Theories of Personality Exam 2

Source Trait

Basic traits that make up human personality; building blocks of personality.

Emotional affectivity (Associations with behaviors, etc)

Individual differences referred by psychologists. Knowing where to place a person on the two affect dimensions. Predicting with reasonable accuracy a person general tendency to experience positive and negative affect years from now. Individual differences in positive and negative affect predict a number of behaviors. Behavior consistently associated with high positive affect is social activity. Act in ways that most people find attractive. Tend to be happy, enthusiastic, and attentive. More friends and more social activity

Acquiescence

(or agreement) response can translate into a problem on some self-report scales. If the score for the trait is simply the number of "true" or "agree" answers on a scale, someone with a strong acquiescence tendency would score high on the scale regardless of the content of the items. Moreover, people susceptible to an acquiescence response tendency tend to be different from typical test takers on several demographic and personality variables, and the response tendency may affect some personality scales more than others. People tendency to agree with test items can distort the meaning of the scores.

Bio-basis for Eysenck's Model/Evidence

- Consistency of extraversion-introversion over time - Cross-cultural researches indicated the three dimensions of personality - Genetics play a vital role in determining a person's placement on the personality dimensions For example, one study found that participants' scores on measures of extraversion-introversion remained fairly consistent over a span of 45 years. This finding alone does not establish that extraversion-introversion is determined through biology. It is possible that people remain in similar environments throughout their lives. Eysenck pointed to the results of cross-cultural research. Investigators often find the same three dimensions of personality—extraversion-introversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism—in studies conducted in many different countries with people from very different cultures. Eysenck maintained that this level of cross-cultural consistency would be unlikely unless biological factors were largely responsible for personality. Eysenck noted the results of several studies indicating that genetics plays an important role in determining a person's placement on each of the three personality dimensions.

Characteristics of People with Social Anxiety

- Feeling awkward and nervous when interacting with others - Being concerned of other perception about them - Stumbling over words and sating the wrong thing - Feeling ashamed and embarrassed in social situations Socially anxious people report feeling awkward and nervous when they have to talk to others, particularly when interacting with people they don't know. They are very concerned about what others will think of them and become self-conscious when they meet new people or have to talk in front of an audience. Quite often, socially anxious people think about what they are doing wrong, how stupid they must sound, and how foolish they must look. Shy people often stumble over their words, say the wrong thing, and show outward signs of nervousness, such as perspiration and shakiness. Shy people are more likely than most to feel ashamed or embarrassed about what they say or do in social situations, which is probably why shy people are also more likely than nonshys to blush. Shy people sometimes become so self-conscious during a social encounter that they miss important cues about what the other person is feeling. Often they cannot think of anything to say and may blurt out something inappropriate or allow the conversation to fall into silence, which can be extremely uncomfortable for someone already suffering from social anxiety. To alleviate their discomfort, socially anxious people at social gatherings sometimes turn to alcohol or drugs.

The Trait Approach to Personality (Assumptions)

Built on two important assumptions. First, trait psychologists assume that personality characteristics are relatively stable over time. Someone who tends to be highly sociable today will probably tend to be sociable next month, next year, and many years down the road. This is not to say that personality does not change. The second assumption underlying the trait approach is that personality characteristics are stable across situations. Aggressive people should exhibit higher than-average amounts of aggression during family disagreements as well as when playing softball. - Usually not interested in predicting one person's behavior in a given situation. - Interested in how people score within a certain segment of the trait continuum typically behave

Optimism vs. Pessimism (Achievement, Adversity, Health - Research Findings)

- Optimist and pessimist use different strategies to cope with their problems - Optimist Deal with adverse situations better than pessimist - Dispositional optimism: Living in stressful region experienced less anxiety and depression then pessimists Researchers looked at coping and adjustment among residents of Haifa, an area repeatedly threatened with SCUD missile attacks during the time the study was conducted. The investigators found that dispositional optimists living in this region experienced less anxiety and less depression than those identified as pessimists. Similar reactions are found in people dealing with less acute sources of stress. In one study, optimistic women who had surgery for breast cancer reported less distress during the year following the surgery and showed higher levels of adjustment several years later than pessimistic women going through the same experience. Optimists believe they can get things done, and so they are more likely to deal with their problems head-on—that is, to use active coping strategies. Pessimists are more likely to distract themselves or resort to denial when faced with a difficult problem. Optimists are more likely than pessimists to develop wide social networks and to turn to friends in times of crisis. Optimism and pessimism can lead to physiological changes that affect one's health. Optimists are healthier than pessimists, an optimistic outlook leads to the kinds of attitudes and behaviors that contribute to good health.

High Achievement Motivation Characteristics

- Taking moderate risks - Tackling work with a lot of energy - Being disinterested in routine and boring jobs - Preferring jobs that give personal responsibility for outcomes - Wanting concrete feedback about the performance People with a high need for Achievement do not always fit our stereotypes of a highly successful businessperson. For example, we might guess that someone with a high need for Achievement is not afraid to take huge risks to get ahead. But as it turns out, high need achievers are only moderate risk takers. People with a high need for Achievement tackle their work with a lot of energy. But high need achievers don't work hard at everything. Researchers also found that people with a high need for Achievement were more likely than others to find economic prosperity. The same need to achieve that helps some people succeed can at times interfere with effective performance.

