Theology History - TTBE 519 Final Exam - Dr. Naidu - Biola

e. What is the two-fold knowledge of God?

"Two-fold knowledge of God" (duplex cognitio Dei) a. There is a knowledge of God as creator. (1) This knowledge comes both from natural revelation and from Scripture. (2) This knowledge is accessible to pagans and Christians alike, but is not saving. b. There is the special knowledge of God as redeemer. (1) The knowledge of God as creator is not enough. (2) Only the knowledge of God as redeemer is saving. c. This two-fold distinction works architecturally in the Institutes as a division between books I and II. Calvin moves from considering God as creator to God as Redeemer.

j. Who was Ulrich Zwingli?

- 1484: born into peasant farmer family active in politics in the Swiss canton of St. Gaul (St. Gallen) - Father was a shepherd and magistrate and decided to educate his son for the priesthood - Influenced by the rise of humanism, and its emphasis on returning to the original sources - Memorized Paul's letters in Greek - Began to oppose the indulgence system and rampant monolatry at Pilgrim shrine of Einsiedein. - Became preaching pastor of the Great Cathedral in Zurich - Warned the town and church officials that he would preach through the entire New Testament and preached in 6 years and he would never be the same. - 1519 A terrible plague swept through Zurich leaving 2000 people dead, Zwingli nearly died and emerged as a changed man. Zwingli's legacy: "Do something bold for God's sake" - Reformed church practice and the city of Zurich. - Abolished all traditional / religious vestiges from the RC church - Church and state linked. - Christian community exercised its authority through elected civil govt. acting on the authority of the Bible - Acceptance of Zwinglian principles paved the way for Reformation in other cantons of Switzerland - Sola Scriptura was his battle cry! - The Bible was studied in its original languages.

i. - What is the difference between the monergistic view of salvation and synergistic view of salvation? - What is the relationship between grace and freewill in the former and latter positions?

- Augustin: - Monergistic view: God alone - Salvation totally and causally of God. - Pelagius: - Monergistic view: Man alone - Salvation totally and causally of man. - Synod of Orange (Semi-Augustinianism): - Synergism view: GOD and Man. - Salvation originates in God and proceeds by God and Man. - Cassian (Semi-Pelagianism): - Synergism view: - MAN and God - Salvation originates in man and proceeds by man and Godd.

k. How did his participation in a sausage supper stir the Roman Catholic Church?

- Catholic church didn't allow to eat sausage during Lent period, but he did to show he was against church tradition. - 1522 Began preaching against church practices that were not explicitly mentioned in the Bible, including rule that priests are not allowed to mary. sola scriptura! - Secretly married a widow, Anna Reinhart, and made the new public in 1524.

c. Who was Thomas Cranmer?

- Distinguished scholar and fellow at Cambridge university and later archbishop of Canterbury. - Main contribution: - The 39 Articles - The Book of Common Prayer - The Great Bible ("chained Bible"), based on the translation of Tyndale and Coverdale - Preface to the 2nd edition was written by Crammer - Burned at the stake by Mary, the daughter of Catherine of Aragon. - He allowed Henry VIII divorced Catherine of Aragon.

l. Zwingli's hero was a renaissance scholar who was responsible for the publication of the critical edition of the Greek NT. What was his name?

- Erasmus of Rotterdam

d. Who were the Quakers?

- George Fox was the founder who was raised in a milieu preaching. - disillusioned by the prevailing nominalism in the church. - Mystic by temperament, and emphasized the idea of experience direct access to God. - Fox followed the "inner light" to have a victorious life. - Practices: -Renounced all oaths -Simplicity in dress, food, and speech -Pacifists in war -No formalism in worship -Pioneers in care of the mentally ill -Advocared just treatment for American Indians -Approved of Women preachers -Universal religious toleration

b. - Know about his garden of Milan conversion experience. - Who baptized Augustine?

- In a garden not far from Milan, he heard the sound of a child singing, "take up and read." So he opened the Bible at random and turned to Rom. 13:11-14. He was especially struck by the portion that said, "put on the Lord Jesus Christ and make no provision for the flesh, to gratify its lusts." He felt that his heart was opened and that God gave him faith.St. - Ambrose in Milan baptized Augustine, together with his friend Alypius and his natural son, Adeodatus on Easter eve 387.

VI. John Calvin a. - Who was John Calvin? - What was his title? - Is he considered a first generation or second generation reformer?

- Jean Cauvin was born on July 10, 1509 in Noyon, Northern France. - Gerald, John's father sent him to study theology at university of Pan. - Title: Preacher & Exegete - Considered 2nd generation of reformer.

f. - Initially, Augustine held to a particular view of Predestination, and later switched positions. - What is the difference between the two positions? - What was Augustine's final view of Predestination?

- One is conditional view that is predestination was based on foreknowledge meaning God look out over the sweep of time, sees who will exercise their free choice to accept Christ, and then "elects" then on that basis. - The other is unconditional view which means even the choice of good and faith in Christ are themselves effects of grace. - Augustine's final view was unconditional.

III. Transitions to and Foundations of Medieval Thought a. The writers from which period coined the term "Dark Ages" ?

- Renaissance

c. - Who were the Donatists? - What was this movement about? - How did Augustine respond to this problem in the church?

-i. The origins of Donatism are found in the persecution of Diocletian 303-305. ii. Imperial edicts were issued ordering all copies of the Scriptures to be turned over. iii. Some church leaders turned in Scriptures, artifacts, etc. iv. Others did not surrender anything, and were tortured, imprisoned or even killed. v. After the persecution, there were questions about the authority of those bishops who had compromised, as well of other bishops who had been consecrated by them.b. Position of Donatus *** i. Most North African Christian leaders held that the validity of consecration depended not on the personal purity of the bishop but on his own consecration and office. Therefore, sacraments issued by them were valid. ii. Bishop Donatus was a leader of the rigorist party; he took a hard line. iii. The schism grew to alarming proportions; Constantine tried to legislate against Donatism. iv. An extreme group of Donatist- the circumcelliones- even resorted to violence. v. Donatism survived at least to the 6th century. *** i. Refutation of Donatist ecclesiology 1. The Donatists insisted on the empirical holiness of the church. 2. For the Donatists, holiness is measured in terms of how one behaves in time of persecution. 3. Like Cyprian, the sacraments are invalid outside the true church. Therefore, since the "traditiores" (i.e. those who "handed over" the Scriptures or artifact) were outside the true church, any sacraments administered by them are not valid. 4. In contrast, Augustine makes the distinction between the visible and invisible church. Not all members in the visible church are pure or really saved. 5. The earthly, institutional church does not coincide exactly with the body of the elect. There is still chaff in it. ii. Refutation of the Donatist view of the sacraments 1. God is active in the sacrament 2. You cannot invalidate the sacrament just because the person ministering it is unworthy.

d. - What was Calvin's Institutes about? - How many books is it divided into?

. Calvin says that the Institutes contain his dogmatic materials. As such, in the Institutes he is often addressing particular controversies in which the Protestants were embroiled. Therefore, to get a complete picture of Calvin it is necessary to read his commentaries, which often give us insight into his "positive" theology. D. The Institutes is full of polemic. It is a handbook to the theological problems of Calvin's day (e.g., Osiander, Servetus, et al.). E. The Institutes is divided into 4 books (which follow the order of treatment found in the Apostle's Creed): 1. The knowledge of God the Creator 2. The knowledge of God the Redeemer 3. The means of receiving the grace of Christ (the order of salvation) 4. The external means of grace (ecclesiology).

c. What was Wesley's "Aldersgate experience" all about?

. Famous "Aldersgate Experience" on May 24, 1738 Account in Wesley's own words: "In the evening I went unwillingly to a society in Aldersgate-Street, where one was reading Luther's preface to the Epistle to the Romans. About a quarter before nine, while he was describing the change which God works in the heart through faith in Christ, I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone for salvation: And an assurance was given me, that he had taken away my sins, even mine, and saved me from the law of sin and death."278

c. How was William Farel responsible for Calvin's stay in Geneva?

. In 1536 Farel got a copy of the Institutes. Farel was impressed with this book and thought Calvin should govern Geneva. So he told Calvin, who was on his way to Strassburg, that God would curse him if he didn't stay in Geneva! - Calvin stayed in Geneva from 1536 to 1538, when he was thrown out. But in 1541 the town council called him back, and he remained there until his death in 1564.

d. - Who was Martin Luther? - What was his contribution to theological science?

. Preparatory Education A. After preparatory schooling at Magdeburg and Eisenach, Luther enrolled in the year 1501 at the University of Erfurt, where he passed his master's examination on Jan. 7, 1505. B. He studied Aristotelian philosophy according to the nominalist tradition (Occam, Biel). C. Luther was a keen dialectician, as shown in his later polemics. D. After taking his master's exam, he studied law. E. A "thunderstorm crisis" conversion experience took place at Stotternheim on July 2, 1505, which resulted in him becoming a monk. "He [Luther] was shocked by the sudden death of a friend (afterward called Alexius), who was either killed in a duel, or struck dead by lightning at Luther's side. Shortly afterward, on the second of July, 1505, two weeks before his momentous decision, he was overtaken by a violent thunderstorm near Erfurt, on his return from a visit to his parents, and was so frightened that he fell to the earth and tremblingly exclaimed: 'Help, beloved Saint Anna! I will become a monk.'" (Shaff 7:112) F. Luther then joined the Augustinian monks at Erfurt. G. He was ordained a priest in 1507 and studied theology. H. He went to Rome on monastery business, and was disappointed at the degeneracy there. I. When he got back to Germany, he was called to Wittenberg, where the Elector Frederick the Wise had organized a small university in 1502 and where Johann von Staupitz, the vicar-general of the Augustinian order, resided. J. Staupitz encouraged Luther to continue his studies, and he became a Doctor of Theology, Oct. 19, 1512.

i. What was the Summa Theologiae?

