Theories of Personality Review
Eysenck's P type is a bipolar factor consisting of
 psychoticism and superego.
Cattell's famous personality scale is called the
16 PF Scale
Buss states that there are ________ specific main classes of mechanism.
2
Hans J. Eysenck insisted that only ________ major factors can be discerned by a factor analytic approach.
3
The evolutionary process of natural and sexual selection and chance results in ________ distinct outcomes.
3
Presently, most researchers who study personality traits agree that ________ dominant traits emerge from factor analytic techniques.
5
Theories that emphasize interpersonal relationships deal mostly with which aspect of being-in-the-world?
<i>Mitwelt</i>
According to the concepts of existentialism, ________ is the world of objects and things that would exist even if people had no awareness.
<i>Umwelt</i
May claimed that members of technologically advanced civilizations are most likely to suffer guilt connected with
<i>Umwelt</i>
Which of the following statements best characterizes the relationship between a theory and a hypothesis?
A theory may generate one or more hypotheses.
________, a form of an aggressive safeguarding device, is the tendency to blame others for one's failures and to seek revenge, thereby safeguarding one's own tenuous self-esteem.
Accusation
________ are evolved strategies that solve important survival and/or reproductive problems.
Adaptations
________ are evolved strategies that solve important survival and/or reproductive problems..
Adaptations
Which of the following statements is true of the individuality postulate of basic tendencies?
Adults have a unique set of traits, and each person exhibits a unique combination of trait patterns.
Alfred Adler's break with Sigmund Freud was due to the fact that
Alfred Adler could not accept Sigmund Freud's strong emphasis on sexual factors as motivators of behavior.
Identify a true statement about characteristic adaptation as a core component of the Five-Factor Theory.
All acquired and specific skills are characteristic adaptations
According to Maslow, coping behavior is usually
All of the answers are correc
According to Fromm, which of the following statements is true about the existential needs of humans?
All of the answers are correct
Erikson believed that the ego is
All of the answers are correct
In the context of Adlerian theory of individual psychology, which of the following statements is true about social interest?
All of the answers are correct
May was critical of
All of the answers are correct
According to Allport's definition, personal dispositions
All of the answers are correct.
According to Rogers, compliments and positive feedback
All of the answers are correct.
According to Rogers, experiences that are inconsistent with one's self-concept are
All of the answers are correct.
Allport's comprehensive definition of personality suggests that human beings are
All of the answers are correct.
Bandura's P, or person, factor includes
All of the answers are correct.
Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation assumes that personal conduct is a function of
All of the answers are correct.
Erikson claimed that procreativity encompasses
All of the answers are correct.
For Bandura, learning through modeling involves
All of the answers are correct.
Maslow assumed that
All of the answers are correct.
Maslow believed that esteem and self-actualization needs
All of the answers are correct.
People who score low on openness to experience tend to
All of the answers are correct.
People's feelings of self-isolation and alienation from the world are seen in their
All of the answers are correct.
Which term describes Rotter's approach to personality?
All of the answers are correct.
________ are ancient or archaic images that derive from the collective unconscious.
Archetypes
Maslow found that self-actualization needs become potent when
B-values are embraced.
Albert Bandura is a native of ________, but has lived most of his life in ________.
Canada; the United States
A major thrust of Eysenck's theory is that personality results from the basic genetic and neurophysiological makeup of humans. Which biological research findings support this assertion?
Cortical arousal and sensory stimulation levels match certain personality traits.
"A theory organizes findings to tell a coherent story, to bring into focus those issues and phenomena that can and should be explained." This quote is attributed to
Costa and McCrae.
The people who most influenced Eysenck were
Cyril Burt and Charles Spearman.
________ argue that the unique and long-term tendencies to behave in particular ways are the essence of human personality.
Dispositional theorists
________ is change in gene function that does not involve changes in DNA.
Epigenetics
________ assume that not only are people driven by a search for meaning, but also that negative experiences such as failure, awareness of death, death of a loved one, and anxiety, are part of the human condition and can foster psychological growth.
Existential theorists
What did Julian Rotter insist on in his Internal-External Control Scale?
Extreme scores in either direction of the scale would be undesirable.
Which trait theorist was a native of Germany but lived and worked for much of his professional life in England and at the University of London?
Eysenck
Fromm believed that healthy people's survival is dependent on
Fromm believed that healthy people's survival is dependent on
Which of the following was the effect of World War I on Alfred Adler?
He changed his theoretical views.
As a college student, Maslow experienced which fortuitous event that changed his life?
He kissed his first cousin Bertha Goodman.
Which of the following statements is true of Raymond B. Cattell's pioneering work on personality theory?
He used three different media of observation to examine people from multiple angles.
Evolutionary psychology and evolutionary theory of personality have their own scientific society called
Human Behavior and Evolutionary Society.
What evidence did Eysenck present on the biological bases of personality?
Identical twins have more similar personalities than fraternal twins reared together.
Which of the following was proposed by Hans J. Eysenck?
Introverts have lower thresholds of arousal than do extraverts.
According to Freud, which of the following statements is true about the genital period in infants?
It begins at puberty
Which of the following statements is true about need potential?
It cannot be measured solely through observation of behavior
Which of the following is a valid criticism of B. F. Skinner's theory of scientific behaviorism?
It cannot be used as a guide by practitioners to measure behavior
Which of the following statements is true about descriptive research?
It contributes to expanding a theory.
According to Sigmund Freud, which of the following statements is true about castration anxiety?
It dissolves the male Oedipus complex.
Which of the following statements is true about a continuous schedule of reinforcement?
It is an inefficient way of using a reinforcer.
Which of the following statements is true about Julian Rotter's basic prediction formula?
It is appropriate for controlled laboratory experiments.
In the context of the primary mechanisms of escape, identify a true statement about masochism.
It is characterized by strivings that are often disguised as love or loyalty.