Central Traits (Allport)

5 to 10 traits that best describe an individual's personality. Is used to first determine the central traits for an individual and then decide he or she falls on each dimension, the traits vary from person to person.

Trait

A dimension of personality used to categorize people according to the degree to which they manifest a particular characteristic.

Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)

A hypothetical biological system that is focused on avoiding dangerous and unpleasant experiences. People with high BIS are apprehensive and quick to retreat from problematic situations - Experience more anxiety - A connection between the BAS and extraversion and connection between the BIS and neuroticism Individuals with an active BAS also experience more anger and frustration when they fall short of reaching anticipated sources of pleasure. People with a highly active BIS tend to be more apprehensive than others. They approach new situations warily, are on a constant lookout for signs of danger, and are quick to retreat from a situation that they sense might lead to problems. Not surprisingly, they also are more likely to experience anxiety than people low on this dimension.

Behavioral Approach System (BAS)

A hypothetical biological system that is focused on seeking out and achieving pleasurable goals. Compared to people low on this dimension, they get more pleasure out of rewards and more enjoyment out of simply anticipating that rewards are coming. People with high BAS seek out and achieve pleasurable goals - Experience more anger and frustration - Individual low on BAS get pleasure out of rewards and anticipating those rewards

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

A projective measure designed to get at material not readily accessible to conscious thought.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

A prototypic self-report inventory used by clinical psychologist. The original MMPI was developed in the late 1930s. The MMPI and its revised versions have ranked among the most widely used clinical assessment tools. The MMPI has also been used in an enormous amount of research. However, this does not mean the MMPI is without its critics. Psychologists continue to debate the validity of some scales, the appropriateness of some of the norm data provided by the test makers, and the nature of some of the constructs the test is designed to measure, among other issues.

Factor Analysis (Cattell)

A statistical technique used to determine the structure of human personality. By analyzing data from various sources with factor analyses, he attempted to determine how many of these basic elements exist. He called the basic traits that make up the human personality source traits. One serious limitation of factor analysis is that the procedure is confined by the type of data chosen for analysis. For example, what would happen if you took a few tests out of the previous example and inserted a few new ones, such as independence, absentmindedness, and honesty? Most likely, this would change the number of categories (called factors) and the traits associated with them (or, in factor analytic terms, "loaded on" them).

Person-By-Situation Approach

An approach to understanding behavior that maintains behavior is a function of the person as well as the situation. Individual traits as well as situation determine behavior

Extraversion (Eysenck)

Are outgoing, impulsive, uninhibited, and sociable. "outgoing, impulsive, and uninhibited, having many social contacts and frequently taking part in group activities. The typical extravert is sociable, likes parties, has many friends, needs to have people to talk to, and does not like reading or studying by himself"

Introversion (Eysenck)

Are quiet, introspective, reserved, and distant expect to intimate friends. "a quiet, retiring sort of person, introspective, fond of books rather than people; he is reserved and distant except to intimate friends". Of course, most people fall somewhere between these two extremes, but each of us is perhaps a little more one than the other.

Hans Eysenck's Approach

Argued that personality was, in fact, determined more by biological makeup than by any actions or mistakes made by one's parents. Employed factor analysis to identify super traits. Can be summed within three basic personality dimensions: - Extraversion-introversion - Neuroticism - Psychoticism

16 PF

Cattell collected information about personality from many different sources. In addition to data from personality tests, he examined personal records, such as report cards and ratings by employers, and looked at how people acted when placed in lifelike situations. From this work, Cattell identified 16 basic traits, and created a personality test, the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF), to measure them. A revised version of the 16 PF remains a widely used personality inventory today. a. Reserved - outgoing b. Less intelligent - more intelligent c. Stable, ego strength - neuroticism d. Humble - assertive e. Sober - happy go lucky f. Expedient - conscientious g. Shy - venturesome h. Tough minded - tender-minded i. Trusting - suspicious j. Practical - imaginative k. Forthright - shrewd l. Placid - apprehensive m. Conservative - experimenting n. Group dependent - self-sufficient

Personology

Combination of psychoanalytic and trait concepts. Needs: basic elements of personality

Attributions and Achievement Behavior

Determines how we feel about the performance and how we perform in similar situations in the future. Researchers find that people attribute losses to unstable sources which keeps hope of winning alive. Researchers typically focus on three dimensions. One is the stability dimension. We can explain our performance by pointing to stable causes, such as intelligence, or to unstable causes, such as luck. In addition, an attribution may be either internal to us, such as the amount of effort put forth, or external, such as a difficult test. Researchers refer to this dimension as locus. Finally, there is the dimension of control—whether we can control or not control the cause of the success or failure.

Common Traits

Each person in a study using the nomothetic approach is tested to see how his or her score for the given trait compares with the scores of other participants. Allport referred to these traits that presumably apply to everyone as common traits.

Application of the Big Five

Employers have used scores from personality tests to make hiring and promotion decisions for many years. Critics have complained that employers misuse and misinterpret personality test scores when making these decisions. Researchers provide stronger evidence for the relationship between personality and job performance. Research indicates that conscientiousness may be the best predictor of job performance. Highly conscientious people are organized, hardworking, persistent, and achievement oriented. People high in agreeableness are trusting, cooperative, and helpful (work well in team jobs). Extraverts have an edge in the business world over introverts. Rather than examining a large number of personality variables that may or may not be related to how well people perform their jobs, researchers addressed the question of personality and job performance by using the five larger personality dimensions. The findings from that research provided much stronger evidence for the relationship between personality and job performance than had been previously demonstrated.