2. Summa Theologiae a. This is a systematic summary of theology for students. b. It was composed at Paris during his second sojourn there. c. He did not complete it d. The three books treat God, man, and the redeemer. e. It consists of 518 divisions called "questions," and these are divided into 2652 "articles". f. Each article states the pro and con arguments for each proposition under discussion, and then the author's solution. *** Unfinished Systematic Theology but completed by his students from his other works. - Treats the topics of God, Man, and the Redeemer.

g. What was Calvin's view of the original sin (or total depravity)?

3. Man is totally depraved: a. "Total depravity" refers to the extent of our depravity. It means that the depravity extends to every aspect of our being. b. It does not mean that people are as depraved as they can possibly be. Calvin believes in common grace, which extends even to the unregenerate.

i. - What was Luther's view of Justification by faith? - Justification by faith is theological shorthand for what?

A. Justification by Faith 1. The problem for Luther is "how can man, who is conscious of his condemnation as a sinner before God, stand before God?" The answer is that there is nothing of his own merit that he can do, but he can stand before God on the basis of faith alone in Christ. 2. According to Luther [Commentary on Galatians, ii.15], justifying faith is "a certain sure confidence of heart and firm assent by which Christ is apprehended, so that Christ is the object of faith, nay, not the object, but, so to speak, in faith itself Christ is present." 3. The believer is "cemented" to Christ on the basis of faith, so that the two are made, as it were, one person. The believer can say, "I am Christ, that is, the righteousness, victory, life, etc., are mine"; and in turn Christ can say, "I am that sinner, because he cleaves to me and I to him, for we are joined by faith as members of His body, of His flesh, and His bones (Eph. 5:30)." 4. He uses the analogy of common property in marriage. When two people are married, the property of one becomes the property of both. The same is true in our marriage to Christ by faith. We gain all of Christ's righteousness, while he inherits our sin. 5. The sins that still remain in believers are not imputed to them for Christ's sake. 6. The foundation of justification is the atoning work of Christ. 7. Justification is a forensic declaration of God, whose prime element is remission of sins. 8. Although Luther was Augustinian in his view, he does not confound justification with sanctification as Augustine did. 9. It is the "apprehensive" quality of faith, not any love or personal holiness of life associated with it, that gives it its justifying quality. 10. "In this sense, the justified Christian man is simul justus et peccator [at the same time righteous and a sinner]." 11. Personal assurance. a. The doctrine of justification by faith implies assurance. In salvation by works, you never know if you have done enough. b. Luther, Calvin, and their associates tend to make assurance a part of saving faith.32 c. Assurance is included in the definition of saving faith in the Augsburg Confession (Art. IV) and in the Apology. d. In dealing with Christians afflicted with distrust, the early Reformers did not always hold to this consistently. e. Eventually, the necessity of assurance as part of saving faith was abandoned. *** - Assurance/marriage

b. Who were John and Charles Wesley?

B. Wesley's Piety 1. Although Wesley was profoundly influenced by the Moravian piety, he came to depart from them in certain respects. 2. He had a falling out with the pietists because they were too quietistic. 3. Also, he did not like the Moravians extreme mystical inclinations. C. Wesley's Attitude toward Calvinism 1. Wesley was very anti-Calvinistic. 2. Wesley's statement about the Synod of Dort: "[the Synod of Dort was] not so numerous or learned, but full as impartial, as the Council or Synod of Trent."(Works, 10.59) 3. The three main points of issue against Calvinism for Wesley: predestination, irresistible grace, and perseverance of the saints. 4. In the final analysis, Wesley said the only real issue is on predestination, and that the other two are but corollaries of that. D. Wesley's Theology 1. Predestination a. The only sense in which Wesley will accept unconditional predestination was in the sense that at times God chooses certain individuals for particular tasks (e.g., Cyrus). b. In the sense of eternal salvation, election is conditioned on faith. c. Wesley could not accept unconditional election because it would imply unconditional reprobation, which seemed to him to be contrary to the witness of Scripture regarding the nature of God. d. Regarding those passages which speak of election as "before the foundation of the world," Wesley explained them in terms of God's foreknowledge. e. Summary Statement of Wesley: I will tell you in all plainness and simplicity. I believe it [election] commonly means one of these two things: first, a divine appointment of some particular men, to do some particular work in the world. And this election I believe to be not only personal, but absolute and unconditional. Thus Cyrus was elected.... I believe election means, Secondly, a divine appointment of some men to eternal happiness. But I believe this election to be conditional, as well as the reprobation opposite thereto. I believe the eternal decree concerning both is expressed in these words: "He that believeth shall be saved; he that believeth not shall be damned." And this decree, without doubt, God will not change, and man cannot resist. (10.209-10)

f. What led to Methodism as a separate denomination, distinct from the Anglican church?

Break with the Anglican Church 1. The reason which led to Methodism as a separate movement had to do with Wesley ordaining clergy for his followers. 2. At first, Wesley relied on Anglican clergy to administer the sacraments to his people. 3. But when he found that very few clergymen shared in his movement, and that some leaders had to be sent to the New World to supervise Methodism in the colonies, he and a few others ordained such leaders. 4. He argued for the legitimacy of this on the grounds that there was no distinction between presbyters and bishops in the early church, and therefore since he was ordained as a presbyter he could ordain others to the same function. 5. Ordaining his own clergy practically led to his founding a new denomination.

b. What papal/clerical abuses were prevalent during this time?

C. Conflict of Nationalism with Papal Internationalism. 1. England, Germany, et al. wanted self-rule. They wanted to break the yoke of papal rule. 2. There is an interesting analogy in the recent past with nationalism in the Baltic states in the Soviet Union. E.g., Lithuania voted out the Communist party! 3. Good summary of Gonzalez: "...at the beginning of the sixteenth century Western Europe no longer thought of itself as a single empire, where there was a sole emperor wielding temporal sword, with a religious counterpart in Rome holding the spiritual sword. On the contrary, a host of new nations were claiming to be sovereign states; and these claims often conflicted, not only with those of the emperor, but also with those of the pope. Thus modern nationalism was a significant factor in the dissolution of the medieval synthesis, and opened the way for the religious cleavage that would come about with the Protestant Reformation." (Gonzalez 3:13-14) *** D. Clerical Fees 1. Popes used to raise money to fund intrigues, works of art, etc. 2. They would charge for various religions functions: a. Baptisms b. Penance c. Indulgences (to reduce time in purgatory) —Example: The sale of indulgences to fund St. Peter's in Rome.

g. - What events led the posting of the 95 Theses? - Was the nailing of the theses meant to attract public attention?

C. Luther eventually abandoned the notion of merit, which came from the schoolmen. D. By 1516 Luther was teaching that our inward righteousness was the gift of God and the source, not the consequence, of good works.17 In other words, we are not righteous because we do good works, but we do good works because we are righteous. E. Posting of the 95 Theses (October 31, 1517). 1. Luther posted his theses against the sale of indulgences. **** c. The theses were a challenge to an academic debate. This was a typical part of the educational process of the day. But in this case no one took the challenge, since the professors and students of Wittenberg were in agreement on the subject.

f. - What was the prevalent religious mood of the church during Luther's time? - What was the nominalist understanding of grace at this time? - How does the phrase Facere quod inse est capture this view of grace?

C. The Occamist (nominalist) doctrine of grace did not satisfy him. 1. This doctrine asserted that God would give grace to those who did their best (Facientibus quod in se est, Deus non denegat gratiam = "God will not deny grace to those who do what is in them"). a. This is kind of like the medieval equivalent of "God helps those who help themselves." b. But how could you be sure that you "helped yourself" enough? 2. "...the merit of Christ needs to be further supplemented in order to salvation. No one of the great schoolmen had, however, ventured to say roundly like Biel, that the merit of Christ is never the only and whole meritorious cause of salvation." 3. The Occamist doctrine also taught that man could love God by his own natural powers. This prompted Luther to wonder whether he was one of the elect.

b. What was John Calvin's contribution to theological science (think Institutes)?

