Delta while a tandem schedule does not have a recognizable SD or S-Delta (Cooper, et al, p. 318, 2020). All this means is that a person under a tandem schedule has no cues to help them understand what schedule is in place or in what order steps should be completed.

You provide each of your new supervisees with video-recorded lectures before they begin working at your clinic. What key information should you include in the recorded lecture? A. Modeled examples of the intervention used with all clients B. Characteristics and behavior of quality employees C. Consequences for inappropriate behavior D. Communication training

B. Characteristics and behavior of quality employees Correct: Characteristics and behavior of quality employees will provide the expectations that you have of employees. You should establish performance expectations before you begin working with the supervisee, in order to set them up for success (BACB supervisor training curriculum 2.0). Incorrect: Modeled interventions would be great but you shouldn't be assuming that each client will get the same intervention. This should be individualized. Also, let's establish expectations first and then get into training with clients. <> Consequences for inappropriate behavior may also be important, but let's focus on what you want employees to do, instead of what we don't want. <> "Communication training" could mean just about anything.

During your stint in the research lab, you present a mouse with three buttons. The mouse has to touch the button that is lit up. Once they do this, three buttons around the cage light up. The mouse is required to then push the button that is lit the same color as the first button pressed. If the mouse does this, they receive some cheese. If they fail, they receive no reward. Which answer describes a successful trial? A. Matching-to-sample B. Conditional discrimination C. Differential reinforcement D. Response generalization

B. Conditional discrimination Correct: You are teaching conditional discrimination. Conditional discrimination is when a response will produce reinforcement in the presence of a particular stimulus depending on the presence or absence of another stimulus/stimuli. In this example the button that the mouse pushes second depends on the color of the button they pushed first (Cooper, et al, p. 398, 2020). It's discriminating two different times: once to push the lit button (and not the others); second to match the colors (and not the others). Incorrect: The whole scenario seems to describe that differential reinforcement may be offered. That is, correct responses will receive reinforcement and incorrect ones will receive nothing. However, a successful trial just receives reinforcement. We aren't talking about what might happen with both a correct and incorrect response. <> Matching-to-sample might describe the second part of the conditional discrimination, but not the first. A better answer is conditional discrimination, as it covers the whole correct response scenario. <> Response generalization isn't here. An example of it would relate that the mouse completed the trial correctly, but with different topographical behavior. Maybe the mouse touched the button with her nose and then her tail, for instance.

Industrial Steel Incorporated pays their employees 10 cents when they complete a part. Employees average anywhere between 100 and 150 parts per hour. Industrial Steel is using which of the following schedules of reinforcement? A. Fixed interval B. Fixed ratio C. Variable interval D. Variable ratio

B. Fixed ratio Correct: This is a fixed ratio schedule as the employees are reinforced with a set amount of money for every part they complete. FR schedules reinforce a behavior for a set amount of responses (Cooper, et al, p. 3030, 2020). This one is an FR1 or continuous schedule. Incorrect: Interval schedules reinforce a behavior after an interval of time elapses and then a response is displayed. Here, if the company provided the workers with payment for the first response after every minute, that would be an interval schedule. That is, once they completed a part and got paid, they'd only get paid again after a minute had passed. A fixed interval stays the same, while a variable interval just uses an average interval. <> The simple difference between fixed ratio and variable ratio is that fixed schedules reinforce a set number of responses while variable ratio describes an average number of responses. A variable ratio schedule with this example (let's say a VR 5) would pay employees when they complete an AVERAGE of 5 parts. Sometimes it would be just a couple of parts, and sometimes 10.

When Mary Beth is thirsty she will request water by using a two (or more) word verbal statement such as, "Water, please," or "May I have some water." A non-example would be saying, "Water." This operational definition: A. Is objective and complete B. Is not objective but is complete C. Is not complete but is objective D. Is not objective and is not complete

B. Is not objective but is complete Correct: Operational definitions should be clear, complete, and objective; as well as concise. This definition is not objective as we cannot know when Mary Beth is "thirsty" or not but it is complete. Complete refers to including examples and non-examples, as to clearly picture the behavior for all observers. Complete definitions leave little to interpretation on what behavior you'd record. To fix this definition we might include, "thirst is defined as moving towards her water cup, a water fountain, or other hydration option." Of course, you can just eliminate this language and say, "In order to get a drink, Mary Beth will...."

In which of the following scenarios would rate NOT be appropriate? A. Measuring the number of times a dog barks B. Measuring the number of the teacher's questions that are answered correctly C. Measuring the number of lego blocks put together D. Measuring the number of miles walked

B. Measuring the number of the teacher's questions that are answered correctly Correct: Rate should not be used with discrete trials, as these are bound by a specified number of opportunities. The learner can only answer a question from the teacher when asked. This changes the rate. For example, if a teacher asks 2 questions per hour versus 10 per hour, that's as high as the rate can go. You can still use this measure, but you'd want to be cautious with interpretation (Cooper, et al, p. 78, 2020). Incorrect: Measuring how often a dog barks seems open-ended. Even if they don't bark, the opportunities for barking weren't limited somehow. <> The lego-stacking rate would only be limited by how many blocks there are. <> Walking seems pretty available in any quantity that you'd like, right. You can walk a little or forever.

Erin is a teacher during the COVID 19 outbreak, she is now responsible for teaching 100 middle schoolers art via an online platform, AND teaching her own 10 and 13 year old children. She is quarantined with her family and gets zero time to herself. After the third week she hid a bottle of wine in the laundry room and said she was going to fold laundry. Now she does at least one load of laundry a day right before dinner. Her laundry behavior is: A. Positive Reinforcement B. Negative Reinforcement C. Positive Punishment D. Negative Punishment

B. Negative Reinforcement 1) Which behavior are we talking about? Erin's "doing the laundry." 2) Is their behavior increasing/maintaining or decreasing? Erin's laundry behavior is increasing. 3) As a result of the behavior, is something being added or removed? Erin is escaping her family (removed).

17 year old Kayla is a total slob. Her room is a giant pile of stinky laundry and dirty dishes. Her mom is a neat freak. She likes lines vacuumed into the carpet, counters clear and wiped-down; not a knick-knack out of place. Kayla's mom also believes in children helping around the home and has a long list of chores that she enforces the completion of on a daily basis in exchange for the use of the car. Kayla's mom decided to offer Kayla a deal: "Keep your room clean and you can cross the nightly dishes job from your chore list." Kayla spends all day doing laundry and hauling dishes from her room to the kitchen. She doesn't have to do dishes for the week. Kayla's cleaning is an example of: A. Positive Reinforcement B. Negative Reinforcement C. Positive Punishment D. Negative Punishment

B. Negative Reinforcement 1) Which behavior are we talking about? Kayla's "room cleaning" 2) Is her behavior increasing/maintaining or decreasing? Kayla spent the day tidying her room AND continued to avoid dishes for the week. If the contingency remained in place, that means that Kayla must have cleaned her room for a week. 3) As a result of the behavior, is something being added or removed? Kayla is escaping doing the dishes.

Natalie recently changed jobs from full-time to part-time. She was very excited about having more time on her hands and decided she was going to use the extra time to cook healthy meals more frequently, learn to knit and read the New Yorker cover to cover. After a couple of months, Natalie's husband notices the New Yorkers piled up on the coffee table. Soon the table is no longer visible because of all the magazines. Natalie hates clutter and feels annoyed and ashamed every time she looks at the piles. She says that she simply cannot read them fast enough. Natalie piles up the magazines and donates them weekly to the local high school. She loves having a clear coffee table. Natalie's donation is: A. Positive Reinforcement B. Negative Reinforcement C. Positive Punishment D. Negative Punishment

B. Negative Reinforcement 1) Which behavior are we talking about? Natalie's behavior of donating the magazines 2) Is her behavior increasing/maintaining or decreasing? Natalie's behavior is maintaining. She donates weekly. 3) As a result of the behavior, is something being added or removed? Natalie's donating behavior removes the magazines from her coffee table.

Orion wakes up each morning with horrible indigestion and heartburn. It makes him burp constantly, feel nauseated, and as a result, he has a hard time eating. He sees his primary care doctor and the doctor orders a ton of blood tests. They all turn up negative. Orion's doctor prescribes a daily extra strength antacid. After a week of medication, Orion's symptoms improve. Taking the antacid is _____. A. Positive Reinforcement B. Negative Reinforcement C. Positive Punishment D. Negative Punishment

B. Negative Reinforcement 1) Which behavior are we talking about? Orion taking an antacid 2) Is his behavior increasing/maintaining or decreasing? His taking the antacid is maintaining 3) As a result of the behavior, is something being added or removed? His symptoms are being removed.