Which of the following is a characteristic of the id?
It is primitive.
In the context of archetypes, which of the following statements is true about the animus?
It is symbolic of thinking and reasoning.
In the context of archetypes, which of the following statements is true about the shadow?
It is the archetype of darkness and repression.
In the context of Jungian theory, which of the following statements is true about the ego?
It is the center of consciousness.
According to Robert R. McCrae and Paul T. Costa, which of the following sentences is true of objective biography as a component of personality?
It is the outcome of characteristic adaptations as well as external influences.
As a boy, Carl Jung became aware of his No. 1 and No. 2 personalities. Which of the following statements is true about his No. 2 personality?
It knew feelings unknown to the No. 1 personality.
Which of the following statements is true of Thorndike's law of effect?
It states that responses to stimuli that are followed immediately by a satisfier tend to be "stamped in."
Which of the following statements is true about Hans J. Eysenck's biologically based factor theory?
It struggles to lend itself to practical guides for teachers, parents, and counselors.
Which of the following is not a function of a useful theory?
It will be consistent with one's philosophy of life.
Skinner's work was most influenced by
John Watson
Which of the following is not one of the personality assessments created and developed by Eysenck?
MMPI
Which of the following statements is a general assumption required to understand Gordon Allport's conception of the psychologically mature personality?
Mature people are able to consciously act on their environment.
When Miguel was an infant, he developed a strong attachment style with his mother. Whenever his mother left him alone, he would cry and throw tantrums to stop his mother from leaving him alone. Now, in his early childhood years, Miguel still continues to display such behavior. Which of the following statements is most likely true about the scenario?
Miguel's dependency on his mother is an example of early experiential calibration.
Allport hypothesized that the number of central dispositions for any one person would be about
None of the answers is correct
Which of the following is the reason why Sigmund Freud groomed Carl Jung to be his successor?
None of the answers is correct
May believed that the story of ________ contains the basic elements of an existential crisis: birth, exile, assertion of independence, search for identity, and death.
Oedipus
________ takes place when an experimenter systematically withholds reinforcement of a previously learned response until the probability of that response diminishes to zero.
Operant extinction
Which of the following is an assumption of Rotter's assumption in his theory?
People are capable of anticipating events.
Which of the following is not an assumption underlying Maslow's theory of motivation?
People in different cultures have different basic needs.
Which of Cattell's media of observation cannot be used with animals such as dogs or cats?
Q data
Ramesh believes that people drink water because they are thirsty. He believes that there is no connection between the internal drive to drink water and the factors affecting the availability of water. Which of the following statements is true about the scenario?
Ramesh's beliefs exemplify the concept of cosmology in understanding human behavior.
Modern existential psychology has roots in the writings of
Søren Kierkegaard.
Walter Mischel was born in the same city where ________ lived most of his life.
Sigmund Freud
________ involves the disposition to experience positive emotional states and to engage in one's environment and to be sociable and self-confident.
Surgency
________ is marked by a tendency to take risks and to experience positive emotion (i.e., be happy) and initiating and maintaining friendships and relationships.
Surgency
________ is defined as the tendency within all humans (and other animals and plants) to move toward completion or fulfillment of potentials.
The actualizing tendency
In the context of Carl Jung's personality theory, which of the following statements is true about the ego in the conscious level of the psyche?
The ego takes a secondary position to the unconscious self in a psychologically healthy person.
What is Skinner's basic view of human freedom?
The idea of freedom is positively reinforcing for many people.
Identify an accurate statement about operant conditioning.
The probability of occurrence of a previously reinforced response increases in operant conditioning.
Which of the following statements highlights the role of theory within science?
Theories are tools used by scientists to generate research and organize observations.
According to the Five-Factor Model (FFM), which of the following is a characteristic of people who tend to score high on neuroticism (N) as a personality trait?
They are anxious.
Which of the following occurs when individuals identify too closely with their personas?
They are blocked from attaining self-realization
Identify a true statement about Gordon Allport's cardinal dispositions.
They are characterized by a ruling passion that dominates a person's life.
In the context of nonproductive orientations, identify a true statement about receptive characters.
They are characterized by positive traits such as loyalty, acceptance, and trust.
Which of the following is a characteristic of self-actualizing people?
They are concerned with eternal problems and adopt a solid philosophical basis for handling these problems.
According to Alfred Adler, which of the following statements is true about organ inferiorities?
They are important as they stimulate feelings of inferiority.
Which of the following is a characteristic of people who score high on the openness to experience factor in the Five-Factor Model?
They are liberal.
According to Sigmund Freud, which of the following statements is true about condensation and displacement?
They are ways of distorting dream content.
Which of the following statements is true about humanistic-existential theories?
They assume primarily that people strive toward meaning, growth, well-being, happiness, and psychological health.
What was Skinner's position on such internal mental states as thinking and feeling?
They exist, but scientists should not attribute behavior to them
According to Hans J. Eysenck, which of the following statements is true about people who score high on neuroticism?
They have a tendency to overreact emotionally.
According to Sigmund Freud, which of the following statements is true about unconscious ideas?
They influence behavior even when one is unaware of them.
According to Robert R. McCrae and Paul T. Costa, which of the following statements is true of basic tendencies?
They may be inherited, imprinted by early experience, or modified by disease or psychological intervention.
Which of the following statements is true about personality theories?
They originate from the historical, social, and psychological world of their originators.
Which of the following statements is true about psychodynamic theories?
They see the unconscious mind and motives as much more powerful than the conscious awareness.
Which of the following is a salient feature of exploitative people?
They tend to be egocentric
In the context of nonproductive orientations, identify a true statement about exploitative characters.
Unlike receptive characters, they are willing to express opinions that are usually pilfered.
Vidya is highly sensitive to criticism. She becomes anxious and nervous whenever her manager points out her mistakes. She cannot control her emotions when she is under stress. Which of the following statements is most likely true about Vidya?