Calvin's Connection with the Genevan Reformation A. Calvin had been trained as a humanist. B. In 1530 Calvin was involved in reform movements in France. He fled Northern Italy to avoid persecution. C. Calvin arrived on the scene in 1536. D. In 1536 Calvin wrote a little book called the Institutes. E. He left Italy to travel to Strassburg, where Bucer was active. F. In 1536 Farel got a copy of the Institutes. Farel was impressed with this book and thought Calvin should govern Geneva. So he told Calvin, who was on his way to Strassburg, that God would curse him if he didn't stay in Geneva! G. Calvin stayed in Geneva from 1536 to 1538, when he was thrown out. But in 1541 the town council called him back, and he remained there until his death in 1564. III. Calvin's Activities in Geneva A. Calvin was the organizer of the reform in Geneva. B. He carried on a massive correspondence with preachers all over Europe. C. Geneva became a place for refugees of religious persecution (e.g., English, Italian). D. Calvin introduced changes in public education. Now there was free public education, even for orphans. E. He re-wrote marriage and inheritance laws—women can inherit! F. He eliminated wife and child beating. He jailed these abusers. G. More just divorce laws were instituted. IV. Institutes of the Christian Religion A. J. S. Whale says that the Institutes is the battle plan of the Reformation. B. It was a book that grew. 1. The 1536 Edition a. This edition was not real distinctive. It was a kind of a catechism. b. It looks Lutheran. In fact, Melanchthon departs from Luther even more than Calvin did if you are considering the early editions of the Institutes. 2. The 1539 edition made crucial additions (e.g., knowledge of God/man; providence and predestination). 3. The 1543 edition is doubled in size. 4. 1559 is the final edition. C. Calvin says that the Institutes contain his dogmatic materials. As such, in the Institutes he is often addressing particular controversies in which the Protestants were embroiled. Therefore, to get a complete picture of Calvin it is necessary to read his commentaries, which often give us insight into his "positive" theology. D. The Institutes is full of polemic. It is a handbook to the theological problems of Calvin's day (e.g., Osiander, Servetus, et al.). E. The Institutes is divided into 4 books (which follow the order of treatment found in the Apostle's Creed): 1. The knowledge of God the Creator 2. The knowledge of God the Redeemer 3. The means of receiving the grace of Christ (the order of salvation) 4. The external means of grace (ecclesiology). V. Calvin as Preacher and Exegete203 A. Calvin's Commentaries 1. Calvin's expository works fill over thirty volumes of the fifty-nine volumes which make up his collected works. 2. Calvin wrote commentaries on all the books of the New Testament except for 2 and 3 John, and also the Book of Revelation (which he admitted he didn't understand). 3. He wrote commentaries on most of the Old Testament, with the exception of the books by Solomon and some of the historical books. B. Calvin's Sermons 1. Calvin has as many sermons (page-wise) as commentaries. 2. He preached two sermons every Sunday, and often during the week. VI. Calvin's Theology in Context A. Calvin is clearly a second generation reformer. 1. The first generation reformers were all born in around the 1480's (e.g., Bucer, Luther). 2. Calvin was born in 1509. 3. In terms of his own (i.e., the Genevan) reformation, Calvin was brought in by Farel to organize it. He did not initiate it. B. The fact that Calvin was second generation is shown in his theology. 1. Calvin was a second generation reformer, but a first generation codifier. 2. Bullinger in Zurich is also in this category. 3. These mediate between catechetical essays and a system of theology. 4. They are not presenting a complete system. Some topics are just not there. —However, just because Calvin is silent about some topics (e.g., the divine attributes) does not mean that he does not have a doctrine on them, or that he thinks that you cannot talk about them! C. Arrangement of his Theological Writing 1. Example of Bucer: Bucer writes commentaries on the text of Scripture, but then he gets into long doctrinal discussion when the text raises a disputed point. After discussing the disputed point he again returns to the commentary on the text again. 2. Calvin handles it differently. He deals with the commentary on the text in his commentaries, but puts the doctrines in the Institutes. Therefore, one needs both to understand Calvin. 3. Calvin believed that his arrangement is more aesthetically balanced. VII. Theology of Calvin A. The Knowledge of God 1. Calvin wants to reflect Scripture as a light which shines in the darkness. It is like eye glasses which makes our vision clearer. 2. Natural theology is real, but it is unsaving because of our own corruption. 3. "Two-fold knowledge of God" (duplex cognitio Dei) a. There is a knowledge of God as creator. (1) This knowledge comes both from natural revelation and from Scripture. (2) This knowledge is accessible to pagans and Christians alike, but is not saving. b. There is the special knowledge of God as redeemer. (1) The knowledge of God as creator is not enough. (2) Only the knowledge of God as redeemer is saving. c. This two-fold distinction works architecturally in the Institutes as a division between books I and II. Calvin moves from considering God as creator to God as Redeemer. B. "Finitum non capax infiniti" ("The Finite is not Capable of the Infinite"). 1. Calvin likes to balance opposites (e.g., our finitude vs. God's infinity). 2. We cannot get to God without God doing something. 3. This shows itself in both Calvin's Christology and in his doctrine of predestination C. Christology 1. We see the "finitum non capax infiniti" clearly in Calvin's Christology. 2. Calvin does his Christology after the Antiochene model. 3. He affirms the integrity of Christ's humanity. But the human nature of even Christ cannot fully contain the divine. 4. The so-called "extra Calvinisticum" ("Calvinistic Extra"): a. The Reformed insist on the utter transcendence of the Logos in and during the incarnation. b. Although the Word is truly united to the human nature of Christ, this human nature does not fully contain the Word. c. Therefore, the Word has operations outside of the human nature of Christ. Note Calvin's statement in the Institutes: "For even if the Word in his immeasurable essence united with the nature of man into one person, we do not imagine that he was confined therein. Here is something marvelous: the Son of God descended from heaven in such a way that, without leaving heaven, he willed to be borne in the virgin's womb, to go about the earth, and to hang upon the cross; yet he continuously filled the world even as he had done from the beginning!" (Ins. 2.xiii.4) d. The Lutherans do not like Calvin's (Antiochene) Christology. They do not like to talk about the exercise of Christ's divinity outside of his humanity. e. Therefore, the Lutherans apply the term "extra Calvinisticum" (i.e., "Calvinistic extra") to the Reformed teaching. f. Related to this is the fact that the Reformed do not hold to the communication of attributes from the divine to the human, since the human is incapable of receiving the divine attributes of omnipresence, omnipotence, etc. g. The Lutheran saying, on the other hand, is "Logos non extra carnem" ("the Logos is not outside of the flesh"), meaning that there is no place that the Logos is present that the human nature of Christ is not also present. D. Predestination206 1. Relationship of "finitum non capax infiniti" to Predestination a. The divine power reconnects humanity with divinity. b. Predestination happens in Christ, because Christ is the place where the finite is brought together with the infinite. 2. Definition of Predestination a. "By predestination we mean the eternal decree of God, by which he determined with himself whatever he wished to happen with regard to every man. All are not created on equal terms, but some are preordained to eternal life, others to eternal damnation; and, accordingly, as each has been created for one or the other of these ends, we say that he has been predestinated to life or to death" (Institutes III.xxi.5) b. "We say, then, that Scripture clearly proves this much, that God by his eternal and immutable counsel determined once for all those whom it was his pleasure one day to admit to salvation, and those whom, on the other hand, it was his pleasure to doom to destruction" (Institutes, III.xxi.7). 3. Calvin's Approach to the Doctrine a. Calvin is not at all motivated by metaphysical speculation. He is very anti-speculative. (1) In many places Calvin warns against prying into the secret counsels of God. (2) He urges that we must not go beyond the boundaries of Scripture. (3) "For it will show us that the moment we go beyond the bounds of the word we are out of the course, in darkness, and must every now and then stumble, go astray, and fall" (Institutes, III.xxi.2). (4) "The best rule of sobriety is, not only in learning to follow wherever God leads, but also when he makes an end of teaching, to cease also from wishing to be wise" (Institutes, III.xxi.3). (5) "Only I wish it to be received as a general rule, that the secret things of God are not to be scrutinised, and that those which he has revealed are not to be overlooked, lest we may, on the one hand, be chargeable with curiosity, and, on the other, with ingratitude" (Institutes, III.xxi.4). (6) "Ignorance of things which we are not able, or which is not lawful to know, is learning, while the desire to know them is a species of madness" (Institutes, III.xxiii.8). b. Calvin believes there is profound practical use of the doctrine. "We shall never feel persuaded as we ought that our salvation flows from the free mercy of God as its fountain, until we are made acquainted with his eternal election, the grace of God being illustrated by the contrast—viz. that he does not adopt promiscuously to the hope of salvation, but gives to some what he denies to others" (Institutes, III.xxi.1). 4. Reprobation a. "Those, therefore, whom God passes by he reprobates, and that for no other cause but because he is pleased to exclude them from the inheritance which he predestines to his children" (Institutes, III.xxiii.1). b. Note, however, that Calvin is not speaking of a mere permission. Calvin (unlike the Reformed tradition in general) denies permission. Note his definition of election (above), which rules out permission. 5. Problems that Some People Raise with the Doctrine of Predestination (and answers from the Reformed perspective) a. It destroys moral responsibility. (1) Some charge that the doctrine of election leads to moral laxity and irresponsibility. (2) But election assumes that election is packaged with the total redemptive work of Christ. Sanctification is included in this. (3) In other words, God sanctifies those whom He elects. (4) In this connection, see especially Institutes, III.xxiii.12. b. Predestination makes God unrighteous. (1) "The will of God is the supreme rule of righteousness, so that everything which he wills must be held to be righteous by the mere fact of his willing it" (Institutes, III.xxiii.2). (2) "Now, should some Manes or Coelestinus come forward to arraign Divine Providence, I say with Paul, that no account of it can be given, because by its magnitude it far surpasses our understanding....Why he willed it is not ours to ask, as we cannot comprehend, nor can it become us even to raise a controversy as to the justice of the divine will" (Institutes, III.xxiii.5). c. It destroys the necessity of evangelism. After all: "If God wants to save the heathen, he can elect them without our help." (1) But note that in the Reformed understanding of the doctrine, God uses means to execute His decree in time. (2) Therefore, God uses people (means) to bring others to salvation, through the preaching of the gospel. 6. Different Predestinarian Models and Where Calvin Fits a. Supralapsarianism (1) This literally means "above the fall." (2) That is to say, the decree to elect individuals to salvation comes before ("above") the decree to permit the fall. (3) This means that prior to considering human fallenness, God decrees to create some particular individuals for salvation and other particular individuals for justice. (4) Then, God wills a fall to accomplish this decree of salvation and justice. (5) The supralapsarian model can also be called "full double" predestination. (6) This is not the view of Calvin, nor of confessional Calvinism—though a minority of individual Reformed thinkers have held this position. (7) But supralapsarianism has a certain logical consistency because, logically, means are subordinate to ends. —The final end is the glory of God. Predestination is the means to that. But the fall is the means to predestination. Therefore, in the causal "chain," predestination is above the fall, and the fall is subordinate to (below) it. b. Infralapsarianism (1) This literally means "below the fall." (2) This position affirms that the decree of predestination comes after ("below") the decree to permit the fall. (3) The "infra" model has two forms: (a) In one form, God understands humans as fallen and sinful, and then wills to elect some to salvation and pass over others. This is single predestination. (b) In the other form, God understands humans as fallen and sinful, and then actively decrees by a positive decree to damn some and save others. This is double predestination, but is not full double (i.e., supralapsarianism), because the decree of election comes after the decree for the fall. This form describes Calvin's position. 7. It is important to understand that when you are dealing with the decrees, it is a logical and not a temporal priority. From God's point of view the decrees are determined all at once from all eternity. 8. Some say that later Calvinism is more predestinarian than Calvin. But this would be pretty hard to be! Actually, in later Calvinism there is a tendency toward single predestination (in the first form noted above). E. Doctrine of Scripture 1. The source of Christian truth is the Scriptures, and they alone. 2. Speaking of the historical materials in Scripture, Calvin claims that they were composed under the "dictation" of the Holy Spirit. a. "With these came at the same time the histories, which are themselves also productions from the pens of the prophets, but composed under the dictation of the Holy Spirit (dictante spiritu sancto)." (Ins. IV.viii.8) b. "They were infallible and authentic amanuenses of the Holy Spirit, and therefore their writings are to be held to be oracles of God." (Ins. IV.viii.9) F. The Human Condition 1. Because of the sin of Adam, the entire human race is contaminated by sin. 2. Original sin is defined as "the hereditary depravity and corruption of our nature...which first make us subject to the wrath of God, then also produces in us works which the Scriptures call works of the flesh." (Ins. II.i.8) 3. Man is totally depraved: a. "Total depravity" refers to the extent of our depravity. It means that the depravity extends to every aspect of our being. b. It does not mean that people are as depraved as they can possibly be. Calvin believes in common grace, which extends even to the unregenerate. 4. Freedom of the will remains, not because man has an equal choice to choose good as well as evil, but because he commits evil freely, without coercion from the outside: "In this way, then, man is said to have free will, not because he has a free choice of good and evil, but because he acts voluntarily, and not by compulsion." (Ins. II.ii.7) 5. Though Calvin does affirm free will in the sense mentioned above, he does not like the term because it is inclined to be misused and misunderstood. 6. People can still behave morally and perform morally good acts in terms of their outward deportment, which is requisite for the prosecution of political affairs, science, and art—although even in these spheres the depravity is evident. (Ins. II.ii.12) G. The Work of Christ 1. Calvin presents the work of Christ under the rubric of the three-fold office: prophet, priest, and king. a. As prophet, Christ is the last and perfect revelation of God. (Ins. II.xv.1-2) b. As priest: (1) "He poured out his sacred blood as the price of redemption, by which was extinguished the wrath (furor) of God burning against us, and our iniquities also were purged." (Ins. IV.viii.9) (2) Christ endured the spiritual agonies of a lost and condemned man. (Ins. II.xvi.10)) (3) His active and passive obedience are both imputed to us. c. As king, Christ is endowed with eternal power, and exercises spiritual and eternal dominion over the church. (Ins. II.xv.9) 2. "Limited Atonement" a. So-called "limited atonement" was not taught by Calvin per se, but if one considers what is meant by the term, the doctrine is harmonious with Calvin's thinking. b. Both terms of the expression are unfortunate. (1) "Limited" does not mean that the atonement is limited in its sufficiency. It could atone for the sins of a thousand worlds! (2) "Atonement" is a theologically flabby word. (3) Maybe "particular satisfaction" would be better! c. Limited atonement refers to God's intention in making atonement. Does God intend to secure the salvation of the elect through Christ's work, or does Christ's work simply make salvation hypothetically possible? d. The doctrine of limited atonement is necessary within the Reformed framework. (1) Limited atonement should be seen as a corollary to the doctrine of election. (2) Given unconditional election and irresistible grace (which themselves follow inevitably from radical depravity and total inability), particular satisfaction is the fitting, and indeed the logically necessary, conclusion. (3) In the order of the decrees, God elects particular individuals to salvation. Then God actually secures the salvation of the elect by having Christ render satisfaction for their sins. (4) Election refers to the intent of God to save particular individuals efficaciously, not just provisionally. Now, if God decrees efficaciously and particularly the end (i.e., salvation), and if that end is contingent on certain means (i.e., satisfaction), then God decrees the means along with the end. (5) In other words, God could not control with certainty the outcome unless He also controls with certainty the necessary means on which the outcome hangs. H. Justification 1. In one sense, we cannot separate justification and sanctification: "For, since God really renews for the practice of righteousness those whom he graciously regards as righteous, he combines that gift of regeneration with this gracious acceptance." (Ins. III.xi.6) 2. On the other hand, Osiander's view is to be rejected, as confusing justification with sanctification. (Ins. III.xi.6) 3. Justification consists in the remission of sins and the imputation of the righteousness of Christ. (Ins. IV.xvi.2) 4. Summary statement of Calvin: "He is justified by faith who, shut out from the righteousness of works, apprehends by faith the righteousness of Christ, clothed in which he appears in the sight of God, not as a sinner, but as righteous." VIII. The Significance of Calvin's Theology A. The term "Calvinism" is a misnomer. 1. Calvin wrote no confession, but other Reformed churches wrote confessions, which were not from Calvin. 2. The fact is, "Reformed" theology is derived from multiple sources. It is a broad tradition with many influential thinkers. 3. Therefore, Calvin's work is not some kind of standard by which all Reformed theology must be judged, as if they were sworn to reproduce Calvin faithfully and without alteration. 4. Note that some erroneously charge the Reformed Scholastics (i.e., those who lived after Calvin and systematized Reformed teaching) with being "more Calvinistic than Calvin." For example, some, such as Basil Hall, speak of "Calvin against the Calvinists." But this is based on a fundamentally wrong-headed view of Calvin's relation to the Reformed tradition. 5. In the Lutheran church, however, "Lutheran" is not a misnomer. The Lutherans always look back to Luther and try to show their consistency with his teaching. B. Summary by Fairbairn: "...indeed, Calvin can hardly be better described than by saying that his mind was the mind of Erasmus, though his faith and conscience were those of Luther." (Camb. Mod. History, 7.349) C. Summary by Seeberg: "He [Calvin] possessed the wonderful talent of comprehending any given body of religious ideas in its most delicate refinements and giving appropriate expression to the results of his investigations. This made him the greatest exegete of the Reformation period, and enabled him to accomplish a remarkable work in organizing the dogmatic materials within reach. As a dogmatician, he furnished no new ideas [sic!], but he with most delicate sense of perception arranged the dogmatic ideas at hand in accordance with their essential character and their historical development." (HD, 2:394). (Sources: Adapted from A. Gomes, HT syllabus)