Nathan is a neat freak. Clutter and germs are the bane of his existence. He has his kids and wife leave their shoes in the garage so shoes never enter the house. They only use the door from the garage into the house. They never use the front door. Nathan created a system of labeled shoe racks in the garage for each family member. However, they do not comply; instead they just leave their shoes in a big pile right in front of the door. After repeated reminders Nathan decides to take action. Now he takes every ones' shoes and hides them various places in the garage. The lack of clutter in front of the door makes him happy. His kids actually think it's kind of like a fun Easter egg hunt everyday. His wife is not amused, so she puts her shoes in the organizer labeled "mom." The kids continue to leave the shoes right in front of the door. The children's constant shoe pile is an example of: A. Positive Reinforcement B. Neg

B. Negative Reinforcement 1) Which behavior are we talking about? The kids' "shoe piling." 2) Is their behavior increasing/maintaining or decreasing? The kids' behavior is maintaining. 3) As a result of the behavior, is something being added or removed? The kids' shoes are removed from where they were left.

You recently observed a behavior therapist implementing receptive identification of vehicles with a client. You and the RBT observe and record correct answers. You have likely conducted what form of IOA? A. Total count IOA B. Trial-by-trial IOA C. Exact count IOA D. Mean count IOA

B. Trial-by-trial IOA Correct: As you are recording discrete trial data, you are likely conducting trial-by-trial IOA. Trial-by-trial measures the agreement of two observers when taking data during DTT sessions (Cooper, et al, p. 113, 2020). These are most likely discrete answers to a therapist's inquiries and each question would be scored as correct or not. Incorrect: Total count, exact count, and mean count are all forms of IOA utilized with free-operant behaviors. If the client was offered to name an unlimited number of objects, we couldn't discriminate between total, exact and mean from the information in the scenario.

Jeff, a BCBA, was recently hired to work with an NFL team to increase engagement and decrease a variety of player behaviors. Jeff's biggest pet peeve was that players would regularly arrive late to his sessions. After trying various forms of reinforcement, Jeff received permission from coaches to fine the players. This greatly reduced their tardiness. Jeff also began fining players when they would back-talk him during sessions. Jeff's behavior can be best attributed to: A. Improper training B. Negative reinforcement C. Emotional responding D. Lack of monitoring

B. Negative reinforcement Correct: One of the negative effects of punishment, is that it is negatively reinforcing to the punishing agent (the person doing the punishing). This can lead to implementing punishment on a variety of behaviors and increasing the frequency and magnitude, too. This difficulty in overuse of punishment, ironically occurs because of the success of the intervention (Cooper, et al, p. 338, 2020). Incorrect: Jeff is a BCBA. He has some ABA training, but may not realize what's happening. There might be improper training, but it's not specifically mentioned here. <> Emotional responding is an unwanted effect of punishment, but relates to the individual who is being punished, rather than the individual that is using punishment. <> BCBAs do not require monitoring unless they are supervising individuals within their first year of practice, although it sounds like Jeff could use some. I can see why someone would answer this, because a supervisor might point this out and help Jeff to change his approach. And, it's clearly an example of negative reinforcement, so it's a more specific answer that "fits" the scenario best.

Each week, you are presented with a minimum of 5 new projects during your staff meeting. Recently, you have begun to skip staff meetings. Your boss chews you out and reduces the assignments that you are given. If you still skip staff meetings, your behavior is likely: A. Positively reinforced B. Negatively reinforced C. Positively punished D. Negatively punished

B. Negatively reinforced Correct: Your "meeting skipping" behavior maintained. This suggests that it is being reinforced. By skipping meetings, you are avoiding more projects being assigned, thus representing negative reinforcement (Cooper, et al, p. 289, 2020). Incorrect: Your boss' admonishment is an added stimulus (positive). However, did this lead you to skip more meetings? My educated guess is that it was the reduction in work, rather than the chastisement that led to your continued avoidance. The behavior maintained; ruling out either punishment option.

What would be the most effective method to determine the effectiveness of an intervention after a behavior has met mastery criteria in a contrived setting? A. Conduct treatment integrity checks B. Observe the client in the natural environment C. Interview the caregivers to determine behavioral changes at home D. Observe the behavior in the clinic setting

B. Observe the client in the natural environment Correct: Observing the client in a novel environment will allow you to determine if the behaviors that were taught have generalized to another setting. If this has occurred, it may be appropriate to discontinue services depending on progress toward other treatment plan goals. Incorrect: Conducting treatment integrity checks will allow us to determine how the implementation of the program compares to the way the intervention was written. This would not allow us to measure the behavior in a generalized setting. In fact, you can follow the plan exactly and the behavior may not change. <> Observing the client in the contrived/clinic setting does not assess the generalization of the skill. To do this we need to observe in a novel or the natural environment, in order to make sure that behavior change isn't just limited to the clinic. <> Interviewing caregivers would give us a bit more of a subjective or indirect measure of the effectiveness of an intervention. This is compared to the preferred, verifiable direct observation.

Which of the following would be the most effective way to teach a caregiver to implement a shaping procedure? A. Have the caregiver shadow a few sessions with the RBT implementing the procedure B. Perform the shaping procedure yourself while the caregiver is observing C. Discuss the reason you are using a shaping procedure and describe it D. Probe the caregiver's current knowledge of shaping

B. Perform the shaping procedure yourself while the caregiver is observing Correct: Let's not just discuss it, but do it. That way, we can provide a model and answer questions. Of course, the next major step would be to have the caretaker practice implementation and offer feedback. Incorrect: Shadowing the RBT would be a second-best way to show a caretaker how to shape behavior. You being able to show how YOU want it done is even better. <> Discussing is fine, but it's not nearly as good as doing, or asking about prior knowledge.

Though not one of the 7 dimensions of behavior, ABA must also ensure that we are able to clearly articulate what it is that we are doing in our services to clients without unfounded assumptions. The treatments don't involve circular reasoning or voodoo. If we abide by this, we are meeting which additional characteristic of ABA? A. Accountable B. Public C. Doable D. Empowering

B. Public Correct: This meets the public characteristic of behavior. We should ensure that there is no mystical or magical explanation for the way our science works. Instead, we should provide clear and transparent explanations (Cooper, et al, p. 18, 2020) that don't rely on appeals to "energies," "chakras," or other made-up constructs. Incorrect: The "accountable" characteristic relates to ensuring we are committed to effectiveness by continuing to measure and adjust our interventions. <> "Doable" relates to ensuring that many people can implement ABA without necessarily being experts in the field. <> The "empowering" characteristic relates to giving practitioners real tools that work. This, in turn, provides confidence to continue.

While walking down the road with your niece, she says "What kind of tree is that over there?" You answer, "Oh, that's a Japanese Maple." This exchange most closely resembles: A. A discrete-trial B. A tact C. A naturalistic teaching arrangement D. Stimulus generalization

C. A naturalistic teaching arrangement Correct: Walking down the road has apparently created an establishing operation for your niece. She "wants" to ask about something that she sees. Her mand tells us this, and it's a good example of a naturalistic teaching arrangement, then. This concept usually concerns manding behavior. Naturalistic teaching arrangements generally involve two things: 1) Creating a rich environment, and 2) noting and responding to motivated behaviors. "Following the learner's lead" is how I like to think of it. Incorrect: A discrete trial has a specific response requirement such as naming a specified tree. This scenario has your niece asking the question; not you. Even if you saw this as a DT, notice that there is no response yet. <> If you label the tree, that WOULD BE a tact. But, you didn't. <> A stimulus generalization example might be your niece labeling yet another Japanese Maple, just like the one she saw earlier. But, again, this isn't what we have here.

Antoinette is an avid bird watcher and nature enthusiast. On a recent trip to a bird sanctuary, she saw a California Condor, a Madagascar Pochard, an American Bald Eagle, and a Golden Pheasant. She noted how much larger the condor was than the other species. She also thought she saw another American Bald Eagle once, but realized that it was the same one from a different viewpoint. Antoinette has demonstrated: A. Stimulus equivalence B. Reflexivity C. Symmetry D. Transitivity

B. Reflexivity Correct: Antoinette matched an American Bald Eagle with that same American Bald Eagle. This is identity matching also known as reflexivity. Reflexivity is the "A-to-A" relation that is derived or as we previously referred to it as stimulus matching (Cooper, et al, p. 455, 2020). Incorrect: Stimulus equivalence is established when reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity are met. A relevant example might be recognizing a Bald Eagle somewhere else, now. <> Symmetry or symmetrical relations are established when A to B is taught and the reverse is derived or vice versa. Antoinette's comparison of the condor and other animals comes close, but to show symmetry she'd have to say that the other animals were smaller than the condor. <> Transitivity is the A to C derived relation. It takes at least three stimuli, and it's the derived or "untaught" relation. Here, an example could be that the pheasant is smaller than the eagle, the eagle is smaller than the condor and, therefore, the pheasant is smaller than the condor. The last statement is the transitive relation.