Affectivity

Extent to which people experience positive and negative emotions.

Three Dimensions (Eysenck)

Eysenck's factor analytic research yielded evidence for two basic dimensions that could subsume all other traits: Extraversion Introversion Neuroticism Because the dimensions are independent of one another, people who score on the extraversion end of the first dimension can score either high or low on the second dimension.

Specific Response Level

Eysenck's research strategy began by dividing the elements of personality into various units that can be arranged hierarchically. The basic structure in this scheme is the specific response level, which consists of specific behaviors.

Type A vs. Type B: Hostility, Health, Physio, Stress

Findings explaining relationships between Type A behavior and coronary disease. Type A: need not be bad for health. By avoiding minor setbacks and frustrations it is possible to be productive and healthy. Participants high in hostility showed elevated levels of blood pressure when they interacted with other people, whereas the low hostility participants showed no such reaction. Possible the high-hostility participants found many of their conversations frustrating or annoying, and this reaction resulted in higher blood pressure. The high-hostility women in the study did not have this reactions, perhaps because women generally fin social interactions more pleasant and less a source of frustration than do men. Several investigators reported low or nonexistent relationships between Type A behavior and coronary disease. One team of researchers examined the relationship between Type A and death from cardiovascular disease in a study spanning more than two decades and found no connection. This line of reasoning led some researchers to look for the "toxic component" of Type A behavior. A large amount of evidence now points to the hostility component as the culprit. People high in hostility aren't necessarily violent or even bossy. Rather, they tend to have a strong reaction to the small frustrations and inconveniences we all experience. Several investigations find that scores on hostility and anger measures do a good job of predicting coronary artery disease. Compared to participants low in trait anger, participants who scored high on this trait were more than twice as likely to suffer some form of coronary heart disease during this time. The high-anger participants were nearly three times as likely to be hospitalized or die from heart disease during the study.

Questions and disagreements regarding the Big Five

First, there is some debate about what the five factors mean. For example, these factors may simply represent five dimensions built into our language. This model may not accurately capture the complexities and subtleties of human personality. Disagreement about the structure of the five factor model. Some factor-analytic studies find patterns that do not fit well within the five-factor structure. In recent years, researchers have on occasion found evidence for seven, six, three, two, and even one basic factor(s). When to use score from the five measures versus scores from specific trait scales What kind of data to include in the factor analysis? For example, most studies finding five factors do not include traits that are evaluative, such as special or immoral. A few personality descriptors simply do not fit well within the five-factor model. These maverick traits include religiousness, youthfulness, frugality, humor, and cunning. Stability of factors over time. On the other hand, researchers sometimes find general trends in Big Five scores over the lifespan. When to use score from the five measures versus scores from specific trait scales. Examining a specific trait is usually better for predicting relevant behaviors than measuring a global personality dimension.

According to Murray, each of us can be described in terms of a personal hierarchy of needs.

For example, if you have a strong need for a lot of close friends, you would be said to have a high need for Affiliation. The importance of this need is not so much how it compares with the Affiliation needs of other people but how intense it is compared to your other needs. Suppose you have a big test tomorrow, but your friends are having a party tonight. If your Achievement need is higher on your personal hierarchy than your need for Affiliation or your need for Play, you'll probably stay with your books. If your Achievement need, although high, is not quite as strong as these other needs, your grade will probably suffer.

Gender Differences in Temperament

Gender differences can be seen in children as young as 3 months of age. Temperament play a role in personality development - Types and behavioral and psychological outcomes over years Adult personalities are determined by both inherited temperament and the environment - Temperament influences the environment which in turn influences the way temperament develops into stable personality traits.

Temperament

General patterns of behavior and mood that can be expressed in many different ways and that, depending on one's experiences, develop into different personality traits. General behavioral dispositions that can be expressed in different ways depending on an individual's experiences. Development into stable personality traits depends on complex interplay of genetic predispositions and environment.

Effortful Control (Gender Differences in Temperament)

Girls are more likely than boys to exhibit an effortful control temperament, which includes the ability to focus attention and exercise control over impulsive urges.

Gorden Allport's theory and contribution to trait theory

He accepted that behavior is influenced by a variety of environmental factors and recognized that traits are not useful for predicting what a single individual will do. Believed that our traits have physical components in our nervous systems. Acknowledged the limitation of the trait concept. Promoted the concept of self

Psychogenic Needs (Murray)

He eventually arrived at a list of 27 psychogenic needs, including the need for autonomy, the need for achievement, the need for dominance, and the need for order.

Physio Differences (Eysenck)

He originally maintained that extraverts and introverts have different levels of cerebral cortex arousal when in a non-stimulating, resting state. Although it may sound backward at first, he proposed that extraverts generally have a lower level of cortical arousal than do introverts.