h. - Know the basic idea of Calvin's view of Predestination? - Is it Supralapsarian double or Infralapsarian double?

Different Predestinarian Models and Where Calvin Fits a. Supralapsarianism (1) This literally means "above the fall." (2) That is to say, the decree to elect individuals to salvation comes before ("above") the decree to permit the fall. (3) This means that prior to considering human fallenness, God decrees to create some particular individuals for salvation and other particular individuals for justice. (4) Then, God wills a fall to accomplish this decree of salvation and justice. (5) The supralapsarian model can also be called "full double" predestination. (6) This is not the view of Calvin, nor of confessional Calvinism—though a minority of individual Reformed thinkers have held this position. (7) But supralapsarianism has a certain logical consistency because, logically, means are subordinate to ends. —The final end is the glory of God. Predestination is the means to that. But the fall is the means to predestination. Therefore, in the causal "chain," predestination is above the fall, and the fall is subordinate to (below) it. b. Infralapsarianism (1) This literally means "below the fall." (2) This position affirms that the decree of predestination comes after ("below") the decree to permit the fall. (3) The "infra" model has two forms: (a) In one form, God understands humans as fallen and sinful, and then wills to elect some to salvation and pass over others. This is single predestination. (b) In the other form, God understands humans as fallen and sinful, and then actively decrees by a positive decree to damn some and save others. This is double predestination, but is not full double (i.e., supralapsarianism), because the decree of election comes after the decree for the fall. This form describes Calvin's position. 7. It is important to understand that when you are dealing with the decrees, it is a logical and not a temporal priority. From God's point of view the decrees are determined all at once from all eternity. 8. Some say that later Calvinism is more predestinarian than Calvin. But this would be pretty hard to be! Actually, in later Calvinism there is a tendency toward single predestination (in the first form noted above).

e. How as Luther converted?

E. A "thunderstorm crisis" conversion experience took place at Stotternheim on July 2, 1505, which resulted in him becoming a monk. "He [Luther] was shocked by the sudden death of a friend (afterward called Alexius), who was either killed in a duel, or struck dead by lightning at Luther's side. Shortly afterward, on the second of July, 1505, two weeks before his momentous decision, he was overtaken by a violent thunderstorm near Erfurt, on his return from a visit to his parents, and was so frightened that he fell to the earth and tremblingly exclaimed: 'Help, beloved Saint Anna! I will become a monk.'" (Shaff 7:112)

h. - What was the Diet of Worms? - Why is this event a turning point?

E. Diet of Worms, 1521 1. The Elector Frederick of Saxony negotiated bringing Luther before the Reichstag which met in Worms in 1521, with Emperor Charles V in attendance. 2. Luther was called upon to recant. 3. Luther responded by saying that he could not recant unless convinced by Scripture or right reason.

c. - How did the rise of Humanism (Renaissance, not Secular) contribute to the intellectual climate of the Reformation? - What does the Latin term Ad Fontes mean?

E. Rise of Humanism 1. This humanism ought not to be confused with the "secular humanism" of today. 2. Humanism involved a rediscovery of Latin classics, in literature, architecture, painting and sculpture. 3. Humanism began in Italy but soon spread throughout Western Europe. 4. With the fall of Constantinople (1453), numerous Byzantine scholars sought refuge in Italy, bringing with them a knowledge of Greek, thus opening up even more opportunities for study of classic literature.9 5. Printing gave impetus to this. a. Errors often were introduced in hand-copied manuscripts. Now printing made error-free replications possible. b. Large numbers of identical copies could be produced at relatively low cost. c. Included in this production of manuscripts were the writings of the Fathers of the Church and the biblical text. —E.g., Erasmus and his edition of the Greek New Testament in 1516. 6. Results a. This facilitated a direct study of the Scriptures; people were led back to the original sources. b. Through a direct study of these documents, some began to question the doctrines of the church.

n. Who succeeded Zwingli as the pastor of the great church in Zurich?

Heinrich Bullinger succeeded Zwingli as the pastor of Great Cathedral. - Plays an instrumental role in drafting the Second Helvetic Confession which was adopted by the Reformed Church in Switzerland and all over Europe, including Scotland.