Vidya scores high on the behavioral disposition of neuroticism.
Vincent feels that his parents neglect him and pay more attention to his brother, Mark. Mark regularly gets higher grades than Vincent. Vincent always outperforms his brother in football and basketball. In order to gain his parents' attention, Vincent decides to be more academic. He stays back after class to learn new concepts, gets himself a tutor, and takes tests online to assess his learning. Which of the following statements is most likely true about the scenario?
Vincent's change in activities is an example of alternative niche specialization.
The more long-range goal of Rotter's approach to psychotherapy was
a change in the patient's orientation to life.
Rogers believed that the first necessary and sufficient condition for therapeutic change is
a congruent therapist
In the context of operant discrimination, B. F. Skinner believed that discrimination is
a consequences of one's reinforcement history.
Bandura sees modeling as
a core element of observational learning.
Payment by salary or wage most closely approximates which schedule of reinforcement?
a fixed-interval schedule of reinforcement
Payment by piece rate (for example, paying a bricklayer a set amount for each brick laid) most closely approximates which schedule of reinforcement?
a fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement
According to Alfred Adler, which of the following factors does not describe maladjusted people?
a high level of social interest
They originate from the historical, social, and psychological world of their originators.
a hypothesis
The term "character" originally meant
a marking or engraving.
For Fromm, healthy people value work as
a means of creative self-expression.
Negative reinforcement differs from punishment in that in negative reinforcement,
a response is strengthened
According to Rogers' theory, self-actualization is
a subset of the actualizing tendency.
The term "personality" comes from the Latin word "persona," which means
a theatrical mask.
Allport saw most people as being motivated mostly by
a variety of motives.
Cattell classified traits that refer to how far or how fast one can perform a given activity as ________ traits.
ability
Fromm contended that people can break the cycle of conformity and powerlessness only by
achieving positive freedom.
Carl Jung developed the ________ technique during his self-analysis and later used it with many of his patients.
active imagination
Which of the following is most likely a result of perseverative functionally autonomous motives?
addiction to nicotine in cigarettes
According to Erik Erikson, ________ is the time when people begin to take their place in society and assume responsibility for whatever society produces.
adulthood
The five factors of the Five-Factor Model have been found across cultures and show some permanence with
age
The ________ dimension of personality is marked by a person's willingness and capacity to cooperate and help the group on the one hand or to be hostile and aggressive on the other.
agreeableness/hostility
Karen is the captain of her basketball team. She always prefers accomplishing her personal goals to helping her team win matches. In this case, Karen scores low on the behavioral disposition of
agreeableness.
Skinner believed that there is no learning without reinforcement. Bandura
agrees with Skinner but also stresses vicarious learning.
An origin of environment-induced individual differences is ________, which means that different people find what makes them stand out from others in order to gain attention from parents or potential mates.
alternative niche specialization
In Hans J. Eysenck's theory of personality, individuals who score low on psychoticism tend to be
altruistic.
According to Carl Jung, when a personal experience corresponds to the latent primordial image,
an archetype is activated.
Fromm believed that the therapist should try to understand the patient by using
an attitude of relatedness.
According to Skinner, the most critical characteristic of science is
an attitude that values empirical observation.
According to Gordon Allport, which of the following criteria for the mature personality refers to mature people continually seeking to identify with and participate in events outside themselves?
an extension of the sense of self
A crucial period of increased vulnerability and heightened potential is Erikson's definition of
an identity crisis
Hans J. Eysenck described a trait as
an important semi-permanent personality disposition.
Mischel would most likely say that
an individual's behaviors can be inconsistent from one situation to another.
Which of the following was one of Freud's personal qualities?
an intellectual curiosity and high moral courage
Carl Jung defined the term "instinct" as
an unconscious physical impulse toward action
Carl Jung defined the term "instinct" as Correct!
an unconscious physical impulse toward action.
Carl Jung called the feminine side of males the
anima
Carl Jung would say that a man who finds women alluring and mysterious may be projecting his ________ archetype onto women.
anima
At the core of Rotter's personality theory is his emphasis on
anticipated goals
According to Carl Rogers, ________ is defined as a state of uneasiness or tension whose cause is unknown.
anxiety
According to Rogers, when a person becomes dimly aware that the discrepancy between his or her organismic experience and his or her self-concept may become conscious, the person feels
anxious.
According to May, ________ are the malaise of our time
apathy and emptiness
Cattell attempted to measure human personality from three angles using L data, Q data, and T data. Which of the following is an example of T data?
aptitude test scores
With regard to traits, Allport held that they
are of two kinds: common and individual (personal).
According to Allport, personal dispositions differ from traits in that they
are peculiar to an individual.
For Allport, common traits
are shared by several people
Fromm believed that people relate to the world in two basic ways
assimilation and socialization.
Eysenck's encounter with the fascist right and his later battles with the radical left suggested to him that the trait of ________ was equally prevalent in both extremes of the political spectrum.
authoritarianism
According to Maslow, an individual's inability to satisfy safety needs results in
basic anxiety.
Allport's criteria for an adequate theory of motivation included all of the following except the idea that the theory must
be based on the concept of a single master motive.
Laura compliments Mitzi for her cooking. Mitzi regards herself as a very mediocre cook. According to Rogerian theory, Laura's remarks will
be distorted by Mitzi.
In the context of understanding human behavior, Julian Rotter and Walter Mischel objected to the explanation that
behavior is shaped by immediate reinforcement
"The potential for any given behavior to occur in a particular situation or set of situations as calculated in relation to any single reinforcement or set of reinforcements" is Rotter's definition of
behavior potential
When reinforcement value is held constant and expectancy varies, what factor in Rotter's theory can be predicted?
behavior potential
Bandura reasons that if behavior were completely a function of the environment, then
behavior would be more variable and less consistent.