Henry Murray's Theory and Contributions

Henry Murray's approach to personality was a blend of psychoanalytic and trait concepts. The psychoanalytic influence on Murray's work also can be seen in one of his principal contributions to the field of personality, the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). - Focused on psychogenic need (viscerogenic needs)

Affect Intensity (Low-High)

High intensity people experience their emotions more intensely, but also tend to be more variable. Difference between high and low intensity people is how they react to the events. Difference in the way of experiencing happiness: - High intensity people: happiness means a lot of exhilarating and enlivening experiences - Low intensity people: happiness takes the form of a calm and enduring sense of contentment

Gender Achievement Motivation

High need for achievement predicts success in the business world for both genders. Men and women think about achievement in different ways. Men see success in terms of external standards Whether they gain prestige or recognition for accomplishments. Women tend to rely on internal definitions of success. Whether they accomplish what they set out to do. Way to improve achievement motivation. Change people attributions. (E.g.) make controllable attribution for performances. Much of the early work on need for Achievement was conducted with only male participants. When the research was initiated in the 1950s, relatively few women entered the business world and even fewer had opportunities to advance into high managerial positions. Men and women often think about achievement in different ways. Because of differences in gender-role socialization, men and women may differ on the kinds of achievement they value and how high career achievement ranks among their personal goals.

Neuroticism (Eysenck)

High scores on this dimension indicate a tendency to respond emotionally. We sometimes refer to people high in neuroticism as unstable or highly emotional. They often have strong emotional reactions to minor frustrations and take longer to recover from these. They are more easily upset, angered, and depressed than most of us. Those falling on the other end of the neuroticism dimension are less likely to fly off the handle and less prone to large swings in emotion.

Openness (OCEAN)

Imaginative vs down to earth Preference vs suspicious Independent vs conforming Refers to openness to experience rather than openness in an interpersonal sense. The characteristics that make up this dimension include an active imagination, a willingness to consider new ideas, divergent thinking, and intellectual curiosity. People high in Openness are unconventional and independent thinkers. Those low in Openness tend to prefer the familiar rather than seeking out something new. Given this description, it is not surprising that innovative scientists and creative artists tend to be high in Openness. Some researchers refer to this dimension as Intellect, although it is certainly not the same as intelligence.

Culture Motivation

In individualistic countries like the United States, achievement is typically defined in terms of personal accomplishments. Individual effort is rewarded, and people are singled out for their successes. However, in collectivist cultures success is more likely to be defined in terms of cooperation and group accomplishments. Workers in a collectivist culture might have a strong sense of accomplishment when they do their part and the entire company reaches its goal. Individual recognition is not sought and is not needed. Workers in individualistic cultures often see themselves in competition with their coworkers, and this competition motivates them to work harder. In contrast, one team of researchers found that corporate professionals in India were concerned about the emotional and financial well-being of their coworkers

Type A

Instead of identifying two types of people, A and B, we should think of a trait continuum with extreme Type A people at one end and extreme Type B people at the other. Typical Type A individuals are strongly motivated to overcome obstacles and are driven to achieve. They are attracted to competition, enjoy power and recognition, and are easily aroused to anger and action. They dislike wasting time and tend to do things in a vigorous and efficient manner. Type A people often find more easygoing people a source of frustration. - Have a higher competitive achievement striving - Respond to frustrating situations with anger - Desire to exercise effective control over the people and situations they encounter - Tend to dominate a group discussion - Often have a sense of urgency and like to do more than one thing at a time

Sensitivity to Stimulation

Introverts and extraverts do differ in how certain parts of their brains respond to emotional stimuli. They show no differences in brain-wave activity when at rest or when asleep. But this does not mean that Eysenck's original theorizing was entirely off base. Rather, there is ample evidence that introverts are more sensitive to stimulation than extravert. That is, introverts are more quickly and strongly aroused when exposed to external stimulation. Sensitivity to stimulation - Introverts and extraverts differ in how their brains respond to emotional stimuli - Introverts are quickly aroused when exposed to external stimulation - Tv or music while studying are annoying for an introvert while extrovert are more outgoing

Evaluation Apprehension

Is an underlying cause of social anxiety. Socially anxious people are afraid of what other people think of them, they fear negative evaluation. Socially anxious people worry that the person they are talking with is going to find them foolish, boring, or immature. Situations that lend themselves to evaluation by others are particularly anxiety provoking. Just thinking about going on a blind date, giving a speech in front of a large audience, or meeting people for the first time can be a nightmarish experience for someone high in social anxiety.

Social Anxiety

Is anxiety related specifically to social interactions or anticipated social interactions. People suffering from social anxiety experience many of the usual anxiety symptoms: increased physiological arousal, inability to concentrate, feelings of nervousness. But socially anxious people recognize that the source of their discomfort is the social encounter they are now or will soon be engaged in. Social anxiety is the same as or related to many other constructs investigated by psychologists. The names for these concepts include shyness, dating anxiety, communication anxiety, reticence, and stage fright. Leads to: - Increased physiological arousal - Inability to concentrate - Feeling nervousness - Speaking in front of a group created high levels of nervousness for someone high in social anxiety. - High social-anxiety people are often concerned about negative evaluation.

L-Data

Life data compromise observable life outcomes. Obtained from a persons life record.