IV. The Rise of Scholasticism? a. - Who was Anselm? - What his contribution to theological science?

I. Anselm (1033-1109) a. Importance i. Anselm provides the intellectual impetus toward scholasticism. ii. "Anselm was without any doubt the greatest theologian of his time. Although his theological production consisted in a series of monographic works that did not attempt to include the entire scope of Christian doctrine, his success in his application of reason to questions of faith without thereby abandoning orthodox doctrine paved the way for the great scholastics of the thirteen century. The content of his works greatly contributed to later theological formulations; but their spirit, both daring and subject to authority, made an even greater impact. With Anselm a new era began in the history of Christian thought" (Gonzalez, 2:167) iii. Bacground: 1. Anselm studied at Bec (in Normandy) under Lanfranc 2. While at Bec he wrote most of his works: a. Monologion b. Proslogion c. Epistle on the Incarnation of the Word d. He became a Prior (head deputy of a monastery), then an Abbot, and subsequently the Archbishop of Canterbury (1093) 3. He clashed with the King on several points, especially over lay investiture. He went into exile in 1097. 4. While in his three-year exile he wrote these three important works: a. Cur Deus Homo? b. On Virgin Conception and Original Sin c. On the Procession of the Holy Spirit 5. He returned to Canterbury only to go into exile again three years later. 6. Finally, in 1106, the difficulties with the authorities were resolved and returned to his see, until his death in 1109. 7. During his last 3 years his main theological work was called On the Agreement of Foreknowledge, Predestination, and Grace with Free Will. *** -

f. Who was Thomas Aquinas? What was the title that the church gave him?

II. Thomas Aquinas a. Importance i. Between Augustine and Luther he was the most outstanding theologian ii. Aquinas represents the epitome of the 13th Century. iv. In him we find a synthesis of the Christian past and classical past directed to questions of a new era. v. Aquinas took the insights of Aristotle but also the insights from Augustinianism. The approach is really his own synthesis. vi. He combines mystical piety with a strong philosophical intellect. b. Life i. Aquinas was born c.1225 near Aquino. The is in the territory of Naples. ii. He was kind but absent minded. iii. Education 1. He received his education at Monte Cassino. He matriculated at the University of Naples. 2. He entered the Dominican Order. His family tried but could not talk him out of it. 3. He studied under Albert Magnus ("Albert the Great") and followed him to Cologne and then back to Paris in 1252. 4. Albert about Aquinas: "He will make such a roaring in theology that he will be heard through all the earth." iv. Aquinas became a lecturer on the Sentences of Peter Lombard. v. In 1256 he became a professor vi. In 1259 he was back to Italy, where he taught. vii. In 1269 he went back to Paris until 1272. viii. In 1274 the Pope requested that Aquinas attend the council of Lyons. He died on the way (March 7, 1274). He was only 48 years old. ix. The great teacher's body was taken to Toulouse, except the right arm, which was sent to the Dominican house of Saint Jacques. Eventually the arm was taken to Rome. (Schaff, 5:663). **** - iii. Aquinas was called doctor angelicus, "The Angelic Doctor".

h. Who was John Cassian?

IX. Opposition in South Gaul a. The strongest opposition to Augustine came from Southern Gaul, especially Marseilles. b. John Cassian i. Cassian was a monk who settled in Marseilles after having traveled the Eastern section of the Empire. ii. He supposedly was a disciple of John Chrysostom iii. Cassian condemns Pelagius, but he is not Augustinian iv. "As soon as God sees in us believing of a good will, he illumines, stimulates, and urges it towards salvation, giving growth to that which he himself planted, or to that which he has seen spring out of our own effort." Cassian cited in Gonzalez, 2:58 - He believes in cooperative grace: Sin hinders man's mind, emotion & will. Man needs help. - Causative: Cooperative ability - Denial of Total corruption (deprivation, not depravity)

e. - Who were the Puritans? - What writings were Richard Baxter, John Bunyan, and John Milton known for?

Puritanism A. Basic Orientation 1. They are called "Puritans" because they wanted to "purify" the Church of England from all traces of Roman corruption. 2. Many had been refugees on the Continent during Mary's reign. They had significant contact with Protestants there. 3. Differences among Puritans a. Some focused their attack on the vestments worn by the clergy. They felt that having a special clerical dress tended to emphasize the clergy/laity distinction and thereby denied the priesthood of all believers. b. Some opposed kneeling to receive the Lord's Supper, since this could be construed as worshipping the Bodily Presence in the sacrament. c. Some were very strong on the necessity for a presbyterian form of church government. d. There were Puritans who held to differing combinations of the above. B. Prominent Puritans 1. Thomas Cartwright a. In 1569 Cartwright was appointed the Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity at Cambridge. b. He strongly advocated Presbyterianism. c. He was opposed by John Whitgift, Archbishop of Canterbury. Whitgift deprived him of his position, and Cartwright became a refugee on the Continent. VIII. Separatists or Independents A. Basic Orientation 1. These were more radical than the Puritans. 2. Unlike the Puritans, these did not want to purify the system, but to break away from it. 3. They formed "gathered" churches of only those who were consciously Christian. They were against a state church idea. 4. They ran self-governing, independent churches. 5. They are called "Independent" because they wanted autonomy for each local church, and "Separatists" because they withdrew from the Church of England. 6. They were not Anabaptists. B. Famous Representatives 1. Robert Browne (died 1633) a. Browne was originally a Puritan. b. He was a graduate of Cambridge. c. The early separatists were called "Brownists." d. Just before his death he submitted to the Archbishop of Canterbury. So it is questionable if he really was a separatist at heart. **** Puritan and Independent activities during this time 1. There was a time of persecution for those who did not conform. 2. Richard Baxter (1615-1691) a. Baxter had been active during the Commonwealth. b. Now he was forbidden to preach, and was fined and imprisoned. c. His best remembered work: Saint's Everlasting Rest on the Christian life and prayer. 3. John Bunyan (1628-1688) a. Bunyan wrote a moving spiritual autobiography, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners. b. He was imprisoned for years for preaching in violation of the Conventicle Act. c. While in jail he wrote The Pilgrim's Progress, an allegory of conversion and the Christian life which was to become one of the most widely read books in the English language. 4. John Milton a. Milton had been closely identified with the Commonwealth. b. "He escaped the scaffold during the Restoration and completed Paradise Lost, presenting the human drama as conceived by Christians."

Who is Augustine based on online info.?

The Ten Main Contributions of Augustine to Philosophy. 1. Theory of Time: In the Confessions Book 11 Augustine developed a very provocative concept of time. 2. Learning Language: Augustine attempted to explain how small children learn and express language. 3. Faith Seeking Understanding: In his Sermon 43.7, 9 Augustine asserted: Crede, ut intelligas ("Believe in order that you may understand"). 4. Ontological Argument: The writings of Augustine also influenced the subsequent formulation by Saint Anselm of the ontological argument for the existence of God. 5. Refutation of Scepticism: The statement of trench philosopher, René Descartes (1596-1650), cogito ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am") is derived from dubito ergo sum ("I doubt, therefore I am") and si fallor sum ("If I am deceived, I am") by Augustine. 6. Proof of the existence of God from Eternal Truths: Augustine argued that the human mind apprehends universal, objective, unchanging, and necessary truths that are superior to the human mind itself. Thus an eternal God exists to explain these eternal truths. 7. Response to the Problem of Evil: Augustine argued that while evil is real it is not a substance or a "stuff." Rather, evil is an absence of goodness. 8. Divine Illumination: Augustine developed an epistemology (theory of knowledge) known as divine illumination. Human knowledge is thus directly dependent upon God. 9. Creation Ex Nihilo: Augustine vigorously argued that God created the world ex nihilo (creation "out of nothing" or "from nothing"). Certain points of the thought of Augustine 1,500 years ago are very consistent with the modern "big bang" theory within cosmology. 10. The Examined Self: In his Confessions, Augustine was one of the first to write in depth about the self, particularly in relation to God. http://www.augnet.org/?ipageid=376 Augustine developed the Christian principles of original sin, divine grace, and predestination. The theological aspects of both Catholic and Protestant theology are based Augustine's ideas. His ideas also influenced the Reformation leaders John Calvin and Martin Luther, and philosophers Immanuel Kant and Blaise Pascal. His psychological ideas were first published in Confessions, one of the earliest great autobiographies. His insightful descriptions of subjective events (e.g., the will, experienced freedom of the will, the self) begin the tradition of introspection and phenomenology in psychology. Augustine discussed the perception of time and concluded that time is an inner experience, i.e., it is psychological. He anticipated Descartes concerning the proof of self-existence: to doubt is to think, to think is to exist. (Zusne, p. 14) Through the medieval period and the reintroduction of Aristotle's ideas, Augustine's thoughts on psychology were the only accepted ones. Augustine espoused Plato's view that the soul is immaterial and immortal, and that the body is material and mortal. He believed that knowledge was obtained through self-awareness and not from sensory impressions. He thought of the mind as a unity with independent facilities (reason, memory, will and imagination) and originated what is now known as faculty psychology. (Zusne) In his text "Confessions", which contains several autobiographical passages, Augustine tackles such issues as family relations, memory, conversion, mysticism, the place of sexual renunciation in religion, time and eternity, and death.

V. Reformation and Post-Reformation Period a. Review the factors that led to the Reformation.

The Term "Reformation" a Misnomer A. Actually, what occurred was not a "reformation." There were no great changes in the Roman Catholic Church as a result. B. It was more of a return to first-century principles in certain areas. C. Perhaps the term "Protestant Revolution" would be more accurate! D. The Roman Catholic Church lost about half of its territory. III. Factors Causing the Reformation A. Abuses in the Papacy 1. The papacy was too concerned with amassing political power. —E.g., Julius II (1443-1513; pope from 1503) was a politician and warrior rather than a spiritual shepherd.(Shaff 7:8) 2. The papacy was amassing inordinate wealth. 3. The papacy itself practiced open immorality. —E.g., Innocent VIII (1482-1492) fathered 16 children. He openly celebrated their weddings in the Vatican! B. Worldliness of the Church and Clergy 1. Immorality in the clergy (e.g., concubinage) was widespread. 2. Greed is seen in the plurality of offices and Simony. (Shaff 7:9) a. Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz was simultaneously the archbishop of Magdeburg and bishop of Halberstadt. b. Office holders would get a "cut" of the revenues. E.g., Albrecht got 50% of the indulgence money collected in his territory. c. E.g., Cardinal Wolsey was archbishop of York while chancellor of England, received stipends from the kings of France and Spain and the Doge of Venice, (i.e., Duke) and had five hundred servants. (Shaff 7:9)

i. What is the threefold office of Christ about?