The graph displays: A. A functional relation B. Ripple effects C. Sequencing effects D. Carry-over effects

B. Ripple effects Correct: Ripple effect can be seen by the baselines of Julias and Alyssa increasing after the implementation of the intervention for Liz. This is also sometimes referred to as vicarious reinforcement or spillover effects. This occurs because other participants see the initial participant receiving reinforcement and change their behavior due to this before the intervention is implemented for them (Cooper, et al, p. 199, 2020). Incorrect: There appears to be some functional relation here, as the behavior increased above baseline when intervening. However, the fact that baseline is changing in an upward trend PRIOR to intervention for two participants, spoils a conclusion. <> Sequencing effects are caused by the sequence of the interventions being implemented in a multi-element or withdraw/reversal design. This is especially obvious in skill acquisition programs. For example if you have 5 interventions to help teach reading, the first one implemented is likely to seem to have the most impact. <> Multiple-baseline designs can only monitor one intervention at a time. They don't have the potential for a behavior momentum to "carry-over" from a previous phase of intervention.

You've just taken over an OBM case from a colleague who left your firm. She was working with and training neurosurgeons to follow a set of safety procedures during surgeries. Unfortunately, she didn't set a mastery criterion, but did record the percentage of procedures completed in the last 8 surgeries. What is the best next course of action, given these data? Session 1 - 0% Session 2 - 50% Session 3 - 80% Session 4 - 75% Session 5 - 85% Session 6 - 90% Session 7 - 100% Session 8 - 70% A. Move the goal to maintenance B. Set mastery criteria as 100% for 4 consecutive surgeries C. Select and implement a new intervention strategy D. Assess the generalization of this goal

B. Set mastery criteria as 100% for 4 consecutive surgeries Correct: I'm assuming that following these safety procedures is important. With that in mind, these data are not good enough. These procedures need to be followed more consistently, or you need to find out why they aren't (such as investigating resistance or difficulty, etc.). This is one of those questions that can be answered by ruling out the other choices. Incorrect: Moving the goal to maintenance suggests that it is met. From the scenario, this doesn't fit. The performance is too low. <> Implementing a new strategy may be valid. However, there are two problems with this. First, we need to investigate before we go changing the strategy. Second, we still need to have an acceptable performance goal in mind. <> It seems like the intervention is taking place in vivo, or in the natural environment (surgery), so we don't need to generalize the training to any other setting.

Otis taught his young son, Ammon, to tie his shoes in three steps: tying a knot, making a bow, and tightening the final knot. Otis began with the final tightening. On the first attempt, Ammon made a loose knot and Otis praised him. The second attempt didn't go well and Otis simply shook his head. On Ammon's third attempt, the knot was better than the first time and Otis smiled proudly at his son. Otis has used: A. A task analysis B. Shaping C. Modeling D. Backward chaining

B. Shaping Correct: Otis is using shaping by reinforcing closer approximations to the terminal behavior. He first reinforced an approximation (praise), then used mild punishment for the second attempt (shaking his head). Finally, Otis offered reinforcement for a "better" attempt than the first one. This differential reinforcement of closer-and-closer or better-and-better behaviors is the hallmark of shaping (Cooper, et al, p. 541, 2020). Incorrect: A task analysis is a process of determining the steps involved in a behavior chain. While we are given three steps to tying shoes, there isn't any discussion of how Otis came up with these. <> Modeling involves demonstrating the skill for the learner. Had Otis tied his shoe to model this behavior, he would be using modeling. We aren't told that modeling is part of what Otis did - although he should. <> This started to sound like backward chaining, as Otis started with the last step. However, we aren't told what he did from there that would still be chaining. Instead, we are given enough information to conclude that he used shaping with this last step of tying shoes.

After conducting a preference assessment you have found that your learner engaged with a toy bear for 1 minute after it was presented, a toy car 30 seconds after presentation, and a cup 15 seconds after presentation. What type of preference assessment was conducted? A. Free-operant preference assessment B. Single stimulus preference assessment C. Paired choice preference assessment D. Multiple stimulus without replacement preference assessment

B. Single stimulus preference assessment Correct: A single stimulus preference assessment was conducted here. We know this, as the reported data is the duration of engagement with an item after it was presented. In a single stimulus preference assessment, we present an item and then record how long it was engaged with (Cooper, et al, p. 274, 2020). Incorrect: If you selected free-operant, you likely did so due to the time of engagement being reported and you missed the "when it was presented" statement. In a free-operant preference assessment, we DO record the duration of engagement, but we do not present items. Instead, the learner is free to move throughout the environment and engage with items at their leisure. <> Paired choice preference assessments present two items and then record the one the learner engaged with, rather than the time they engaged for. <> In a multiple stimulus preference assessment we present an array of items; not just one item.

While attending a group home meeting for a client that you serve, the coordinator of the home has informed you that all residents must participate in animal therapy as it has been shown to reduce problem behaviors. They have asked you to coordinate and create an intervention plan for your client during this time. How should you proceed? A. You should refuse to provide animal therapy B. You should select behaviors to reduce or increase during animal therapy using behavioral approaches C. You should discuss the lack of data surrounding animal therapy with the group home staff D. You should request that your client find a new group home

B. You should select behaviors to reduce or increase during animal therapy using behavioral approaches Correct: We have an ethical responsibility to only participate in behavioral-based interventions, but we also have a responsibility to collaborate with other providers. When these two ethical requirements seem to be in conflict, it is our responsibility to use the code to guide our decision-making. In situations where non-behavioral-based interventions are being used, we should not implement them, though we can find behavioral-based interventions to implement. Often, we can translate goals and interventions in a manner consistent with ABA. We still have a responsibility to provide services to the client so long as the other therapy is not impacting treatment (BACB ethics code 3.06). Incorrect: Animal therapy is not research-supported, but you should attempt to find a way to collaborate using behavioral-based therapies. Just saying "No," may be necessary, but isn't quite enough. <> You can discuss the lack of data surrounding animal therapy, but you must ensure this does not damage the relationship with the group home. Ultimately, you should still find a way to collaborate. <> Requesting the client leave the group home would not be appropriate in this situation, unless the new therapy was severely impacting the client's progress. This answer seems a bit premature and "aggressive."

When implementing a punishment procedure, it proves to be unsuccessful because of sporadic implementation. Punishment must be applied continuously across all relevant settings, and A. implemented at its highest intensity. B. implemented at a sufficient intensity. C. implemented at its lowest intensity. D. implemented at a moderate intensity.

B. implemented at a sufficient intensity. Correct: Punishment must be implemented at a sufficient intensity and the usage of quality punishers must occur. If the intensity is not sufficient, meaning it is too high or too low, it will either cause undue stress to the client or not be effective at all (Cooper, et al, p. 342, 2020). It may make things worse. Incorrect: The highest intensity could lead to an extremely aversive intervention and possibly harm to the client. Don't crank the dial up to 10, just because you can. <> A low intensity might need to be increased if it is not effective. This is a bad situation to be in, as you don't want to increase punishment and shape habituation. <> A moderate intensity is relative. Will moderate be enough? We cannot answer this. Instead, we should implement it at a sufficient magnitude that it will reduce behavior and low enough intensity as to be safe and less aversive.

While presenting at a conference on supervision and training, you describe overcoming poor client outcomes as: A. caused by low-quality supervision B. the impetus for supervision C. behavior-analytic D. a side effect of stakeholder bias

B. the impetus for supervision Correct: The main reason, or impetus, for supervision is to counteract poor client outcomes. The better the quality of supervision, typically the better the outcomes (BACB® supervisor training curriculum 2.0). Incorrect: Poor client outcomes are caused by low-quality supervision, but the question is asking about OVERCOMING poor client outcomes. The answer is the opposite. The better the supervision, typically the better the outcomes (Yes, this is so important we said it twice). <> "Behavior-analytic" is unclear and maybe open to interpretation. If you answered this, read it out loud: "...overcoming poor client outcomes as 'behavior-analytic.'" It doesn't sound right. <> This "stakeholder bias" answer is pure nonsense.