Mastery vs. Performance; research findings

Mastery goals are concerned with developing competence. Students motivated by a strong mastery goal will work hard to learn the subject matter in a course. Satisfaction comes from a sense of proficiency and a feeling that they understand the material. Performance goals are concerned with demonstrating accomplishments to others. Students motivated by strong performance goals want to obtain a high grade, possibly the highest grade in the class. Satisfaction comes from receiving the recognition that accompanies the achievement. Students motivated by mastery goals often choose more challenging tasks and are more interested in their classes than students who rely on performance goals. When given the choice between two assignments, mastery-oriented students are likely to select the one they are more curious about, whereas students relying on performance goals want to know which will lead to a better grade. People motivated by mastery goals also tend to retain the information and skills they learn longer than those driven by performance goals. People motivated by mastery goals often continue their interest in the material after recognition for the achievement has passed. Both mastery and performance goals can lead to achievement, and it is possible to aspire to both a sense of mastery and recognition for accomplishments. In some cases, researchers find that a combination of mastery and performance goals can be particularly effective.

Raymond Cattell's Theory and Contributions

Much of Cattell's work was devoted to discovering just how many basic personality traits there are. Although psychologists have identified, measured, and researched hundreds of traits as if each trait were independent from the others, Cattell believed many traits are related. For example, being sociable is not entirely different from being extraverted, although we can point to some fine distinctions.

Emotional affectivity (Negative)

Negative, emotions at the opposite extremes - Nervousness, anger, and distress - Calm and serene High scores on negative affect - Relate to psychological stress - Causes diverse list of emotional problems - People report more health problems and complain more than the symptoms warranted - Results in difficulty dealing with stress

Type B

On the other hand, typical Type B people are relaxed and unhurried. They may work hard on occasion but rarely in the driven, compulsive manner of Type A individuals. They are less likely than Type As to seek competition or to be aroused to anger or action. - Contrast to type A - E.g. relaxed and unhurried

Three temperament dimensions by Buss and Plomin

One popular model identifies three temperament dimensions—emotionality, activity, and sociability.

Pessimism

Optimists are in better physical health than pessimist as they, - Find social support which results in better health - Consist the outlook which leads to attitudes and behaviors that contribute to good health

Predictors (e.g., Parenting Practices)

Parenting practices associated with high need for achievement in children. When to let go and when to hold on? 1. The mother decides when to let the boy fall a few times, in this process it allows the kid to develop a sense of mastery an independence. 2. She might also want to protect the child so that he can retain his sense of security and confidence 3. Psychologist argue that this decision have and impact on the child's need for achievement People with a high need for achievement tend to find economic prosperity than others. High level of achievement motivation interferes with effective performance.

Carelessness and Sabotage

Participants in experiments and newly admitted patients can get bored with long tests and not bother to read the test items carefully. Sometimes they don't want to admit to poor reading skills or their failure to fully understand the instructions. As a result, responses may be selected randomly or after only very briefly skimming the question. Test takers sometimes report incorrect information to sabotage a research project. Instruction explain, surveillance and stressing the importance of the test can reduce the problem.

Psychoticism (Eysenck)

People who score high on this dimension are described as "egocentric, aggressive, impersonal, cold, lacking in empathy, impulsive, lacking in concern for others, and generally unconcerned about the rights and welfare of other people". Needless to say, people scoring particularly high on this dimension are good candidates for some type of judicial correction or psychotherapy

Emotional Affectivity (Postive)

Positive, each extreme respectively include emotions as - Active, content, and satisfied - Sad and lethargic

Situation vs. Trait Controversy (Defenses)

Proponents of the trait approach argue that, on the surface, denying the existence of personality traits is absurd. Trait psychologists argue that researchers often fail to produce strong links between personality traits and behavior because they don't measure behavior correctly. Identifying relevant traits defense. Single trait can predict a person's behavior if that trait is important, or central, for the person. Inclusion of secondary trait, dilutes the correlation between the trait score and the behavior The Importance of 10% of the Variance. Considering the complexity of factors that influence behavior, ability to explain 10% of variance should be considered good enough.

Achievement Goals

Provide targets that people aspire to in achievement situations. Although terminology and classification schemes vary, most investigators divide achievement goals into two broad categories: Mastery Goals - Concerned with developing competence. Performance Goals - Concerned with demonstrating accomplishments to others.

Optimism

Psychologists find that a positive outlook is often associated with high achievement and a positive mood. - Effectively prioritize and set higher goals. - Believe they can reach the goals. - Never allow setbacks and temporary failure to get them down - Deal with adverse situations better than pessimist Connected to coping, well-being, and health - Optimist and pessimist use different strategies to cope with their problems.

MMPI 2

Published in 1989. Contains 567 true-false items; the MMPI-2-RF has 338 items. These items generate several scale scores that are combined to form an overall profile of the test taker. The original scales were designed to measure psychological disorders. Thus psychologists obtain scores for such dimensions as depression, hysteria, paranoia, and schizophrenia. However, most psychologists look at the overall pattern of scores rather than one specific scale when making their assessments.

Q-Data

Questionnaire data information about an individual gathered from observations, judgements, and evaluations of that person provided via self-report inventories.