If Maslow is one of the fathers of the third force in psychology, then the first two forces are
behaviorism and psychoanalysis
Two basic concepts of existentialism are
being-in-the-world and nonbeing.
In the context of Eysenck's biologically based factor theory, the key for Eysenck was that the individual differences in people's personalities were due to
biology
The Five-Factor Theory rests on a single causal influence on personality traits, namely
biology
Robert R. McCrae and Paul T. Costa agreed with Hans J. Eysenck that personality traits are ________ and follow a bell-shaped distribution.
bipolar
Eysenck's three general types or superfactors are
bipolar factors
An offender excuses his violent assault on his victim by claiming that the victim provoked the attack by dressing provocatively. According to Bandura, the technique of disengagement used by the offender is that of
blaming the victim.
In Jungian theory, types include
both attitudes and functions
According to Rotter, the behavior potential in any situation is a function of
both expectancy and reinforcement value
For May, care is the source of
both love and will.
To Skinner, human personality is shaped by
both natural selection and contingencies of reinforcement
Freud held that ideas in the preconscious originate from
both the conscious and the unconscious.
From an existential perspective, as people realize that they are in charge of their own destiny, they experience the
burden of freedom and pain of responsibility.
Traits that happen as a result of adaptations but are not part of the functional design are called
by-products
According to Maslow, neurotic needs
cannot be fully satiated
Maslow claimed that safety needs differ from physiological needs in that they
cannot be overly satiated.
Gordon Allport described ________ as those that would be listed in an accurate letter of recommendation written by someone who knew a person quite well.
central dispositions
According to May, healthy people
challenge their destiny and cherish their freedom
According to Fromm, which of the following terms is defined as the relatively permanent system of all noninstinctual strivings through which man relates himself to the human and natural world?
character
Core components of the Five-Factor Theory include the ________, which are acquired personality structures that develop as people adapt to their environment.
characteristic adaptations
Maslow claimed that safety needs are most likely to be strong motivators for
children
Rogers' approach to therapy is best termed
client-centered
The ________ perspective argues that how one thinks about oneself and other people, as well as the assumptions one makes and the strategies one uses for solving problems, are the keys to understanding differences between people.
cognitive
According to Bandura, people's shared beliefs in their collective power to produce desired results is called
collective efficacy
What did Alfred Adler's earliest memories concern?
comparisons with his older and healthier brother
What did Carl Jung call the contents of the personal unconscious?
complexes
According to Erikson, inadequate will is expressed as
compulsion.
In the context of dream analysis, ________ refers to the fact that the manifest dream content is not as extensive as the latent level, indicating that the unconscious material has been abbreviated before appearing on the manifest level.
condensation
According to Carl Jung, the achievement of consciousness by our distant ancestors is reflected in the hero's
conquest of darkness.
According to the Five-Factor Model (FFM), which of the following personality traits describes people who are hardworking, self-disciplined, ambitious, and organized?
conscientiousness
According to the Five-Factor Model, ________ describes people who are ordered, controlled, organized, ambitious, achievement focused, and self-disciplined.
conscientiousness
The adaptive personality system that revolves around one's capacity and commitment to work is
conscientiousness
Rudolph always struggles to focus on his work. He is unreliable because he fails to complete any task assigned to him, and he is very careless. In this case, Rudolph scores low on the behavioral disposition of
conscientiousness.
Unlike Albert Bandura, B. F. Skinner believes that
consequences of behavior are environmentally determined.
According to Allport, present motives are functionally autonomous to the extent that they
continually seek out new goals.
Eysenck believed that the primary difference between extraverts and introverts is one of
cortical arousal level
Mischel and Moore (1973) found that children who were encouraged to imagine real rewards while viewing pictures of rewards
could not wait as long for the rewards as could children who were merely exposed to the pictures of rewards.
For May, the most obvious avenue of nonbeing is
death
May believed that ________ is our ultimate destiny.
death
In describing psychological maladjustment, Rogers preferred to speak of it in terms of
defensive and disorganized behaviors.
According to Carl Rogers, the refusal of people to perceive an experience in awareness, or at least keeping some aspect of it from reaching symbolization, is known as
denial
In the context of safeguarding tendencies, ________ is referred to as a tendency to undervalue other people's achievements and to overvalue one's own.
depreciation
According to May, psychologically disturbed individuals deny their
destiny.
Some people are vulnerable to psychiatric illness because they have a genetic or acquired weakness that predisposes them to the illness. This explanation for an illness is what Eysenck called the
diathesis-stress model.
Allport contended that adult motives are
different from children's motives
The bureaucrat who answers criticism by responding "That's the way things are done around here" is using Bandura's disengagement technique of
diffusing responsibility.
A test that can accurately divide extraverts from introverts is said to have
discriminant validity
According to Erik Erikson, ________ is the antithesis of wisdom and the core pathology of old age.
disdain
One environmental source of personality differences is what Buss termed ________, by which he meant that childhood experiences make some behavioral strategies more likely than others.
early experiential calibration
Gordon Allport advocated a(n) ________ approach to theory building.
eclectic
To Allport, a broad, comprehensive theory is preferable to a narrow, specific theory even if it does not generate as many testable hypotheses. This is referred to as the ________ approach to theory building.
eclectic
Unlike Skinner's behavioral analysis, Bandura's social cognitive theory
ecognizes the influence of chance encounters
According to Freud, feelings of inferiority stem from the
ego-ideal.
Freud held that the secondary process functions through the
ego.
Paige's factor analysis of the letters from Jenny revealed
eight primary personal dispositions
Erikson's additions to Freudian theory included
elevating social factors above biological factors
For Skinner, an important distinction between classical conditioning and operant conditioning is that in classical conditioning, behavior is ________, whereas in operant conditioning, behavior is ________.
elicited; emitted
Costa and McCrae (1996) summarize their trait model using a schematic drawing whereby peripheral components, comprised of causal, secondary influences on personality, are represented as
ellipses.