After observing your client in their home, you notice that whenever the client begins to engage in attention-maintained inappropriate vocalizations, the father laughs. Your client's mother reports that the behavior does not occur with her, yet her husband continues to complain that the behavior is occurring. While providing caregiver training, how would you best describe what is occurring? A. "There is still reinforcement being provided to the behavior which is causing it to continue." B. "This is an example of behavioral contrast. In one setting reinforcement is being implemented and in the other we see extinction." C. "The behavior is receiving attention, in the form of laughter, which causes it to continue." D. "Further analysis will need to be conducted to determine why the behavior is occurring."

C . "The behavior is receiving attention, in the form of laughter, which causes it to continue" Correct: When discussing behavioral principles with caregivers we must ensure that we use nontechnical terms. Even terms like reinforcement can be confusing to those not trained in behavior analytic principles. By explaining that attention is maintaining the behavior and where the attention is coming from, you can help create a plan to curb the laughing and truly place the behavior on extinction. Incorrect: Terms like reinforcement, behavioral contrast, and extinction are technical terms that are difficult for those that do not have a behavior analytic background to understand. You can use these terms, but you'll likely need to explain what they mean in layman's terms. <> Saying that further analysis is needed is not accurate, as we know the laughter is maintaining the behavior.

Which of the following is the least reliant upon an establishing operation to increase its effectiveness? A. An unconditioned reinforcer B. A conditioned reinforcer C. A generalized conditioned reinforcer D. A secondary reinforcer

C. A generalized conditioned reinforcer Correct: Generalized conditioned reinforcement can be extremely valuable because it does not require an EO for it to be effective. Think about it this way: even though Elon Musk is a billionaire, he is still working to increase his stockpile of generalized conditioned reinforcement in the form of money (Cooper, et al, p. 264, 2020). You don't generally have to wait to be "hungry for money" in order for it to be reinforcing. Incorrect: An unconditioned reinforcer, like water or sleep are only reinforcers when you have need of them. If you are fully rested and hydrated, these don't work as reinforcers. <> Conditioned reinforcement and secondary reinforcers are the same things. These also rely on an EO to be effective. If there is no EO for a toy car, the desire to work for it will also be absent.

A behavior analyst is interested in tracking and recording a student's incessant hand-flapping behavior. This behavior occurs in a multitude of environments and at seemingly "random" times throughout the day. The analyst would like to select a continuous measurement procedure. Which of the following should they choose? A. Rate B. Frequency C. Duration D. Partial interval recording

C. Duration Correct: Duration is a continuous measure that can be applied to behaviors that occur at high rates. "Incessant" probably qualifies. Since the behavior is occurring frequently, rate or frequency may not accurately track it, while measuring and analyzing increasing or decreasing durations will provide an appropriate way to analyze the data (Cooper, et al, p. 78, 2020). Incorrect: As stated above, rate and frequency are not appropriate for behaviors that occur at high rates as they could create inaccuracies in the reported measures. Think about trying to track someone clapping their hands quickly. It would be tough to accurately measure the behavior with these measurement procedures. <> We can immediately eliminate partial interval recording as it is a discontinuous measure.

It has been a difficult year for Anthony. He has lost a loved one, moved to a new city, and has experienced severe bouts of depression. Anthony has found that he is having difficulty coping and his therapist has recommended that he lessen his workload. As a behavior analyst, what should Anthony do? A. He should discontinue services for half of his clients B. He should seek a second opinion from a different therapist C. He should speak with leadership to transfer some of his caseload D. He should seek a sabbatical until he is capable of providing services

C. He should speak with leadership to transfer some of his caseload Correct: Anthony, with the help of his therapist, has identified that he is unable to provide quality care to his clients. In instances where our mental health is hindering the quality of care, we must take reasonable actions to ensure the care of our clients and our well-being is upheld. In this case, discussing the situation with leadership and trying to transfer clients to ensure that they still have appropriate care (BACB ethics code benefiting others). Incorrect: Discontinuing services will leave clients without care, and should be the last resort in this situation. If there is a way to transfer services and ensure the clients are still receiving services, we should do this. <> This is the same reason a sabbatical would not be appropriate, even though it sounds great. It's an option that may not yet be necessary. <> Anthony is free to seek a second opinion, though ethically this does not relate to the scenario.

During a recent supervision session, you observe a supervisee provide a warning before implementing punishment, instead of implementing the contingent punisher. How should you respond? A. Schedule regular treatment integrity checks with the supervisee B. Provide feedback at a convenient time before the next session C. Interrupt the session to tell the supervisee what you want them to do instead D. Schedule a time to meet with the supervisee and train them on the implementation of punishment

C. Interrupt the session to tell the supervisee what you want them to do instead Correct: Feedback should be implemented immediately even if it is a bit uncomfortable to do so. I've made the assumption that we already trained the supervisee on this procedure, but they are drifting from the plan. Therefore, a little verbal prompt, delivered immediately, makes sense. Feedback is best delivered like eggs, when fresh. If you reacted to the verb "interrupt," I'd say that this, seriously, could take all of five seconds to say "If you see [target bx], deliver punishment immediately. No warnings." Super simple and no big deal. Incorrect: Treatment integrity checks should also be scheduled to ensure you are continuing to monitor the supervisee, but you still must offer feedback to them. This is maybe what to do after you offer feedback and//or retraining. <> Feedback should not wait until the next session. Much like reinforcement, it should be provided as immediately as possible. <> More training might be helpful for the supervisee, but again, after providing immediate feedback.

While hiking through Rainier National Park, a bear crossed the path. Heather looked to her partner Ron and signed "Help!" Ron looked back and said, "Okay, RUN!" Ron's behavior is a(n): A. Tact B. Mand C. Intraverbal D. Echoic

C. Intraverbal Correct: Ron has engaged in intraverbal behavior. Intraverbal behavior is verbal behavior evoked by another's verbal behavior. Since Ron responded to Heather's sign language this is an intraverbal (Cooper, et al, p. 416, 2020). Remember that when Skinner said "verbal," he just meant communication rather than spoken words. Incorrect: Heather's behavior is a mand or a request. <> If Heather saw the bear and said or signed "bear," this would be a tact. A tact is verbal behavior evoked by a nonverbal stimulus and is considered a label. <> Echoic behavior has point-to-point correspondence and formal similarity to the verbal behavior that evokes it which we do not see here. Strictly speaking, we couldn't have an echoic from the sign, but a mimetic if Ron copied the "Help!" sign.

During Meiko's first hurricane season in Florida, he assisted James in putting up hurricane shutters on the house. There are built-in bolts around every window that must be removed and then reattached when the shutter is in place. The bolts are then tightened to secure them. James was sure to teach Meiko that the bolts are old and just enough pressure needs to be used when loosening them or they may strip. James is referring to the: A. Latency of loosening the bolts B. Topography of loosening the bolts C. Magnitude of loosening the bolts D. Behavior chain

C. Magnitude of loosening the bolts Correct: James is referring to the magnitude of the behavior. If the magnitude or intensity is too much, the bolts will strip. If it is too low, the bolts won't unscrew. Therefore, the magnitude must be just right (Cooper, et al, p. 83, 2020). This is the same as intensity. Incorrect: Latency refers to the time from the onset of a stimulus change to when the behavior occurs. A latency may be the time from when James says "Let's put up the shutters" to when they begin to put them up. <> Topography is what the behavior looks like. Using an impact driver involves grabbing the drill, holding it to the bolt with the bit touching the bolt, and then pulling the trigger. <> This sounds like a behavior chain to complete the task, but that's not what James is focused on. Instead, he wants to make sure that we don't apply too much pressure. He's discussing the magnitude of our behavior.

You have created a long-term goal to increase social interactions with your client. Currently, your client enjoys time on the swing, time on the slide, blocks, and toy cars. During the first week of your intervention, your client engages in zero instances of social engagement. You then decide to have some peers sitting on your client's favorite swing at recess. After this, you record three instances of social engagement each day. You have effectively: A. Used positive reinforcement B. Used a punishment procedure C. Manipulated MOs D. Used an extinction procedure

C. Manipulated MOs Correct: By placing students on the swing, you are limiting access to the swing and increasing the value of the swing as your learner does not have free access to it, but has to wait for others to leave. This has resulted in your learner requesting more for the swing. This most clearly represents manipulating MOs. The true key here is that you manipulated the environment and the behavior occurred. Manipulating MOs is the only choice that represents an antecedent intervention.(Cooper, et al, p. 373, 2020). Incorrect: Since positive reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are consequence interventions we know that these do not fit. For this to be reinforcement we would need to know what the consequence of the behavior is. This is the same for punishment or extinction. We only know that the environment is manipulated before the behavior, and can reasonably assume that this change caused our client to change their MO.