Trait Approach (Strengths)

Rather than relying on intuition and subjective judgment as did Freud and many of the Neo-Freudians, these trait theorists used objective measures to examine their constructs. Cattell specifically allowed the data to determine the theory, which was then subject to further empirical validation. This approach reduces some of the biases and subjectivity that plague other approaches. 1. Usage of objective measures to examine the constructs 2. Reduced level of the bias and subjectivity 3. Numerous practical applications 4. Educational psychologists and employers use trait measures in their work 5. Generated a large amount of research

Viscerogenic Needs (Murray)

Readiness to respond to certain way under certain given conditions

Activity (Buss and Plomin)

Refers to a person's general level of energy. Children high in this temperament move around a lot, prefer games that require running and jumping, and tend to fidget and squirm when forced to sit still for an extended period of time. Adults high on this dimension are always on the go and prefer high-energy activities like playing sports and dancing.

Emotionality (Buss and Plomin)

Refers to the intensity of emotional reactions. Children who cry frequently, who are easily frightened, and who often express anger are high in this temperament. As adults, these individuals are easily upset and may have a "quick temper." Intense emotional reactions - Children high on emotionality frequently express anger - As adults, they are easily upset and have quick temper

Sociability (Buss and Plomin)

Relates to a general tendency to affiliate and interact with others. Sociable children seek out other children to play with. Adults high in this temperament have a lot of friends and enjoy social gatherings.

Emotion and Three Aspects of Emotion

Researcher identified wats off examining emotions as relatively stable personal characteristics by the difference in the; Affectivity, Intensity, and Expressiveness. Each of us differs in the extent to which we typically experience positive and negative emotions. We differ in the typical strength of the emotions we experience. Third, we differ in the way we express our emotions.

Sensitivity to Reinforcement

Researchers tie differences in extraversion and neuroticism to biologically based differences in sensitivity to reinforcement. According to reinforcement sensitivity theory, each human brain has a behavioral approach system (BAS) and a behavioral inhibition system (BIS). The exact regions of the brain and the specific processes involved in each of these hypothetical systems remain to be determined. Sensitivity to reinforcement - Human brain has a behavioral approach system (BAS) and a behavioral inhibition system (BIS) - Individuals differ in strength of these systems, and differences are stable over time

Problems with Self-Report Measures

Researchers who use self-report inventories still must depend on participants' ability and willingness to provide accurate information about themselves. Sometimes these inaccuracies can be identified and test scores discarded, but more often the misinformation probably goes undetected. Clinical psychologists who rely too heavily on self-report measures run the risk of making inaccurate assessments of their clients' mental health. Faking Carelessness and Sabotage Response Tendencies, Social Desirability, Acquiescence

Assessment Instruments (Self-Report Inventories)

Self-report inventories are the most widely used form of personality assessment. These tests ask people to respond to a series of questions about themselves. Relatively simple scoring procedures allow the tester to generate a score or a set of scores that can be compared with others along a trait continuum. Contrast this experience with the Rorschach inkblot test, which must be administered and interpreted by a trained psychologist one test at a time. Scoring a self-report inventory is also relatively easy and objective. Researchers typically count matched items or total response values. Self-report measures are also popular because they usually have greater face validity than other instruments. - Widely used form of personality assessment - Have greater face validity - Used by researchers, personal managers, and clinical psychologists.

Cardinal Traits (Allport)

Single dominating trait in personality. Although the number of central traits varies from person to person, Allport proposed that occasionally a single trait will dominate a personality.

Press (Murray)

Situation that influences the activation of a need Murray recognized that whether a need is activated depends on the situation. For example, your need for Order won't affect your behavior without an appropriate press, such as a messy room. If you have a strong need for Order, you probably make time to clean your room even when it is only slightly disheveled. If you have a relatively weak need for Order, you might wait until the room is too messy to move around in—and even then the cleaning might be motivated more by a need to please your roommates than to see things arranged neatly.

Extraversion (OCEAN)

Sociable vs retiring Fun loving vs sober Affectionate vs reserved Places extreme extraverts at one end and extreme introverts at the other. Extraverts are very sociable people who also tend to be energetic, optimistic, friendly, and assertive. Introverts do not typically express these characteristics, but it would be incorrect to say that they are asocial or without energy.

Response Tendencies

Social desirability - responding in a way that appears favorable. Measuring social desirability enable a tester to adjust the interpretation of other scores accordingly. Acquiescence - (or agreement) response can translate into a problem on some self-report scales.

Agreeableness (OCEAN)

Softhearted vs ruthless Trusting vs suspicious Helpful vs uncooperative Dimension are helpful, trusting, and sympathetic. Those on the other end tend to be antagonistic and skeptical. Agreeable people prefer cooperation over competition. In contrast, people low in Agreeableness like to fight for their interests and beliefs. Researchers find that people high in Agreeableness have more pleasant social interactions and fewer quarrelsome exchanges than those low on this dimension. They are also more willing to help those in need.

Faking (Good/Bad)

Sometimes test takers intentionally give misleading information on self-report inventories. Some people "fake good" when taking a test. This means they try to present themselves as better than they really are. This strategy is not uncommon when scales are used to make employment decisions. Faking bad, making themselves look worse than they really are (e.g. reporting higher levels of symptoms that the actual level).

Intensity

Strength of the emotions people experience.

T-Data

Test data. Information about an individual gathered from scientific measurement and objective testing

Achievement Motivation

The desire - To accomplish something difficult - To master, manipulate or organize - To overcome obstacles and attain a high standard; to excel one's self

Dispositional Optimism

The extent to which a person typically adopts an optimistic or pessimistic approach to dealing with life's challenges. Living in stressful region experienced less anxiety and depression then pessimists. Other investigators find that Asians typically have lower scores on dispositional optimism measures than participants from individualistic cultures.