According to Rogers, which of these conditions would be most therapeutic?
empathy
According to Rotter, individuals who set their goals too high
engage in avoidant behavior because of frustration.
According to Carl Rogers, the need to become more, to develop, and to achieve growth is called
enhancement
According to May, in North American society, sex is frequently confused with
eros.
A hired killer refers to murdering another person as a "contract" or a "hit." This is an example of Bandura's disengagement technique of
euphemistic labels.
Fromm believed that the lack of satisfaction of existential needs
eventuates in insanity for the individual.
The term ________ can be defined as the scientific study of human thought and behavior from an evolutionary perspective and focuses on four big questions.
evolutionary psychology
The term ________ was coined in 1973 by biologist Michael Ghiselin (1973) and later popularized by anthropologist John Tooby and psychologist Leda Cosmides in the early 1990s.
evolutionary psychology
According to Alfred Adler, people with a pampered style of life are characterized by
exaggerated emotion.
"If only my parents were more encouraging, I would have been a successful businessperson by now." Which of the following safeguarding tendencies is exemplified in this scenario?
excuses
"Yes, I like your idea, but I am afraid it is not feasible." Which of the following safeguarding tendencies is exemplified in this scenario?
excuses
Identify the most common of the safeguarding tendencies.
excuses
Most existentialists believe that
existence takes precedence over essence.
In Rotter's theory, the likelihood that a person will behave in a given manner depends basically on his or her
expectation of receiving reinforcement and the perceived value of the expected reinforcement.
According to Maslow, ________ behavior is usually unlearned, spontaneous, and determined by forces within a person rather than by the environment.
expressive
Rogers would say that unconditional positive regard is at the greatest variance with
external evaluation
In the Five-Factor Theory, behavior, in part, is predicted by three core components. Which of the following is not a core component?
external influences
The question of how we respond to opportunities and demands of the social situation or context is what ________ are all about.
external influences
According to Eysenck, low levels of cortical arousal and high sensory thresholds characterize individuals who score high on the ________ scale.
extraversion
The Five-Factor Model (FFM) includes ________ as a trait that reflects an affectionate, active, fun-loving, and passionate person.
extraversion
Which of the following terms is defined as a defense mechanism that arises when psychic energy is blocked at one stage of development, thus making change or psychological growth difficult?
fixation
Rotter's basic prediction formula is most useful
for making specific predictions.
May identified sex, eros, philia, and agape as the
forms of love.
Perseverative functional autonomy is
found in both animals and humans.
Fromm believed that humans, as the only animal to possess self-awareness, imagination, and reason, are the
freaks of the universe.
Kierkegaard emphasized an equilibrium between
freedom and responsibility
In Rotter's general prediction formula, need potential is a function of
freedom of movement and need value
The most distinctive or "capstone" concept of Allport's theory of motivation is the concept of
functional autonomy.
According to Allport, compulsions that can be eliminated through therapy or behavior modification are not
functionally autonomous
Social psychologists use the term ________ to describe our tendency to ignore situational and environmental forces when explaining the behavior of other people and instead to focus on internal dispositions.
fundamental attribution error
Rotter sees interpersonal trust as a
generalized expectancy.
People who score in the direction of agreeableness tend to be
good-natured, yielding, generous, and trusting
According to Rollo May, ________ arises when people deny their potentialities, fail to accurately perceive the needs of fellow humans, or remain oblivious to their dependence on the natural world.
guilt
In contrast to Freud, Erikson
had no college degree of any kind.
Maslow believed that all behavior
has a cause
Expressive behavior differs from coping behavior in that expressive behavior
has no goals and is merely a person's mode of expression.
Maslow's feelings toward his mother were marked by
hatred and animosity
Maslow believed that all behaviors
have a cause
Fromm regarded his parents as
having neurotic personalities
Erikson's theory may be called "post-Freudian" because
he built his theory on foundations that Freud laid
For Rogers, empathy is an effective part of therapy because it
helps clients listen to themselves.
Compulsive hand washing, retracing one's steps, behaving in an obsessive orderly manner, destroying work already begun, and leaving one's work unfinished are examples of
hesitation.
Erick is confident that he has the skills and abilities to be an excellent professional baseball player. However, he is uncertain whether he will be offered a job as a player. Thus, according to Bandura, he has ________ efficacy expectations and ________ outcome expectations.
high; low
Eysenck believed that introverts are characterized by
higher levels of cortical arousal
During his period of self-analysis, Carl Jung claimed to have carried on a conversation with
his anima.
Fromm's most basic assumption is that individual personality can be understood in the light of human
history.
From her salary as an elementary school teacher, Jennifer has accumulated a very large bank account. In addition, she has seldom thrown away any of her teaching aids. It thus appears that Jennifer has Fromm's ________ orientation.
hoarding
Nell is careful with her money and rarely shares her thoughts or emotions with others. Her behavior illustrates Fromm's ________ orientation.
hoarding
In the context of nonproductive orientations, ________ keep money, feelings, and thoughts to themselves and prefer holding everything inside instead of letting go.
hoarding characters
According to Rotter, freedom of movement can be determined by
holding need value constant and observing one's need potential.
Erikson believed that the basic strength of infancy is
hope
Eysenck claimed that introverted neurotics are characterized by all of the following except
hysteria
According to May, the essential unity of the person and environment is called
i>Dasein</i>.
According to Eysenck, high P scorers are
impulsive and hostile
In the context of the behavioral differences displayed by newborn infants, identify the dimension of temperament that involves infants' readiness and speed to act, without reflection.
impulsivity
For May, ontological guilt associated with Mitwelt arises from our
inability to accurately perceive the world of others.
For Erikson, infancy is a time of
incorporation.