The Work of Christ 1. Calvin presents the work of Christ under the rubric of the three-fold office: prophet, priest, and king. a. As prophet, Christ is the last and perfect revelation of God. (Ins. II.xv.1-2) b. As priest: (1) "He poured out his sacred blood as the price of redemption, by which was extinguished the wrath (furor) of God burning against us, and our iniquities also were purged." (Ins. IV.viii.9) (2) Christ endured the spiritual agonies of a lost and condemned man. (Ins. II.xvi.10)) (3) His active and passive obedience are both imputed to us. c. As king, Christ is endowed with eternal power, and exercises spiritual and eternal dominion over the church. (Ins. II.xv.9)

f. What is the Extra-Calvinisticum?

The so-called "extra Calvinisticum" ("Calvinistic Extra"): a. The Reformed insist on the utter transcendence of the Logos in and during the incarnation. b. Although the Word is truly united to the human nature of Christ, this human nature does not fully contain the Word. c. Therefore, the Word has operations outside of the human nature of Christ. Note Calvin's statement in the Institutes: "For even if the Word in his immeasurable essence united with the nature of man into one person, we do not imagine that he was confined therein. Here is something marvelous: the Son of God descended from heaven in such a way that, without leaving heaven, he willed to be borne in the virgin's womb, to go about the earth, and to hang upon the cross; yet he continuously filled the world even as he had done from the beginning!" (Ins. 2.xiii.4) d. The Lutherans do not like Calvin's (Antiochene) Christology. They do not like to talk about the exercise of Christ's divinity outside of his humanity. e. Therefore, the Lutherans apply the term "extra Calvinisticum" (i.e., "Calvinistic extra") to the Reformed teaching. f. Related to this is the fact that the Reformed do not hold to the communication of attributes from the divine to the human, since the human is incapable of receiving the divine attributes of omnipresence, omnipotence, etc. g. The Lutheran saying, on the other hand, is "Logos non extra carnem" ("the Logos is not outside of the flesh"), meaning that there is no place that the Logos is present that the human nature of Christ is not also present.

b. Who were the key players of the English Reformation (Henry VIII and his successors)?

Though indigenous, the English Reformation was influenced by what was taking place on the Continent. 1. The writings of Luther soon reached Oxford and Cambridge. 2. Zwingli, Calvin, the Reformed Churches of the Rhine Valley and Holland, Anabaptists and Socinians all influenced it. *** Wives and children of Henry VIII - Catherine of Aragon (died): Mary (Bloody Mary) - Anne Boleyn (Beheaded): Elizabeth - Jane Seymour (died): Edward - Anne of Cleeves(marriage annulled): No issue - Catherine Howard (beheaded): No issue - Catherine of Parrs (outlived Henry VIII): no issue *** - Henry VIII: Catholic, then Anglican - Edward: Anglican - Mary I (Bloody Mary): Catholic - Elizabeth I: Anglican - Charles I: Anglican - Oliver Cromwell: Puritan/Independent - Charles II: Anglican

e. How did Wesley and Whitfield differ in their theological views?

V. George Whitfield (1714-1770) A. Whitfield was also a member of the Oxford "holy club." B. His work was in many ways parallel to Wesley's. C. However, Whitfield strongly differed from Wesley in his theology. Whitfield was a Calvinist. D. Whitfield claims he never actually read Calvin directly. E. According to Gonzalez, Whitfield's contemporaries considered him more persuasive than Wesley.282 F. His work resulted eventually in the Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church. VI. Methodism as a Separate Denomination A. Wesley's Relationship to the Institutional (i.e., Anglican) Church 1. Wesley wanted to channel his piety in the established Church of England. He did not want to separate initially. 2. He believed that the sacraments were an effective means of grace. He was against mysticism that sought to bypass this. 3. Wesley did not think that those outside his Methodist movement were not Christians. a. All who have justifying faith are true Christians. b. Wesley regarded himself as causing renewal within the established church. 4. He held to the Thirty-Nine Articles and commended the Book of Common Prayer to his followers.

g. What were the Semipelagian controversies all about?

VII. The Semipelagian Controversies a. The Augustinian theology did not become generally accepted. b. It was the occasion of long controversies before its authority was generally recognized. c. The issue of grace and predestination was one of the most controversial. d. Many who admired Augustine were not willing to follow him all the way in this area. e. Some were positively hostile to Augustinianism; they thought it was an "innovation". *** - Grace initiate a person's movement toward God. - Grace doesn't eliminate human's responsibility for our action nor does it render ineffective human of urging people to do good.

VII. English Reformation a. Who was William Tyndale?

William Tyndale (1494-1536) 1. Tyndale studied at Oxford and Cambridge. 2. He translated the New Testament into English. 3. Most of his translation work was done on the Continent, but his Bible was circulated in England. 4. There were efforts to suppress this Bible. 5. Some of this translation was used in preparing the King James Version. 6. While on the Continent, Tyndale was strongly influenced by Luther's doctrine of justification by faith. 7. Tyndale was arrested in the Low Countries for heresy, was tried, strangled, and his body was burned in 1536.

VIII. Spiritual awakening and conservative theology a. - Who was Zinzendorf? - Who were the Moravians?

Zinzendorf (1700-1760) A. Zinzendorf was a man of profound religious convictions. B. He studied at Halle, and was influenced by Pietism. C. In 1722 a group of Bohemian Brethren were undergoing persecution. D. Zinzendorf allowed them to settle on his land. E. The group came to be known as "Moravians" and also as "Herrnhuters," after the village of Herrnhut, which they founded in Zinzendorf's territory. II. The Moravians A. These were Lutheran. B. They accepted the Augsburg Confession as their statement of faith. C. For them there was a primacy of devotional life over theology. D. Their devotional life centered on the contemplation of Christ and of his suffering on the cross. E. Statement of Gonzalez: "In him [Christ] they found the sum total of theology, for the Divine was not to be known by any natural or philosophical means, but only through revelation in Christ." (Gonzalez, 3:306)

m. Know the basic differences between Luther and Zwingli's theology.

Zwingli & Luther part ways on the idea of Christ's presence in the Lord's supper. - Zwingli's view of the Lord's supper as memorial sign view. -Church not to be occupied with the externals such as politics, economics, foreign policy, etc.. (Zwingli: Church instrument of reform - Kingdom of Christ is also external) - Sharp distinction between Law and Gospel (Zwingli: No separation between Law and Gospel) - Christ is "really present" in the Lord's Supper (Zwingli: Christ is present "spiritually" in the Lord's super, which is a memorial of his work on the cross. - Use of sacred art in church as long as they are not a distraction (Zwingli: No use of sacred art in the church) - Hymns and Spiritual songs (Zwingli: Psalms only)

b. Who was Gregory the great?

a. Background i. Gregory came from an aristocratic family ii. Churchmen during this period often came out of aristocratic families. iii. He was an imperial representative. iv. He raised taxes and an army to defend against the Lombards. b. Monastic and missionary life i. Gregory eventually joined a monastery he had founded ii. In 586 he went back to Rome as abbot of a monastery but retained his political authority. iii. In 588-89 he waned to go to Britain as a missionary. But the Pope died and Gregory was elected as Pope while on his way. iv. A locust landed on his hand, and he interpreted this to mean, "in loco sta" (stay in your place; In Latin, "locusta" = "locust"; "in loco sta" = "stay in your place"). v. So he stopped his journey, and messengers who had been looking for him were able to catch up and let him know he was elected Pope. vi. In 596, Gregory chose a Benedictine monk, Augustine, to go to Britain. He was successful in converting the king of one the British dominions. Augustine went on to become one of the first bishops of Canterbury. Britain was also evangelized by Celtic Christians (mainly from Ireland and Scotland, who adhered to an Eastern/Graeco type of Christianity). c. Gregory's Rule as Pope i. Gregory came to the papacy at a time of upheaval, disorganization and trouble: "It is an old ship, hard beset by waves, pressed about on all sides by heavy seas; the screeching of the rotting planks warns us of the ship wreck ahead." Epistle 1.4

d. - Who was Pelagius? - What were his doctrinal views on Adam, the fall, the will, sin, grace, and salvation?

a. Background i. Pelagius was probably British by birth. ii. Studied Greek theology iii. He was intellectual, mild, cultured, and moral. iv. He was also legalistic, self-disciplined, and self-righteous. b. Religious outlook i. He was a lay monk ii. He was outwardly very moral iii. Pelagius was disciplined in keeping commandments iv. He never had any profound struggle with sin v. He also had no concept of salvation by faith vi. He saw sin only in terms of outward action *** d. Doctrines Involved i. Adam 1. NO + positive holiness 2. Neutral can do either good or evil. 3. Adam's sin merely = a bad example. NO inherited depravity. 4. Mortal ii. The Fall 1. injured no one but Adam himself 2. Human nature can do good 3. NO hereditary transmission of sin and guilt, NO "original sin" 4. Children born now are like Adam was before the fall 5. Romans 5:12 does not teach sin by propagation, but by imitation. We choose to imitate Adam's bad example. iii. The Will 1. There are no evil tendencies and desires in man's nature which inevitably result in sin. 2. Man has the liberty of choice, so that at any given moment he can choose good or evil. 3. "Free Will = Free Choice" . Freedom is the ability to choose between the alternatives. 4. Statements of Pelagius (see BB. Warfield, Augustine and the Pelagian Controversy, 293ff) a. "Whether we will, or whether we will not, we have the capacity of not sinning" b. "I say that man is able to be without sin, and that he is able to keep the commandments of God." c. "We say that man is always able both to sin and not to sin, so as that we may confess that we have free will." Pelagius, in "Confession of Faith". 5. The fact that God commands man what to do proves that man is able to do it. a. "Be ye perfect" b. "Choose this day whom ye will serve" iv. Universality of sin: a. Pelagius admits that sin is universal, but he attributed the universality to wrong education, to a bad example, and to a long established pattern of sinning. v. Grace: 1. God created man with free will rather than creating him unable to keep commandments. 2. There is also special grace which can help man overcome evil and is an advantage to him. a. With this grace man can more easily fulfill the commandments. b. Included in this special grace are Scripture, Christ's example, the help of the Church, etc. 3. Grace is not seen as an inward working but only in terms of externals, such as man's rational nature, God's revelation in Scripture and the example of Christ.