Emotional Expressiveness (Association with behaviors, etc., research findings)

The extent to which people outwardly express their emotions. - Women tend to be more expressive and better at reading the emotions in other peoples faces. - Getting along with others depend on people's expressiveness. - Good for our psychological health. Consistent with common observations, researchers find that women tend to be more expressive of their emotions than men. Women also tend to be better than men at reading the emotions in other people's faces. Participants in one study completed a series of well-being measures and kept daily records of their moods for 21 consecutive days. Participants identified as highly expressive were happier and experienced less anxiety and guilt than those who were low in expressiveness. Other researchers using similar procedures find that expressive people are less prone to depression. Highly expressive people also tend to be higher in self-esteem than those on the other end of this trait dimension.

Social Desirability

The extent to which people present themselves in a favorable light. This is not the same as faking, in which people answer test items in a manner they know is inaccurate. People high in social desirability unintentionally present themselves in a way that is slightly more favorable than the truth.

Emotional Affectivity

The extent to which people typically experience positive and negative emotions. How positive and negative affect are related. Initial investigations indicated that these two dimensions are relatively independent from one another. Knowing your score on a test measuring positive affect would tell me nothing about how you score on a test measuring negative affect. Later studies found support for the more intuitive notion that being high on one of these dimensions means being low on the other, and vice versa. The more I experience positive emotions like happiness and contentment, the less likely I am to experience anger and anxiety. It seems now that the relationship between positive and negative affect is more complex than researchers initially recognized. High scores on negative affect are generally related to psychological stress. People on the high end of this dimension suffer from a diverse list of emotional problems. Studies also find that negative affect is related to complaints about health. People who score high on measures of negative affect report more health problems than people with low negative affect. We are more likely to find high negative affect people in a doctor's office than people who are low on this dimension.

The Big Five - Donald Fiske (1949)

The five basic dimensions of personality found in many factor analytic studies. Once researchers saw which traits clustered with one another, they had to come up with descriptive terms for the five dimensions. Although different researchers sometimes use different names, the most commonly used terms are Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness

Typology Systems

The goal was to discover how many types of people there are and identify each person's type. The ancient Greeks divided people into four types: sanguine (happy), melancholic (unhappy), choleric (temperamental), and phlegmatic (apathetic). Another early effort identified three basic personality types based on general physique: endomorphic (obese), mesomorphic (muscular), and ectomorphic (fragile). The three types were said to differ in personality as well as physical appearance.

Idiographic Approach

The person determines what traits to examine. Identify the unique combination of traits that best accounts for the personality of a single individual. The purpose is not to compare the person to the person to other people (nomothetic).

Affect intensity (Association of Behavior)

The strength or degree to which people typically experience their emotions. At one end of this trait dimension, we find people who respond to emotional situations with relatively mild reactions; at the other end, we find people with strong emotional reactions. As shown in the two students' data, high-intensity people not only experience their emotions more intensely, but they also tend to be more variable. They experience higher highs and lower lows. People high in affect intensity are also more aware of their emotions and may spend more time thinking about and reliving emotional experiences than people low on this trait. Highvand low-intensity people tend to go to the same number of parties and concerts, and they have the same number of hassles and setbacks. The difference lies in how they react to those events. In one study, researchers presented participants with a series of hypothetical situations. Even relatively mild situations can evoke strong reactions in high-intensity individuals. High-intensity participants in one study had stronger emotional reactions than lows to magazine ads for alcoholic beverages. Other studies find that high-intensity people tend to overestimate the extent to which events will affect them and often draw unwarranted conclusions based on one good or one bad experience. To a high-intensity individual, one friendly smile suggests a blossoming relationship, one bad grade the end of the world.

Nomothetic Approach (Allport)

The traits are selected by investigators, can fall as central. Allport identified two general strategies researchers might use when investigating personality. So far, we have described traits and trait research along the lines of what Allport called the nomothetic approach. Researchers using this approach assume that all people can be described along a single dimension according to their level of, for example, assertiveness or anxiety. People can be described along a single dimension according to their level of a certain personality. Common traits, applies to everyone, each person is tested to se how his or her score for the given trait compares with the scores of other participants. People are given a questionnaire of assertiveness. They are compared on the dimension of assertiveness. Some may score very high on assertiveness, some may score middle on the dimension, others may score low on the dimension.

Cross-Situational Consistency

There is little evidence to cover it. Personality may be more consistent in limited ranges of situation than in diverse settings. Personality involves an individual's typical pattern of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions. The degree to which personality and/or behavior remains similar across situations. In one of the earliest studies on personality traits, a research team spent several years looking at honesty in more than 8,000 elementary school children. They measured honesty in 23 different ways (lying, cheating, stealing, and so on) and found an average intercorrelation among these measures of only .23. Because personality traits are assumed to show some consistency across situations, this finding was widely cited as a challenge to the trait approach. Knowing that a child is honest in one situation, such as telling the truth to a parent, may reveal little about whether the child will cheat on the playground or steal something from another child's desk.