In Eysenck's theory of personality, the three basic factors of P, E, and N are
independent of each other.
Maslow would say that the autonomy of self-actualizers is seen in their
indifference to criticism or flattery.
Which of the following is not one of Eysenck's criteria for identifying factors?
inductive method of investigation
A preoccupation with the Oedipal fantasy and the wasting of time with nonproductive play reflect Erikson's core pathology of
inertia.
According to Erikson, the core conflict of the play age is
initiative versus guilt
According to May, ________ is the structure that gives meaning to our experience and allows us to make decisions about the future.
intentionality
"A generalized expectancy held by an individual that the word, promise, or oral or written statement of another individual or group can be relied on" is Rotter's definition of
interpersonal trust.
The psychosocial crisis of young adulthood, according to Erikson, is
intimacy versus isolation
According to Carl Jung, which of the following functions involves perception beyond consciousness?
intuition
Negative reinforcement and punishment are similar in that they both
involve aversive stimuli.
Bandura believes that cognition
is determined by behavior and environment
According to Rotter, reinforcement that satisfies a strong need generally
is more highly valued than one that satisfies a weak need.
According to Erikson, during childhood, the ego
is weak and pliable
Erik Erikson defined ________ as the incapacity to take chances with one's identity by sharing true intimacy.
isolation
A useful theory must be falsifiable, which means that
it must be precise enough to suggest research that may either support or fail to support its major tenets.
Erikson's school age stage of psychosocial development parallels which of Freud's stages of psychosexual development?
latency
According to Rotter, four variables and their interactions must be analyzed to ensure accurate predictions. They include all the following except
law of effect
According to May, a person's refusal to accept ontological guilt
leads to neurotic or morbid guilt.
With regard to learning, Bandura believes that
learning can occur in the absence of a response.
According to Julian Rotter, when compared with people who score low on interpersonal trust, people who score high are
less likely to cheat or steal
Skinner believed that the effects of punishment are
less predictable than those of reward.
According to an analysis done by Nettle on the Big Five dimensions of personality, identify a fitness cost that was associated with having an extraverted personality during ancestral periods of evolution.
less stable family
Maslow criticized both psychoanalysis and behaviorism for their
limited views of humanity
A theory may be set aside when it
loses its usefulness
According to Rotter, conflict is most likely to arise when freedom of movement is
low and need value is high
According to Bandura, when people experience intense fear, acute anxiety, or high levels of stress, it
lowers efficacy expectations.
According to Gordon Allport, propriate strivings
maintain tension.
Fromm believed that killing members of one's species for reasons other than survival is peculiar to humans. He called such killings
malignant aggression.
On the subject of dreams, Skinner believed that
many dreams serve a wish-fulfillment purpose.
Alfred Adler refers to the overemphasis on the importance of being manly as the
masculine protest
Fromm believed that authoritarianism takes two forms
masochism and sadism
Maslow contended that people who have never received love
may eventually devalue it.
A parent injures a child with a severe beating, but explains that one should not spare the rod because that may spoil the child. This illustrates Bandura's disengagement technique of
misconstruing consequences
Erikson believed that the sense of a readiness for danger and an anticipation of discomfort are adaptive aspects of
mistrust
May recognized three forms of ontological guilt, each of which corresponds to the three
modes of <i>Dasein</i>.
According to Skinner, a clear example of a conditioned reinforcer would be
money.
According to Freud, the ego's dependency on the superego results in
moral anxiety
A government official who sanctions spying on and brutal physical harassment of legitimate, nonviolent demonstrators because "they are a threat to national security" is using Bandura's disengagement technique of
moral justification
Allport placed personal dispositions on a continuum from
most central to those that are of only peripheral importance to a person.
Rotter assumed that
motivation is directed toward a goa
Rotter's empirical law of effect states that motivation is any condition or event that
moves one in the direction of a goal
In the context of safeguarding tendencies, ________ is the tendency to safeguard one's fictional goal of superiority by psychologically reverting to a secure period of life.
moving backward
Unlike Skinner, Julian Rotter contended that an adequate theory of human behavior
must be built on people's expectations of the future.
Which of the following is not one of the distinct outcomes of the evolutionary process of natural selection, sexual selection, and chance?
mutations
According to Fromm, Hitler's neurotic need to annihilate his enemies demonstrated
necrophilic orientation.
Rotter's concept of ________ allows for more generalized predictions than those permitted by the basic prediction formula.
needs
Veronica's mother learns that whenever she turns down the volume of her television, Veronica finishes her homework quickly. This is an example of
negative reinforcement.
According to Sigmund Freud, which of the following terms refers to the apprehension one feels while in the presence of a teacher?
neurotic anxiety
According to Eysenck, an individual characterized by hysteria, suggestibility, and somatic symptoms would score high on the ________ scale.
neuroticism
Individuals who score high on ________ tend to be anxious, temperamental, emotional, and vulnerable to stress-related problems.
neuroticism
In Cattell's inductive method of research,
no preconceived bias concerning the number or name of traits or types was involved in gathering data.
Which of the following is most likely a product of chance, also known as "random effects"?
noise
Rollo May defined ________ anxiety as that which is proportionate to the threat, does not involve repression, and can be confronted constructively on a conscious level.
normal
The great mother is Carl Jung's archetype of
nourishment and destruction
Bandura believes that new behaviors are acquired through two major kinds of learning,
observational and enactive
In the context of learning, Albert Bandura differs from B. F. Skinner in that Bandura believes that
observational learning is much more efficient than learning through direct experience.
Evolutionary theory of personality rates moderate
on internal consistency.
In Bandura's view, self-efficacy is most likely to be increased when
one successfully performs a difficult task.