You work for a large multi-state ABA corporation that services thousands of clients and employs hundreds of staff members. You have recently seen an advertisement that the company published, guaranteeing a 50% reduction in severe behaviors for any and all clients that receive therapy from them. What is your responsibility after seeing this statement? A. Report the organization to the BACB B. Send an email to members of the leadership team asking for the ad to be retracted C. Nothing. If the company wants to offer this guarantee, they can. D. Nothing. The organization is not governed by the BACB

C. Nothing. If the company wants to offer this guarantee, they can. Correct: As behavior analysts, we have a responsibility to our profession. If unethical behavior occurs, we attempt to resolve the issue. The statement made by your organization here is one that can be measured and applied. If they want to guarantee a measurable result, that's perfectly acceptable (BACB Ethical code 5.04). Incorrect: Sending an email seems like the most appropriate step, IF there were an ethical violation. In that case, we would want to bring the ethical concern to the person(s) who can rectify the situation. However, this promise or guarantee is one that the company can make. <> There is no need to report the agency to the BACB. If there were, however, the board might be contacted after attempts to directly address the problem have failed. Even then, it's individuals that the BACB credentials, rather than whole organizations. <> The organization is not governed by the BACB - that's true. However, any credentialed behaviorists have an ethical obligation to the board and the profession.

Mr. Hammer's children, Jasmine and Ricky, never think there will be enough to eat on Friday Night Pizza Night. Whenever the pizza box is empty, Jasmine starts eating pizza off of Ricky's plate. Ricky cries, pouts and kicks the table. Mr. Hammer slaps Jasmine's wrist when he sees this. She stops. Mr. Hammer sends Ricky to his room for his tantrum. Mrs. Hammer says, "That's it! NO more pizza nights, we are done!" Jasmine's "food grabbing" behavior has received: A. Positive Reinforcement B. Negative Reinforcement C. Positive Punishment D. Negative Punishment

C. Positive Punishment 1) Which behavior are we talking about? Jasmine's "food grabbing." 2) Is her behavior increasing/maintaining or decreasing? Jasmine stopped grabbing food. 3) As a result of the behavior, is something being added or removed? Jasmine's dad adds a slap on the wrist.

Sal and Elsie fight constantly. Their mom, Jen, is at her wits end and feels like she is about to lose her mind. She will do anything to escape the constant fighting. Jen decides that every time Sal hits Elsie, he will have an extra chore. Sal will need to complete the extra chore in order to have access to his phone. Sal has been hitting a little less, but he has now taken to taunting Elsie when Jen is out of ear shot. Sal's extra chore is: A . Positive Reinforcement B . Negative Reinforcement C . Positive Punishment D . Negative Punishment

C. Positive Punishment 1) Which behavior are we talking about? Sal's hitting 2) Is his behavior increasing/maintaining or decreasing? Sal is hitting less (decreasing, therefore = punishment). 3) As a result of the behavior, is something being added or removed? Sal receives an extra chore when he hits (added = positive). The focus here is on the "hitting" behavior and the consequences of that behavior. The "taunting" behavior is mentioned as a distraction. The consequence of taunting isn't mentioned.

Zoe is a horrible nail biter. She bites her nails when she is happy, sad, nervous, excited or scared. Her nails are always a bloody mess. Her mother is very concerned about the risk for infection and the "utterly vile" look of Zoe's nails. After watching a late night infomercial on TV for "BITING BE GONE" she decides to purchase it for Zoe. When the product arrives, Zoe's mom paints all of Zoe's nails with "BITING BE GONE." The first time Zoe starts to bite her nails she gags, spits and runs to the sink for a glass of water. She tells her mother that it is the "worst taste ever." Zoe is afraid to bite her nails anymore because she says it makes her "want to puke." Zoe stops biting her nails. This is an example of______. A. Positive Reinforcement B. Negative Reinforcement C. Positive Punishment D. Negative Punishment

C. Positive Punishment 1) Which behavior are we talking about? Zoe's nail biting 2) Is her behavior increasing/maintaining or decreasing? Zoe's nail biting behavior stopped. 3) As a result of the behavior, is something being added or removed? When Zoe bites her nails, she receives (added) a bitter taste.

Caesar was contracted to help his neighbor train their dog. Caesar was sure to use the principles of behaviorism when doing so. This best fits which form of behaviorism? A. EAB B. ABA C. Professional practice D. Determinism

C. Professional practice Correct: Professional practice is taking the principles of behaviorism and implementing them in real-world situations such as in animal training or business management. Incorrect: EAB is the experimental analysis of behavior and is the branch of behaviorism studied in the laboratory setting. For this to be the answer, we would want Caesar to be conducting an experiment on a specific aspect of behavior. <> ABA is the use of behaviorism with applied behaviors such as handwashing or toileting, but also includes an analysis of data and adjustment of plans based on this information. <> Determinism, simply put, states all behavior has a logical reason for occurring.

Roberto is a behavior analyst who grew up in a small town. He has recently begun working with a family in inner-city Detroit. Roberto has found that he is fearful and somewhat judgemental when driving through the family's neighborhood. The family has reported great progress since beginning to work with Roberto. What if anything needs to be done in this scenario? A. Roberto needs to discuss his biases with the family B. Roberto should transition the client to an analyst without biases C. Roberto should continue care as normal D. Roberto needs to attend a cultural competency training

C. Roberto should continue care as normal Correct: Roberto has identified that he has some biases, and he has not allowed these biases to impact the treatment of his client - at least we aren't told that this is a problem. Since he has recognized and not allowed this to impact treatment, there is nothing further he needs to do. If he finds that these biases are impacting the treatment of his client, he should address them (BACB ethics code 1.07). Incorrect: Please, let's all admit that we have biases. It's a product of reinforcement and experience. Addressing them directly and honestly is the only way to guard against negative impacts from them. <> There is no need to discuss the biases with the family or transition the client as Roberto's biases have not impacted the treatment of the client. <> A cultural competency training might help Roberto in the long run, but is not ethically required at this point.

When we renew our annual passes to Disney, we agree to abide by their behavioral expectations and to refrain from engaging in certain other behaviors. Disney is using: A. Reinforcement B. Punishment C. Rules D. Rule-governed behavior

C. Rules Correct: The passholder agreement is a rule. A rule is a verbal statement of the consequences of a behavior. Essentially, Disney is saying or implying that if you break the rules your pass will be revoked. They also are stating or implying that if you abide by the rules, you will maintain your entry privileges. Incorrect: None of "our" behavior is here, so we cannot choose reinforcement or punishment. If you break the rules, and are kicked out, then this might be considered punishment. <> Similarly, if you agree to the rules and then go to Disney without incident, your reinforcement is continued access to the park. This scenario is just discussing the agreement to the rule, though. <> Rule-governed behavior is what you are doing by following what the agreement says (if you follow what it says); not what Disney is using.

Bart engages in SIB by touching the stove when it is hot. He has been hospitalized three times after engaging in this behavior. His BCBA has noted that it is automatically maintained and has requested the family to switch to induction burners. An induction burner immediately cools when there is no pot or pan on it. The BCBA has suggested the family implement: A. Response cost B. Response blocking C. Sensory extinction D. Respondent extinction

C. Sensory extinction Correct: Bart is still able to touch the stove - i.e., engage in the bx - but it will not produce the sensory input of a burn because of the switch to an induction burner. Sensory extinction is the removal of reinforcement for a behavior maintained by sensory/direct/automatic reinforcement (Cooper, et al, p. 586, 2020). Incorrect: Sensory extinction is regularly confused with response blocking. Response blocking prevents the individual from engaging in the behavior, and so prevents them from contacting reinforcement. Here the behavior is touching the stove which Bart can still do. That is, his response was not blocked. <> Response cost is a punishment procedure that would require Bart to lose an appetitive stimulus if he touches the stove. Taking away his accumulated tablet time when he does this, for instance. <> Respondent extinction is the process of a conditioned stimulus losing its ability to cause a behavior - losing its conditioning - due to its failing to result in the originally-paired unconditioned/conditioned stimulus occurring. For example, Pavlov's bell ringing is no longer paired with meat presentation. Eventually, the bell no longer elicits salivation.