Biological Approach

This acceptance of a genetic influence on personality has coincided with a growing recognition that personality cannot be separated from other biological factors. Research tells us that not all people have identical physiological functioning. We can identify differences between people in terms of brainwave activity, hormone levels, heart-rate responsiveness, and other physiological features. More important for personality psychologists, researchers find these biological differences often translate into differences in behavior.

Trait Approach (Criticisms)

Trait psychologists describe people in terms of traits, but they often do not explain how these traits develop or what can be done to help people who suffer from extreme scores. Knowing about these scores can help teachers and employers match people with the tasks and jobs best suited to them, but no schools of psychotherapy have originated from the trait approach. The lack of an agreed-upon framework. Although all trait theorists use empirical methods and are concerned with the identification of traits, no single theory or underlying structure ties all the theories together. We can see the confusion this creates by asking how many basic traits there are.

Type A vs. Type B: lab experiment results, achievement tasks

Type A and Type B behavior in terms of a motivation for control. That is, achievement striving, time urgency, and hostility reflect the Type A individuals' desire to exercise effective control over the people and situations they encounter. Type As are more likely than Type Bs to dominate a group discussion. Type As are less likely to give up control over a task, even to someone who might do a better job. Type A participants typically outperform Type Bs on achievement tasks. Type As tend to set higher goals for themselves. But what really fires them up is competition. What greater threat to Type As sense of control than to be told there can be but one winner? Sometimes their blood pressure and heart rate rise when simply told they are going to compete against another person. In some cases, Type As actually seem to be attracted to competition. Type A participants in one study were more confident in their ability to do well in a game when told they were competing against another participant.

Situation vs. Trait Controversy (Criticisms)

Walter Mischel (1968) pointed out that too many psychologists relied on one or two scores to make important decisions, such as psychiatric diagnoses or whether an individual should be imprisoned. Most psychologists today are aware of the dangers of overreliance on test scores. Critics argued that trait measures, as well as other types of test scores, do not predict behavior as well as many psychologists claim. Second, critics maintained that there is little evidence for the consistency of behavior across situations. Trait measures do not predict behavior well because both the person and the situation are related to behavior. Trait measures fail to account for the effects of the situation on a person's behavior. He argued, we tend to see consistent behavior that, on close examination, is not really there. For example, people often see what they expect to see. Identifying relevant traits (situation vs trait) - Single trait can predict a persons behavior if that is important, or central, for the person - Inclusion of secondary trait dilutes the correlation between the trait score and the behavior. Advocates on one extreme argue that our behavior is almost entirely determined by the situation. Although these psychologists don't assert that everyone acts the same in a given setting, they often refer to individual differences in behavior as merely "error variance." Advocates on the other extreme claim that stable individual differences are the primary determinants of how we act. Today, most psychologists agree that the person and the situation interact to determine behavior. Knowing only that a person is high in aggressiveness or that a particular situation is frustrating is not as useful for predicting behavior as knowing both of these facts.

Expressiveness

Way people express their emotions.

Conscientiousness (OCEAN)

Well organized vs disorganized Careful vs careless Self-discipline vs weak willed Refers to how controlled and self-disciplined we are. People on the high end of this dimension are organized, plan oriented, and determined. Those on the low end are apt to be careless, easily distracted from tasks, and undependable. The characteristics that define Conscientiousness often show up in achievement or work situations, which is why some researchers refer to this dimension as Will to Achieve or simply Work. But these characteristics surface in other areas of our lives as well. For example, because they are more likely to develop good health habits and take steps to keep themselves safe, people high in Conscientiousness tend to be healthier and live longer than those low on this dimension.

Secondary Traits

With the nomothetic approach, the traits selected by the investigator might be central for some people, but only what Allport called secondary traits for others. A test score indicating a person's level of sociability is of great value when sociability is a central trait for that person, but may be of limited value when it is not.

Approach Goals vs. Avoidance Goals

Within this framework, students trying to learn difficult material (mastery goal) can be motivated either by a desire to achieve a sense of mastery (approach) or by a wish to not feel incompetent (avoidance). Similarly, students who rely on performance goals might be motivated to gain recognition for their accomplishments or to avoid the embarrassment of a poor performance. Because achievement motivation has important implications in education, business, and many other areas of our lives, psychologists have asked whether some achievement goals are more effective than others.

Neuroticism (OCEAN)

Worried vs calm Insecure vs secure Self-pitying vs self-satisfied People who frequently experience emotional distress and wide swings in emotions will score high on measures of Neuroticism. People high in Neuroticism tend to become more upset over daily stressors than those low on this dimension and are more vulnerable to bouts of anxiety and depression. Although there are many different kinds of negative emotions—sadness, anger, anxiety, guilt—that may have different causes and require different treatments, research consistently shows that people prone to one kind of negative emotional state often experience others. Individuals low in Neuroticism tend to be calm, well adjusted, and not prone to extreme emotional reactions.

Murray called his approach personology and identified psychogenic needs

as the basic elements of personality. He described these needs as a "readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given conditions". He eventually arrived at a list of 27 psychogenic needs, including the need for Autonomy, the need for Achievement, the need for Dominance, and the need for Order. In keeping with his psychoanalytic background, Murray postulated that these needs are largely unconscious. Called his approach personology and identifies psychogenic needs as the basic elements of personality, these need are readiness to respond certain way under certain given condition