Both anxiety and guilt are ________ in that they refer to the nature of being and not to feelings arising from specific situations or transgressions.
ontological
Kenneth is the coach of a soccer team. He often uses the same set of tactics in his games and fails to win most of his games because of this rigid approach. His reluctance to change his approach has gained him a negative image among his peers. In this case, Kenneth scores low on the behavioral disposition of
openness
People who consistently seek out different and varied experiences score high on
openness to experience
Selective activation refers to Bandura's belief that self-regulatory influences
operate only when they are activated
According to Hans J. Eysenck, extraverts can be described as being
optimistic
The advocates of the Five-Factor Theory favor the ________ rotation method of factor analysis.
orthogonal
Rohan scribbles on desks and walls in his classroom. When questioned by his teacher about his deviant behavior, he says that other students have damaged more than just classrooms. He says that his classmates had even destroyed some of the lockers belonging to teachers. In this case, Rohan is reducing the responsibility of his wrong behavior through
palliative comparison.
May's childhood was marked by
parental arguments and family strife
During Abraham H. Maslow's study of self-actualizers, he made the unexpected discovery that many of his people had had ________ that were mystical in nature and that somehow gave them a feeling of transcendence.
peak experiences
Unlike Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis, Alfred Adler's individual psychology assumed that:
people are mostly responsible for their personalities.
Unlike Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler believed that
people are motivated mostly by social influences and by their striving for superiority and success.
Albert Bandura agrees with B. F. Skinner that
people can and do learn through direct experiences
Bandura believes that
people have different levels of self-efficacy in different situations.
Research on traits and emotion tends to support the hypothesis that
people's actions can subvert their predispositions to certain behaviors
According to Bandura, the strongest source of self-efficacy is usually
performance
Erikson believed that sexual latency is important because it
permits focus on learning and social relations.
Carl Jung claimed that overcoming moral obstacles and admitting the inferior side of one's nature may lead to the realization of the
persona
The side of personality that people show to the world is designated as the
persona.
According to Carl Jung, the unconscious can be divided into the
personal and the collective.
In Jungian psychology, repressed, forgotten, or subliminally perceived experiences are part of the
personal unconscious.
"The dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought" is Allport's definition of
personality
Existentialists adopt a ________ approach to understanding humanity.
phenomenological
Allport's theory of personality is based mostly on
philosophical speculation and common sense.
According to Rotter, the most basic need is
physical comfort
Which of these is not listed by Bandura as a mechanism through which behavior is disengaged from self-evaluative consequences?
physical fight or running away
Which of the following is not one of the postulates of basic tendencies?
plasticity
Freud's phallic stage of psychosexual development parallels Erikson's ________ stage.
play age
Fromm believed that ________ is the successful solution to the human dilemma of being part of the natural world and yet separate from it.
positive freedom
Natalie's performance improves whenever she is given a new pen to write her exams. This is an example of
positive reinforcement
Two goals and motives that act as evolved mechanisms are
power and intimacy.
McCrae and Costa's Five-Factor Model (FFM) can both ________ and ________ behavior.
predict; explain
The extent that a test predicts some future behavior is referred to as
predictive validity
According to Gordon Allport, psychologically mature people are characterized by
proactive behavior
According to Gordon Allport, the motives of a mature individual would be
proactive, conscious, and autonomous.
Allport favored a view of personality that regards behavior as
proactive.
According to Gordon Allport, as the warm center of personality, the ________ includes those aspects of life that a person regards as important to a sense of self-identity and self-enhancement.
proprium
Which term is the least descriptive of B. F. Skinner?
psychodynamic
Erikson characterized the oral-sensory phase as a ________ mode of adaptation.
psychosexual
According to Eysenck's findings, cold, nonconforming, and aggressive personalities tend to score high on
psychoticism.
Karen's teacher maintains a book that records every instance of misconduct by her students. Every time a student misbehaves, she adds a point against his or her name in the book. Karen's students now stop misbehaving in class because they fear that the teacher will add points against their names. This is an example of
punishment
A mother who has deep-seated hostility toward her only child but shows overprotection and hyper-concern for the physical well-being of her child illustrates which Freudian defense mechanism?
reaction formation
According to Freud, the apprehension a person feels when physically threatened is ________ anxiety.
realistic
The first test of one's courage, according to Carl Jung, is to
realize the shadow.
Maslow claimed that love and belongingness needs are strongest in people who have
received love and belongingness only in small doses.
Martha's science teacher praises students who perform well in tests. Martha wants to do well in her science test because she desires to be appreciated in front of the class. In this case, Martha's need for appreciation reflects her need for
recognition
Carl Jung believed that psychologically healthy people should
recognize their persona but not confuse it with the self
Rotter stated that when expectancies and situational variables are held constant, behavior is shaped by
reinforcement value
According to Maslow, self-actualizing people are
relatively well satisfied with regard to their basic needs
Freud believed that the ego begins to evolve from the id soon after birth. While the ego is developing, the id
remains stationary.
Basically, existentialists believe that theories
render individuals into objects
According to Sigmund Freud, whenever the ego is threatened by undesirable id impulses, it protects itself by ________ those impulses; that is, it forces threatening feelings into the unconscious.
repressing
Behavior reinforced on an intermittent schedule is
resistant to extinction.
According to Maslow, instinctoid needs
result in pathology when frustrated and can be altered through learning.
Martyrs who sacrifice physical needs and personal safety for their beliefs and heroes who risk their lives to save others illustrate Maslow's notion of
reversed order of needs
Fromm called the need to feel at home again in the world
rootedness
Maslow classified the needs for law, order, and structure as
safety needs.
In Bandura's view, vicarious experiences are likely to have their strongest effect on self-efficacy when an observer
sees a person of equal ability succeed.
Existentialists believe that most people in modern societies experience alienation due to a separation of
self from the world
"I feel upset because I wasn't nicer to my father while he was still alive. Now, it is too late." Which of the following safeguarding tendencies is exemplified in this scenario?
self-accusation
According to Gordon Allport, which of the following would not be a characteristic of the mature, healthy personality?
self-centeredness
According to Sigmund Freud, the aim of the destructive drive is
self-destruction.