You have begun the FBA process for a client that is reported to engage in SIB at near-constant rates while at home. After interviewing caregivers, you observe the client at home and record zero instances of the behavior. What might be the next step? A. Conduct an FA to determine the function of the SIB B. Observe the client in a school setting C. Teach caregivers to conduct scatterplot recording D. Explain that this is not a socially significant behavior for this individual

C. Teach caregivers to conduct scatterplot recording Correct: This is a tough situation. On one hand, there is a potentially dangerous behavior being reported. On the other hand, you have observed and did not see the behavior. There could be many reasons for this. One major reason is that verbal reports of amounts or the times that behaviors occur can be misleading, as they are more subjective than direct methods of recording. If we teach the caregivers to use scatterplot recording, we can get a better idea of when the behavior occurs and then schedule an observation accordingly. Another alternative would be having the parents video record the behavior when they notice it. Incorrect: This scenario does not report that behavior occurs in the school setting. This isn't a bad idea to check on, if you haven't been able to put your eyes on (see) the behavior yourself and you are told that it also occurs at school. However, we aren't told this and we can try to get the parents to more accurately record first. <> Before conducting an FA, especially on potentially dangerous behavior, we want to observe the behavior and determine what type of FA to conduct. Without observing the behavior, it would be difficult to modify the FA to fit the behavior and we don't have a good definition of what the behavior even is. <> If we set up multiple observations and possibly even ask the caregivers to video record the behavior and we still do not see it, then it may be time to explain that the behavior is occurring either too infrequently or not at all. In this case, we would be unable to intervene due to the lack of social significance. However, we should NOT decide that the behavior doesn't exist... yet.

Cassidy tends to forget her textbook at home when she heads to lecture. In response, she has started placing her textbook on the front seat of her car each day when she arrives home. Cassidy is using: A. A response prompt B. A redundancy prompt C. Self-management D. Reinforcement

C/ Self-management Correct: Cassidy has used self-management strategies to curb her forgetful behavior. Self-management is the implementation of behavioral principles or practices of yourself. This can include environmental modifications like Cassidy made, or more intrusive methods of prompting or reinforcement. (Cooper, et al, p. 685, 2020). Incorrect: Response prompts are verbal, modeling, or physical and they act on a specific behavior. Had Cassidy written on her hand, "DO NOT FORGET YOUR TEXTBOOK", this would be a verbal response prompt. <> Stimulus prompts act directly on a stimulus and include movement, positional, or redundancy. Cassidy did place her textbook more conspicuously. This would be considered a positional prompt, rather than redundant. Had Cassidy placed her textbook in a bright yellow bag, this might be a redundancy prompt. <> We do not know if Cassidy is delivering reinforcement. If we were told that she was relieved (reinforcement) to remember her textbook the next day, we'd say that her behavior received (negative) reinforcement. We DO know that she manipulated the environment before the next opportunity for grabbing her textbook and going to class. That's why this answer is an environmental manipulation.

Mehar started and ended most days with a hot cup of tea. She invited a friend over to "Netflix and chill." Her friend got up and offered to get her something, to which Mehar said "Could I have a cup of tea, please." What kind of contingency is this? A. A dependent group contingency B. An interdependent contingency C. An automatically mediated contingency D. A socially mediated contingency

D. A socially mediated contingency Correct: Mehar often made her own tea - an automatic contingency. This time, though, her friend is providing the reinforcer (tea) at her request. It's actually her request that is being reinforced (we think). Incorrect: A dependent group contingency would reward all members of the group when just a subset of those members met the contingency. This just isn't a group contingency at all. <> An interdependent group contingency would require all members of a group to meet a contingency, but that's not happening here, either. <> If Mehar were getting her own tea, we would know that this is an automatically-mediated contingency.

Each of the following is a reason to use a graphic display of behavior EXCEPT: A. These serve as a judgemental aid when analyzing behavior change B. Graphic displays serve as a conservative method for determining the significance of behavior change C. Graphs help facilitate the communication of behavior change D. Any graphic display can be universally used

D. Any graphic display can be universally used Correct: There are seven major reasons to use graphic displays as found on page 125 in the Cooper book (3rd edition). Of those seven reasons, using them as a judgmental aid, allowing them to serve as a conservative method for measuring behavior change, and facilitating the communication of behavior change are three of these. Incorrect: Analyzing data, especially graphs, IS how we understand whether behavior has changed or not. <> Our science is conservative in analysis BECAUSE we don't use statistical comparisons. If you can't "see" a difference in behavior change on an appropriate graph, then the behavior did not change. <> A relevant graph can explain behavior WAY better than a thousand words could. <> Though there is a graph that can be used with any behavior we choose to measure, each graph cannot be universally used. For example, using a cumulative record with a behavior that you want to see the ups and downs of the behavior would be a mistake (Cooper, et al. p. 124, 2020).

After conducting a series of direct and indirect assessments, you hypothesized that the function of your client's behavior was attention with a secondary function of access. During an analog assessment, the behavior did not occur in any condition. If you suspect that the behavior function is dual-maintained, what should you do next? A. Conduct a latency-based FA B. Continue direct and indirect observation methods C. Conduct a trial-based FA D. Conduct a synthesized FA

D. Conduct a synthesized FA Correct: When a behavior is hypothesized to be dual-functioned or suspected to have two functions that could equally be controlling the behavior, a synthesized FA is a viable option to determine if the two functions together are controlling the behavior. In the study cited in Cooper, when a typical FA failed to produce a clear function, a synthesized FA showed that the behavior occurred when both of the functions were implemented simultaneously. (Cooper, et al, p. 634, 2020). Continuing the FA, or reconducting it after manipulating MOs, etc., is also a viable option here, too. But, it's not one of the options! <> Continuing direct/indirect observation isn't as good as directly manipulating the function. <> A trial-based FA is great to utilize in the natural environment, but would not be helpful with dual-maintained behavior. <> Latency-based FAs are used when we are concerned about the bx occurring at all. That's because we would only allow the target behavior to occur once. Anyway, this isn't a concern in this scenario.

Saturn is a 14-year-old diagnosed with ASD. Her BCBA created an intervention plan that reinforced Saturn whenever she engaged in appropriate peer conversation that included at least 4 verbal exchanges. Saturn has continuously engaged in peer conversations and received ample reinforcement for doing so. Saturn's behavior is: A. Negatively reinforced B. Punished C. Rule-governed D. Contingency-shaped

D. Contingency-shaped Correct: The BCBA has implemented a program in which Saturn is reinforced when she engages in peer conversations. She has experienced the reinforcement or the contingency for this behavior. Contingency-shaped behavior is behavior that has directly experienced the contingency or is likely to in this environment (Cooper, et al, p. 42, 2020). Incorrect: We do not have enough information, in order to determine if the reinforcement is positive or negative. It might be negatively reinforced if we were told that Saturn finishes the 4 social exchanges quickly and then withdraws. <> The behavior increases, allowing us to eliminate punishment. <> Since Saturn experienced the contingency, we know that this is not rule-governed. Rule-governed behavior is behavior that is under the control of a verbal statement or a rule but has not experienced the consequence or contingency of that behavior, or is unlikely to in the moment.

Which of the following should NOT be done when withdrawing a token system? A. Pair the delivery of a token with praise B. Increase the responses required to receive a token C. Decrease the duration of time that the token system is implemented for D. Decrease the number of natural environment activities and privileges as backup reinforcers

D. Decrease the number of natural environment activities and privileges as backup reinforcers Correct: When withdrawing a token system we should INCREASE the number of activities and privileges that serve as backup items that would be found in the natural environment. This is akin to shifting from contrived to natural reinforces. We want items that would naturally occur to serve as backup reinforcers, instead of items that are contrived (Cooper, et al, p. 663, 2020). Incorrect: When withdrawing a token system, we should pair the token with praise. This provides the opportunity to withdraw or decrease the tokens. <> Increasing the response requirement for the tokens is a good way to begin providing less tokens. <> Decreasing the amount of time the token system is in place is one way to fade a token system. One could also increase the price of more desirable backup items, and fade the physical tokens over time.

When a learner is leaving the room you say, "Bye." The learner responds by waving excitedly. The learner's behavior is: A. Codic behavior B. Duplic behavior C. Mimetic behavior D. Intraverbal behavior

D. Intraverbal behavior Correct: Intraverbal behavior is responding to a verbal stimulus with verbal behavior. Hand gestures such as waving can be described as verbal behavior (Cooper, et al, p. 416, 2020). Verbal behavior includes all kinds of communication. Incorrect: Codic has point-to-point correspondence but not formal similarity and includes transcription and reading text. In simpler terms, it's saying the same thing, but in a different way. <> Duplic behavior has point-to-point correspondence and formal similarity. It includes motor imitation, echoic behavior, and copying text. In other words, it's saying the same thing in the same way. <> Mimetic is another example of duplic behavior. It's copying a motor mannerism, like a thumbs-up.