d. - What is the basic idea behind Wesley's "Christian Perfection"? - In Wesley's view, is it attainable in this life?

b. "Entire Sanctification" for Christians (1) Wesley's teaching on "entire sanctification" was debated in his own time, and has been controversial ever since. (2) Wesley is very clear that sanctification and justification both arise from faith. (3) Sanctification is not instantaneous; it is a pilgrimage on which every believer must set out. (4) Entire sanctification is the goal of all believers and is attainable in this life. (5) "Entire sanctification" does not mean that the Christian who has attained it no longer errs, but that he does not do so knowingly. (6) Wesley did not believe that every Christian attains this state in his or her lifetime, but he believed that it should be attained, and that the doctrine should be preached.

b. What was his approach to philosophy?

b. Approach to Philosophy 1. Philosophy and theology are inseparable in his mind 2. Philosophy = reason in the service of theology a. You can use it to show the error of the unbeliever b. You can use it to enrich and deepen the faith of believers. He already believes by faith what he is trying to prove by reason. 3. "Christ must come to the intellect through the avenue of faith and not to faith through the avenue of the intellect. On the other hand, Anselm declared himself against blind belief, and calls it a sin of neglect when he who has faith, does not strive after knowledge." (Schaff, 5:601) 4. Like Augustine, Anselm felt that faith was the precondition of the right use of reason (Credo ut intellegam: I believe in order that I may know) 5. Quote from Cur Deus Homo? a. "Those who ask [that he write down some of the things they have heard him say] ask this not in order to attain unto faith through reason, but in order to rejoice in the understanding and contemplation of that which they believe, and also in order to be always prepared in as much as possible, to answer all who may ask for the reason for the hope that is in us." (CDH, 1.1) b. "I do not try, Lord, to attain your lofty heights, because my understanding is in no way equal to it. But I do desire to understand your truth a little, that truth that my heart believes and loves. For I do not seek to understand so that I may believe; but I believe in order that I may understand. For I believe this also, that 'unless I believe, I shall not understand.'" (Proslogion, 1) 6. Anselm attempts to use philosophical method to explicate the faith. However he is not a rationalist because he does not subordinate faith to reason. He has already accepted by faith the doctrines that he attempts to prove/explicate by reason. 7. Anselm does not make any clear distinction or limitation as to what doctrines can be explained and/or proven through philosophy. a. E.g., Anselm would argue that not only can God's existence be shown to be necessary through reason, but his triunity can as well. b. This is different from certain later thinkers, most notably Aquinas, who drew a sharper distinction between what matters could be addressed by both faith and reason and which could be addressed by faith alone.

c. What the ontological argument all about?

c. Proofs for the existence of God i. Anselm develops his proof in the Monologion and Proslogion. ii. He tries to prove the existence of God from reason, apart from scripture iii. Anselm's argument is called the "ontological argument" which is presented in the Proslogion. iv. It is based on the notion that the very idea of a perfect being entails His existence v. Statement of the argument from the Proslogion: 1. "But surely, when this same Fool (i.e., of Ps. 14:1, 53:1) hears what I am speaking about, namely, 'something-than-which-nothing-greater-can-be-thought,' he understands what he hears, and what he understands is in his mind, even if he does not understand that it actually exists. For it is one thing for an object to exist in the mind, and another thing to understand that an object actually exists...And surely that-than-which-a-greater-cannot-be-thought cannot exist in the mind alone, this same that-than-which-a-greater-cannot-be thought is that-than-which-a-greater-can-be-thought. But this is obviously impossible. Therefore there is absolutely no doubt that something-than-which-a-greater-cannot-be-thought exists both in the mind and in reality." (Proslogion, 2). vi. Explanation in other words: 1. For example, a painter, before he paints his picture, has an image of it in his mind. 2. So the painting can exist in his intellect before he paints it, but it exists outside his intellect only after he paints it. 3. In the same way, we can convince the fool that he has the idea of "God" in his mind, just as the painter has the image of his painting. a. The fool understands what we mean by God: " a being than which no greater can be conceived." 4. Of course, at this point in the argument the fool will say, "God exists only in the mind, just as that unpainted painting exists only in the artist's mind." 5. However, to exist in reality is greater than to exist in the mind only. 6. Therefore, if the "greatest" conceivable being exists only in the mind, he is not the greatest one conceivable, since the greatest being conceivable exists outside as well as inside the mind. 7. Therefore, the fool is involved in an irreconcilable contradiction: the being "than which no greater can be conceived" - who supposedly exists only in the fools mind - is actually that "than which something greater can be conceived." That is, we can conceive of the being as actually existent, which makes him greater. vii. Underlying premises of the argument: 1. God is definable as that than which nothing greater can be thought. 2. What exists in actual reality is greater than what exists in the mind alone. 3. If you assume the above two ideas, then God must exist, on pain of contradiction.

d. What was Anselm's contribution to atonement theory?

d. Contribution to atonement theory i. Importance of Anselm 1. With Anselm the systematic study of the atonement begins 2. He made the first attempt at a consistent and harmonious representation of the doctrine. 3. Earlier writers advanced a variety of theories, not always consistent with one another. a. Ransom to Satan b. Recapitulation theory c. Example of Christ, of divine suffering love

g. Review notes on Thomas and Aristotle

d. Thomas and Aristotle i. The Latin church was now becoming acquainted with the "new" system of Aristotle as the last word on human wisdom. ii. Some in the church emphasized the hostility of this new philosophy to Christianity. Therefore, they rejected Aristotle. 1. Aristotle developed his philosophy independently of the Christian faith. Since it is independent, it could not be true. 2. E.g., St. Bonaventure argues this way. iii. Other's argued that what is true in philosophy is not necessarily true in theology. So Aristotle may be good philosophically, but that does not make it of theological value. iv. But still others (Albertus Magnus) argued the new philosophy did not necessarily conflict with faith. Thomas agreed with Albert v. Thomas thought that Aristotelian system was helpful. Aristotle had been able to attain truth. vi. But Thomas was no blind worshipper of "The Philosopher." 1. Thomas' basic material is always the Catholic tradition. 2. He often interprets Aristotle in harmony with Augustine and the Catholic tradition. 3. E.g., the eternity of the world. a. With Aristotle, Thomas agreed that by natural reason the world cannot be proved to have a beginning. b. Nonetheless, as a matter of revelation, Thomas affirms that the world was created ex nihilo.

j. What was his view on the relationship between philosophy and theology?

e. Relationship of Philosophy and Theology i. Distinction 1. Thomas made a much clearer distinction between philosophy and theology, reason and revelation, than any of the other schoolmen before him. 2. The axioms of philosophy are known by reason alone. They are known by rational, logical methods. 3. On the other hand, the theologian uses reason, but derives the basic axioms from authority, revelation, and faith. The basic data are revealed. 4. There is no contradiction between philosophy and theology. Both are fountains of knowledge. Both come from the same God. 5. Faith and reason are two radically different ways of knowing, which cohere. 6. Only from these can one argue rationally toward conclusions. 7. E.g. The Trinity is revealed. It is a dogma of Scripture. But then Thomas uses philosophical categories to understand the doctrine better. 8. Some truths are proper to Theology only. Some truths are proper to philosophy only. Some truths are proper to both (i.e., they are revealed but can also be established by reason). So they can be taught by both. 9. But reason and faith arrive at the same truths differently. It is a formal difference. ii. Two types of theology: Dogmatic and Natural 1. Dogmatic: This refers to revealed, sacred doctrine, such as the Trinity and the incarnation. 2. Natural: This is part of philosophy, and uses the philosophical method. It is that part of philosophy and theology that overlaps. a. Natural theology = that part of metaphysics that treats the doctrine of God. b. Aquinas says that almost all philosophy points to God. Natural theology is the culmination of philosophy. c. Natural theology in itself cannot achieve our end in God. Truth is often mixed with error. Thus, revelation is necessary. d. So God has also revealed truths that could not be discovered by natural theology, because otherwise it would take too long and/or error mixed in if we had to discover it for ourselves. 3. Can we believe the same truth on the authority of faith and also by reason? a. Strictly speaking, Aquinas says NO. b. Once a truth has been proven philosophically, it is no longer believed but KNOWN. That is, faith is no longer involved. 4. Two Ends a. Bonum Ultimatum i. We can achieve the highest good proportionate to human power. ii. A certain happiness in this life is possible by the exercise of our natural powers. iii. The existence of this goal and means are discoverable by philosophers. iv. The philosopher can consider the end of humanity insofar as it is discoverable by reason. v. But this is still incomplete and imperfect. We must move beyond the natural to the supernatural goal of humanity. We must move to eternal life. b. Summum Bonum i. This is final good. ii. Knowledge of this transcends the powers of nature iii. It is only known through theology iv. It is given by grace v. The natural end cannot satisfy us and points to the supernatural. vi. So in seeking the natural, we are going the right way, but not far enough. The natural end is imperfect because it is incomplete, not because it is wrong.

II. Augustine, Pelagius and Semi-Pelagianism a. Who is Augustine

f. Ordination and clerical office i. In 391 (5 yrs after conversion) he was chosen to fill the position of presbyter in the harbor city of Hippo. 1. He as actually pressed into service for the position against his will. 2. He felt compelled to take the position after much insistence and labored there until his death (for 38 years). ii. In 395 he became the assistant to Bishop Valerius. iii. In 396 Augustine was pressed by the priests in the diocese to accept the position of Bishop of Hippo. g. Manner of life after conversion i. Augustine never forgot his awful past. His life is detailed in his Confessions: "Thou has made us for thyself and our heart is restless until it finds it's rest in thee" (1.1) ii. His life a simple life which was mildly ascetic. iii. Had an active preaching ministry and often preached five days in succession, sometimes twice a day. 1/ Influence of Augustine in his own day i. Though Hippo was a relatively insignificant town, Augustine's influence reached far beyond its borders. ii. He was involved in important theological and ecclesiastical questions of the day iii. He was looked to as the defender of orthodoxy against a variety of heretical and schismatic groups that plagued the church of his day. 2/ Final days i. Augustine's final days ii. He was greatly troubled over the invasion of the Vandals in North Africa, who (as their name was to later signify) pillaged cities, destroyed villages, and even decimated churches. Just before his death Vandals were laying siege to his own city, Hippo. iii. During the last ten days of his life, he spent his time in prayer, confession, and repeatedly reading the penitential Psalms. He even had these Psalms written on the wall over his bed, to keep them before him. (Schaff, History, 3:995). iv. Augustine died on August 28, 430, at the age of 76. v. "Thus with an act of penance he closed his life. In this midst of the terrors of the siege and the despair of his people he could not suspect what abundant seed he had sown for the future." vi. Shortly after his death, Hippo was destroyed by the Vandals.

h. What was the Summa Contra Gentiles about?

i. "Summas" 1. Summa Contra Gentiles (c. 1260) a. The point of this work was to assist those trying to convert the Moors in Spain b. He tries to show that philosophy (especially Aristotle) is not necessarily anti-Christian. c. In this work he seems to put reason before faith. But one must understand the apologetic intent of the work. *** Apologetic work synthesizing Christian argument against non-Christian views.

e. What is the central argument of Cur Deus Homo?

ii. His key work: Cur Deus Homo? 1. Sometimes translated "Why God became man?" but better translated, "Why the God-Man?" as the latter translation properly expresses what the work is all about? 2. The work is really about the internal logic of the atonement. So the work is asking the question, "Why a God-man, as opposed to an angel, a mere man, etc."

c. - What distinguished Gregory as a pope? - What were his views on Scriptural interpretation? - What type of ransom theory of atonement did he teach? - What were his contributions?

ii. Influence of Gregory's monasticism on his papal rule 1. Gregory was monk. He set the precedent for monks to become popes 2. He was characterized by simplicity, austerity, and ascetism. 3. Had great missionary zeal 4. He gave confirmation to Benedict's Rule and made poverty, chastity and obedience, etc. the norm 5. He was involved in works of charity and sold the wealth of the church to alleviate poverty and to buy off slaves (he wanted to eliminate slavery) iii. His concerns in preaching and worship 1. In preaching and worship he was interested in practical application 2. He used an allegorical method of interpretation 3. He codified the chant; he even founded a school where ecclesiastical chanting was taught. iv. Theology grounded in Scripture and Tradition 1. Gregory balances Scripture and tradition a. Early on, we have the apostolic witness plus the Old Testament. b. Gregory looks at the tradition of the patristic period, which worries about weeding out heresies and establishing of dogma. c. He receives and venerates the four ecumenical councils (the last two were after his time), as he venerated the four gospels. d. He grounds teaching in Scripture, and finds in Scripture the traditions of the church. e. In some sense Scripture is the prior norm, but tradition becomes strong secondary norm which helps understand Scripture. ***2. Interpretation of Scripture a. Gregory's commentary on Job, The Moralia. i. The Moralia takes up 35 books. ii. Presents a three-fold exegesis of Job iii. It is a moral textbook for the middle ages b. The literal meaning is always the ground of interpretation. i. Medieval exegesis assumes that you must master the literal meaning before you can extrapolate the higher meaning. c. Theology is the result of symbolical or allegorical reasoning i. One cannot extrapolate on the extrapolation (i.e. the allegory), one must go back to the text again for more extrapolation. ii. This gives measure of control *** Taught penance and absolution as sacramental activities -Support the reverence of saints and relics and the idea of purgatory - The sacrifice of mass helps souls. *** - Contribution of Gregory the Great a. Gregory was a great codifier and organizer b. He gathers ideas and makes the Augustinian system work for the middle ages. i. However, his Augustinianism was of a slanted sort ii. "Almost everything in Gregory has its roots in the teaching of Augustine, and yet scarcely anything is really Augustinian. That which was un-Augustinian in Augustine becomes the vital element of this Semi-Augustinian. The fundamental spirit of Augustine has vanished, and superstition gained supremacy. Everything is coarser, more fixed, and ordinary. The controlling motive is not the peace of the heart which finds rest in God; but the fear of uncertainty, which seeks to attain security the institutions of the church" (Seeberg, 2:26) c. He was a great administrator without equal and had tremendous diplomatic and political skills. d. He stabilized the church and the Western world that was in his reach. e. He was the first pope in the modern sense of the word. i. That is, he was the first pope runs the whole church ii. In earlier times, e.g., Ambrose was the heavyweight; Augustine did not always obey the bishop of Rome, etc.

k. What are the "Five Ways" all about?

ii. Proofs: Quinque viae (5 ways) 1. Motion or Change a. This proof is taken directly from Aristotle b. Maimonides and Magnus used this argument also. c. The argument is based on the reduction of potency to act. d. If something is moved, it must be moved by something already moving. e. But since an infinite series is impossible, the thing must move by an unmoved mover, which is God. f. In other words, the motion presupposes an original mover. 2. Cause and Effect: a. This is used by Aristotle, Avicenna, and Magnus. b. There is no infinite chain cause and effect. c. Therefore, there must be a first cause. 3. Contingent and Necessary: a. This proof was used by Avicenna and Maimonides. b. Some things go into and out of existence. So these things are not necessary, since they can come and go. c. Contingent being must come from somewhere. But necessary being is God. d. In other words, the conditional demands that which is absolute. 4. Gradation: a. This is more Platonic kind of argument b. The argument is based on comparative judgments c. "Better" implies a "best" d. We understand relative goodness from the fact that absolute goodness exists. 5. Order: a. The argument is based on order of nature. b. The order comes from God. c. It is a teleological argument.

e. In contrast, what were Augustine's views on the same issues?

vi. Augustine's position 1. Sin a. Sin is not something positive, but a negation or privation. b. It is not a substantial evil added to man, but a privatio boni (Privation of good) c. The general result of man's defection is seen in concupiscence, which is the inordinate sensuous desire instead of reason in the soul. d. Concupiscence can be translated as "lust," but it is not just in the sexual sphere - though it certainly is shown here. All inordinate affections are examples of concupiscence. 2. Adam a. Adam was created immortal b. This does not mean that Adam was impervious to death, but that he had the capacity for bodily immortality. c. Had he proven obedient, he would have confirmed in holiness. d. Adam had the ability not to sin. He chose to sin freely. e. From the state of posse non peccare et mori ("ability not to sin and die") Adam would have passed to state of non posse peccare et mori ("the inability to sin and die"). But because he chose to sin he entered into the state of non posse non peccare et mori ("the inability not to sin and die"). 3. The Fall a. Through the organic connection between Adam and his descendants, the former transmits his fallen nature, with the guild and corruption attaching to it, to his posterity. b. Some (e.g. Berkhof) claim Augustine held to the "realistic" view (i.e., that we were really present in Adam, in seminal form, and therefore participated in his sin). But there is possibly a combination the realistic and "federal" views. 4. Augustine's position: Freedom of the will a. As a result of sin man is totally depraved and unable to do any spiritual good b. Augustine radically affirms free will, but in a completely different sense from Pelagius i. It is complete misunderstanding to say that Augustine denied free will. ii. For Augustine the will is radically free because it has nothing prior to it. The will is not coerced. iii. When people sin, they exercise their free wills freely to do so. iv. For Pelagius, "free-will" = "free choice". For Augustine "Free = "freedom from outside coercion" v. Thus, we do have free will to the degree that our choices arise freely from within, and without coercion from the outside. c. On the other had, Augustine teaches the absence of completely free choice. That is, we do have free choice but it is governed by and limited to what we are by nature. 5. Grace a. The will of man needs renewal b. This renewal is exclusively a work grace from start to finish c. Irresistible grace i. It is not that grace forces the will contrary to the nature of man as a free agent, but rather that it so changes the will that man voluntarily chooses that which is good. ii. God so operates on the free will of man that of his own free choice he chooses good and virtue. d. Salvation and regeneration are entirely monergistic i. The operation of the Holy Spirit is necessary, not for supplying a deficiency but for a complete renewal. ii. Grace is given not because someone believes but that he may believe; faith itself a gift of God. e. Stages in the work of grace i. Prevenient Grace: The Holy Spirit employs the law to produce sin and guilt. ii. Operative Grace: God uses the Gospel for production of that faith in Christ and His atoning work which issues in justification and peace with God. iii. Co-operative Grace: The will of man cooperates with Him in the life-long work of sanctification. This includes the entire renewal in the image of God and spiritual transformation of sinner into a saint. 6. Predestination a. What God does in time for the renewal of the sinner He also willed to do in eternity. b. At first, Augustine held that predestination was based on foreknowledge. That is, he initially believed that God simply look out over the sweep of time, sees who will exercise their free choice to accept Christ, and then "elects" then on that basis. c. But later Augustine admitted that even the choice of good and faith in Christ are themselves effects of grace. d. The non-elect's reprobation is one of permission only. i. God creates the world with freedom ii. He foreknows that man would fall. iii. He eternally wills to save some out of the sinful mass of fallen humanity. iv. The fall is not in the decree. This is the infralapsarian model of predestination. e. Only those who are regenerated and persevere will be saved.