Mercedes has worked with you for 2 years as your direct supervisee. Over the past 3 months, Mercedes has stopped implementing punishment procedures. How might you address this issue? A. Meet with Mercedes to ask how recent policy changes have affected her performance B. Place Mercedes on a performance improvement plan C. Implement BST training sessions with Mercedes regularly D. Determine the function of Mercedes' behavior

D. Determine the function of Mercedes' behavior Correct: The first step to addressing the issue is to determine the function of Mercedes's behavior. To do this, we could observe her sessions and ask her why she has stopped implementing punishment. This information could then be used to design an intervention that fits the function. Incorrect: Meeting with Mercedes and interviewing her is a good idea, but it shouldn't be just about policy changes and it shouldn't just be asking. We need a little more investigation into the problem. <> Placing her on a PIP is a (likely) punishment procedure that should be reserved for after reinforcement is attempted. <> The scenario says she stopped implementing punishment, meaning she has done so before. If she has implemented it previously, we should have used BST to teach her in the first place. Using BST again, won't be effective if she already knows how to implement the procedure. Instead, we need to understand WHY she stopped.

While attempting to determine the function of a client's behavior, you note that the behavior typically occurs when the caregiver is on the phone. As a result, the caregiver sends the client to their room. The behavior continues in the client's room and the caregiver typically goes outside where they can no longer hear the behavior occurring. Based on the reported data, what is the likely function of the caregiver's behavior? A. Attention B. Sensory C. Tangible D. Escape

D. Escape Correct: The caregiver sends the client to their room and goes outside. Both of these allow them to escape (from the client's behavior). The clearest function of the caregiver's behavior is escape (Cooper, et al, p. 629, 2020). Incorrect: The caregiver's behavior would be attention-maintained, if they were sending the client to their room and receiving attention as a consequence. <> Sensory-maintained behaviors generally occur across antecedent conditions. Here we only see it occurring under certain conditions - i.e., when the client's behavior occurs. <> Access or tangibly-maintained behaviors occur to access an item or event, which we do not see here.

Tammy engages in a variety of maladaptive behaviors that are access-maintained. The magnitude of these behaviors is relatively low. However, you would like to minimize the occurrence of these behaviors when determining potential reinforcers. Which of the following preference assessments should you conduct? A. Multiple stimulus with replacement B. Single stimulus C. Paired choice D. Free-operant

D. Free-operant Correct: When a behavior is access-maintained and we want to minimize the occurrences of that behavior, we can utilize a free-operant preference assessment. In a free-operant preference assessment, we are not requiring the learner to terminate access to any items, thereby preventing access-maintained behaviors from occurring. Instead, the learner moves on to a new item when they are no longer interested in the previous item (Cooper, et al, p. 273, 2020). Incorrect: Imagine using each of these other answers. MSWR would remove an item from the client and put it back in the array. For this time, access-maintained tantrums might occur. With a single stimulus presented at a time, the same problem is apparent: you have to remove the item from the client in order to present the next. The same is true for paired choice.

During her Psy. D program, Joanna, selected early assessment and diagnosis of autism as her research area. She read texts, interviewed content area experts, and listened to podcasts while she gathered data to begin her study. We can best classify Joanna's behaviors as a(n): A. Topographical response class B. Temporal stimulus class C. Formal stimulus class D. Functional response class

D. Functional response class Correct: Each of Joanna's behaviors served the same function: to gather data for her research area. Thus, they create a functional response class. A response class is a group of responses that share either the function or form. Joanna's all shared the same function (Cooper, et al, p. 27, 2020). Incorrect: A topographical response class is a group of responses that share the same topography. In simple terms, they look the same. Watching TV, watching Youtube videos, and watching reels all look similar, making them a topographical response class. They all involve watching. <> We know we are discussing Joanna's actions or behaviors, which immediately allows us to eliminate the two stimulus class options. Be sure to read the full answer choices and make it easier on yourself by eliminating what you can. A formal stimulus class is a group of stimuli that share size, shape, color, intensity, or spatial relationships. <> Temporal stimulus classes are stimuli that are grouped as antecedents or consequences, such as "before this" or "between the hours of ..."

You have identified several behaviors that have social significance and seem to be impeding the client's ability to transition to a more normative environment. You have also identified a few critical skill deficits that the client has. Which of the following questions is LEAST important when prioritizing these behaviors for intervention? A. How many opportunities will the individual have to use the new behavior B. What will be the relative importance of this target behavior to future skill development and independent functioning? C. Will this new behavior produce reinforcement for significant others? D. How difficult will changing this target behavior be?

D. How difficult will changing this target behavior be? Correct: After determining a pool of potential target behaviors to increase or decrease there are 9 questions we should ask in relative order to help us determine which to work on first. Those 9 questions are as follows: 1) "Does this behavior pose any danger to the client or others?" 2) "How many opportunities will the person have to use this new behavior?" or "How often does this problem behavior occur?" 3) "How long-standing is the problem or skill deficit?" 4) "Will changing this behavior produces higher rates of reinforcement for the person?" 5) "What will be the relative importance of this target behavior to future skill development and independent functioning?" 6) "Will changing this behavior reduce negative or unwanted attention from others?" 7) "Will this new behavior produce reinforcement for significant others?" 8) "How likely is success in changing the target behavior?" 9) "How much will it cost to change this behavior?" Based on this matrix, the likelihood of success is the least important question to ask (Cooper, et al, p. 64-65, 2020). In fact, I'd go so far as to say that this isn't quite the right question. It's more about how significant the modifications to the environment must be in order to affect change, or "How difficult will it be to change this behavior?" Anyway, this is LEAST important.

Which of the verbal operants should be reserved until the learner has developed a strong foundation of skills? A. Mand B. Tact C. Echoic D. Intraverbal

D. Intraverbal Correct: Intraverbals, due to their relatively complex nature, are typically the last verbal operant that we teach. Mands are usually the first verbal operant that we teach due to their ability to help the learner communicate their wants and needs. Echoics and tacts are generally taught after mands, but not necessarily in a particular order (Cooper, et al, p. 429, 2020).

Sal and Elsie fight constantly. Their mom, Jen, is at her wits end and feels like she is about to lose her mind. She will do anything to escape the constant fighting. Jen decides that every time Sal hits Elsie, he will have an extra chore. Sal will need to complete the extra chore in order to have access to his phone. Sal has been hitting a little less, but he has now taken to taunting Elsie when Jen is out of ear shot. Restricting access to Sal's phone is: A. Positive Reinforcement B. Negative Reinforcement C. Positive Punishment D. Negative Punishment

D. Negative Punishment 1) Which behavior are we talking about? Sal's hitting 2) Is his behavior increasing/maintaining or decreasing? Sal is hitting less (decreasing, therefore = punishment). 3) As a result of the behavior, is something being added or removed? Sal's phone access is restricted when he hits (removed = negative). The focus here is on the "hitting" behavior and the consequences of that behavior. The "taunting" behavior is mentioned as a distraction. The consequence of taunting isn't mentioned.

Summer makes amazing sourdough bread, she uses the same recipe and brand of ingredients. Usually she bakes a loaf per day and it gets gobbled up. Her local store has discontinued her usual flour brand so she purchased flour from the the local flour mill. She has continued to use the exact same recipe, but the loaves are dense and gummy. Her family says it tastes great, but now there is always leftover bread. Making bread is no longer quite as fun for Summer, she now only bakes every other day. Summer's baking behavior is an example of_____. A. Positive Reinforcement B. Negative Reinforcement C. Positive Punishment D. Negative Punishment

D. Negative Punishment 1) Which behavior are we talking about? Summer's 2) Is their behavior increasing/maintaining or decreasing? Summer's behavior is decreasing. 3) As a result of the behavior, is something being added or removed? Her families gobbling and praise has been removed.

Ursula wanted to steal Ariel's voice and attempted everything in her power to do so. Ariel did not take kindly to the trickery that Ursala brought upon her. Ariel had her father, King Neptune, strike Ursula down anytime she attempted to steal her voice. Ariel's behavior is likely maintained by: A. Positive punishment B. Positive reinforcement C. Negative punishment D. Negative reinforcement

D. Negative Reinforcement Correct: We are looking at Ariel's behavior, which seems to maintain as she does this ANYTIME Ursula attempts to steal her voice. This means that her behavior is reinforced. From here, we can see that she is getting her father to help her escape or avoid Ursala's dirty tricks. The behavior here is negatively reinforced. Negative reinforcement is best categorized as escape or avoidance of an aversive stimulus (Cooper, et al, p. 287, 2020). Incorrect: Positive reinforcement is the addition of an appetitive stimulus (something you want) to increase the future frequency of a behavior. What happened in this scenario is the removal of an aversive stimulus, though. That's why it's not positive reinforcement. <> This cannot be punishment either, as the behavior maintains. It would only be punishment if Ariel's behavior decreased. Further, if it were punishment, we'd need to see something aversive added (positive punishment) or something appetitive taken away (negative punishment), but we don't see that either.

You were recently contracted to teach the Siena Heights University Football team how to tackle an opposing player using the proper form. This is in order to reduce the risk of a head or neck injury. After implementing an SR+ and shaping procedure, you report that for every 12 tackles, 10 of are made with the proper form. You have effectively reported, which? A. Trials-to-criterion B. Rate C. Duration D. Percentage

D. Percentage Correct: By reporting the total number of correct instances of the behavior, as well as the total number of opportunities, you have reported the percentage of the behavior. Percentage is a derivative measure found by combining the same dimensional qualities such as count over total count or duration over total duration (Cooper, et al, p. 80, 2020). And, yes, you should have 30 opportunities. If you have less, just be cautious about your interpretation. Incorrect: Trials-to-criterion is another derivative measure often confused with percentage. The key difference is that trials-to-criterion reports how many trials/attempts/sessions it took for mastery to be met. Had we reported that it took 10 trials for the team to learn the proper form, this would have been trial-to-criterion. <> This is clearly not a rate or duration as we have no time metric reported. You gotta have that for either of those.

You have recently begun working with a new organization. After finishing the training process you have been given four new clients. When looking through their referral packets, you are seeking to better understand all of the following EXCEPT: A. Medical variables that could be impacting the behavior B. Items that could serve as potential reinforcers C. Educational placement and progress D. Putative novel behaviors to be intervened on

D. Putative novel behaviors to be intervened on Correct: At the onset of treatment we review records that relate to medical variables, and historical data. This history can include what the client has liked, as well as educational placements and progress. In brief, we want to learn what contingencies target behaviors have encountered and what happened as a result. Incorrect: We are not seeking to identify potential novel behaviors from this review. Our job is to address the concerns of the client, caregivers, and stakeholders in intervening on behaviors that are currently present. This may in turn help prevent novel behaviors from occurring, but we are not seeking behaviors to work on at this stage.

Mary enjoys something interesting about the holiday season: cracking chestnuts. There are always too many nuts to crack, but Mary likes using her parents' life-size nutcracker, and, against her dentist's suggestion, she even cracks them with her teeth sometimes. Mary has demonstrated: A. Stimulus control B. Maintenance C. Stimulus generalization D. Response generalization

D. Response Generalization Correct: Mary is engaging in functionally equivalent responses to open a chestnut. The stimulus is a chestnut and how she opens them changes each time. That is, same stimulus, different - but functionally equivalent behaviors. This is response generalization or response induction. Incorrect: Stimulus control might be Mary cracking a chestnut whenever she sees one. An uncracked shell would have stimulus control over her cracking behavior. It sounds like this is somewhat true, but it isn't the best answer. This is because I made a point to say that she doesn't crack ALL the nuts, but also that the scenario more clearly and specifically mentions two different ways that she does this activity. <> Maintenance is engaging in a behavior after some or all of the intervention is removed. If Mary is taught to crack chestnuts this year and demonstrates this skill next year, we can say it has been maintained. <> Stimulus generalization is engaging in the same response across multiple stimuli. If Mary "cracks it" no matter what she's given: chestnuts, walnuts, acorns or grapes, this would demonstrate stimulus generalization.

Sam is finishing up her Ph.D. program and is required to defend her thesis. She has an overwhelming fear of speaking in front of crowds and has petitioned her advisor to allow her to submit a video defense of her thesis. Sam is likely doing this to access: A. Automatic negative reinforcement B. Automatic positive reinforcement C. Social positive reinforcement D. Social negative reinforcement

D. Social negative reinforcement Correct: Sam is attempting to escape the situation by submitting a video defense of the behavior. Social negative reinforcement is also known as escape-maintained behavior or behavior that you engage in to escape an interaction or aversive event or stimuli; the reinforcement is conferred by another person. Here, it's the thesis panel that may or may not give the reinforcement (Cooper, et al, p. 629, 2020). Incorrect: Automatic negative and positive fall under the umbrella of automatically maintained behavior. Automatic positive is gaining reinforcement by yourself - no one else needed - while automatic negative is typically considered pain attenuation/avoidance. This is also by oneself. Neither of these is apparent in this scenario. <> Social positive reinforcement is attention-maintained. It requires someone else to offer the reinforcer. If she wanted to receive something (instead of getting out of something) from the thesis committee, this might be attention-maintained.

Let's say you were tasked with investigating whether a family-owned car dealership was cheating on their taxes. Which of these actions would be the most valid? A. Interview the owner, their family and associates about income and expenses. B. Use GPS tracking to see where the owner has been over the last few months. C. Estimate profits by counting the cars sold. D. Task two people to review profits independently.

D. Task two people to review profits independently. Correct: Naive observers help improve validity as they allow you to determine if your operational definition needs to be changed or if it is relatively good (Cooper, et al, p. 102, 2020). The "naive" term refers to observers who are independent. In this example, if I review profits and you do too, but we do it separately, this will lead to more confidence if we get the same answer. Incorrect: The first main threat to the validity of a measure is that an indirect measure is being used, as this can lead to inaccuracies in the data. An interview only tells you what the owner and others are willing and able to tell you about profits, rather than direct records of sales. <> The second path to invalidity is when a wrong or an unrelated dimension of the behavior is being measured. Tracking where someone went might help you determine that the person went to a lot of jewelry stores, for instance, but it won't answer what they were doing and how this relates to the question of cheating. <> Finally, if artifacts have been produced, this tells us that your measurement procedure missed instances of the behavior and/or created inaccuracies in the measurement that may impact the way it is analyzed. Artifacts are caused by estimates and indirect measures. Counting cars may give you a rough estimate of profits, but you don't know how much profit was made with each sale, unless you look.

Which of the following does NOT need to be demonstrated before implementing imitation training? A. The learner attends to a speaker B. The learner demonstrates prerequisite skills C. The learner looks at objects D. The learner has previously accessed reinforcement

D. The learner has previously accessed reinforcement Correct: The automacy of reinforcement rule tells us that an individual does not need to understand or have experienced reinforcement, in order for it to be effective. Before implementing imitation procedures, it is recommended that a learner be able to do what might be asked of them, look at the instructor, and look at objects (Cooper, et al, p. 530, 2020).

The most accurate way to evaluate employee performance is which? A. To compare that employee's performance with that of other employees B. To utilize a caregiver social validity survey C. To interview the supervisee and graph their responses D. To visually analyze their performance data compared to standards

D. To visually analyze their performance data compared to standards Correct: When monitoring employee performance we want to ensure that we are conducting direct observations, taking data, and graphing the data of our employee's performance. We should take a behavior-analytic approach to performance monitoring and do essentially what we would do with a client (BACB supervisor training curriculum 2.0). Incorrect: Comparing performance with other employees would give us a comparative sample. However, it would not determine if our employee has increased their performance or not, or even whether it's adequate compared to our standards. <> Social validity surveys are great, but they are indirect measures and more subjective than analyzing data. This goes for interviews as well.

Which of the following is most likely a primary punisher? A. Having work added after making a mistake B. Receiving a lecture when you arrive home late C. Being fined 100 dollars for speeding D. Wearing headphones that are on full blast

D. Wearing headphones that are on full blast Correct: A primary punisher is a naturally punishing stimulus. It's unconditioned. These do not require an EO to be effective and can include light, sound, temperature, painful stimulation, and other stimuli. Wearing headphones that are turned all the way up likely would cause pain or even hearing damage (Cooper, et al, p. 329, 2020). You don't need to learn to find this to be too much noise. Incorrect: Added work is an overcorrection procedure but would not be naturally punishing. The work would need to be conditioned as a punisher. <> Lectures also are not naturally punishing. For attention-maintained behavior, they might even serve as positive reinforcement. <> A fine, though terrible, is not a primary or unconditioned punisher. Money has to be conditioned in the first place. Loss of money doesn't mean anything to a baby or someone unfamiliar with the concept.