According to Bandura, depressed individuals are inclined to treat themselves badly for this shortcomings. This illustrates a distortion of
self-reaction.
The concept that individuals respond positively or negatively to their behavior, depending upon how it measures up to their personal standards, is a process Bandura calls
self-reaction.
Which of the following is not one of the types of selection focused on by evolutionary theorists?
seminal selection
For May, the purpose of therapy is to
set people free to make their own choices.
In Freud's aim-inhibited love, that which is inhibited is the
sexual aspect of the instinct.
According to Erikson, ________ is a feeling of self-consciousness, of being looked at and exposed.
shame
In a state of disorganization, people's behavior may be consistent with their
shattered self-concept.
According to Freud, male and female personality development is
similar until the phallic stage.
In the context of the behavioral differences displayed by newborn infants, identify the dimension of temperament that concerns an infant's response to other people, especially strangers.
sociability
According to Erikson, which of the following is not an aspect of the ego?
social ego
According to Alfred Adler, ________ is the "barometer of normality."
social interest
The "sole criterion of human values," Alfred Adler said, is
social interest
Alfred Adler believed that there are two general routes by which people strive. One is the path of exaggerated personal superiority and the other is the road of
social interest.
Self-actualizers' identification with humanity and genuine interest in helping others reflect their
social interest.
Buss argues that the five main dimensions of personality (Big Five) can be best thought of as a way of summarizing the
social landscape.
E.O. Wilson argued for a merger of the biological and social sciences and dubbed his movement
sociobiology
The essence of Buss's theory of personality revolves around adaptive problems and their
solutions or mechanisms
Although similar to Sigmund Freud's defense mechanisms, Alfred Adler's concept of safeguarding tendencies differs in several respects. One difference is that safeguarding tendencies are
sometimes conscious.
According to the four-level hierarchy of behavior organization proposed by Hans J. Eysenck, ________ are at the lowest level of behavior organization.
specific cognitions
Which is not one of the four levels of behavior organization recognized by Eysenck?
spontaneous acts
For Fromm, positive freedom consists of
spontaneously expressing emotional potentialities.
Megan compares her test grade with that of other class members to determine her test performance. She is using which of Bandura's judgmental processes?
standards of reference
According to Bandura, collective efficacy
stems from the personal efficacy of many people working together.
A response to a similar environment in the absence of previous reinforcement was Skinner's definition of
stimulus generalization.
Negative and positive reinforcements are alike in that they
strengthen the behavior they follow
Allport termed less intensely felt personal dispositions that guide action ________ dispositions.
stylistic
According to the four-level hierarchy of behavior organization proposed by Hans J. Eysenck, ________ are at the highest level of behavior organization.
superfactors
Adlerian safeguarding tendencies protect ________ against public disgrace and loss of self-esteem.
superiority feelings
Alfred Adler felt that every individual is striving to reach the same goal of
superiority or success.
People high in ________ are driven and ambitious.
surgency
Buss (1991) assumes that motivation, emotion, and personality are adaptive in that they solve problems of
survival and reproduction.
Eysenck argued that many experimental studies on the same topic yield inconclusive or inconsistent results because the experimenters failed to
take personality factors into account.
Just like in biology, there is much support for the evolutionary basis of human personality, which can be divided into the general topics of
temperament, genetics, and animal personality.
Which of the following archetypes is the explanation for the irrational thinking and illogical opinions often attributed to women?
the animus
The three conditions essential to operant conditioning are
the antecedent, the behavior, and the consequence
Bandura views human agency as
the capacity to exercise control over our own lives.
According to Skinner, human behavior is shaped by
the contingencies of survival.
A set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypotheses is
the definition of scientific theory.
Rogers called the tendency for matter (organic and inorganic) to evolve from simple to more complex forms
the formative tendency
Carl Rogers is best known as
the founder of client-centered therapy.
John Watson argued that
the goal of psychology should be the prediction and control of behavior.
Operant conditioning is distinguished from classical conditioning primarily in that operant conditioning involves
the immediate reinforcement of a response.
According to Rogers, disorganization exists when
the incongruence between people's perceived self and their organismic experience is either too obvious or occurs too suddenly to be denied or distorted.
Skinner believed that human behavior is shaped by all these factors except
the individual's personal drive state.
According to Mischel, behavior is determined by
the interaction of person variables with situational variables
Which of the following was an ideal factor that allowed Costa and McCrae to investigate the question of how personality is structured?
the large, well-established datasets of adults available at the NIH in Baltimore
Erikson saw the Oedipal situation as the prototype of
the lifelong power of human playfulness
According to Fromm, which of the following is not a sadistic tendency?
the need to accept criticism from others
Maslow hypothesized that
the order of needs may be reversed in certain cases
The personalities, cognitive processes, developmental histories, and social experiences of personality theorists help shape their theories. The discipline that deals with these factors is called
the psychology of science
Industry versus inferiority is Erikson's psychosocial crisis of
the school age.
In Jungian psychology, ________ is the archetype of archetypes.
the self
Which Jungian archetype includes the other archetypes and represents wholeness or completion?
the self
According to Alfred Adler, ________ is the dynamic force motivating all human activity.
the striving for success
Rotter distinguished between internal reinforcement and external reinforcement. Internal reinforcement is determined by
the subjective perceptions of an event's value
According to Carl Rogers, which of the following is classified as a need for maintenance?
the tendency to seek the status quo
The wizard in the Wizard of Oz symbolizes which Jungian archetype?
the wise old man
Rogers' basic assumption in therapy was that
therapeutic growth is enhanced when clients receive empathy and unconditional positive regard from a congruent therapist.
Regarding human thoughts and cognitions, Skinner believed that
they are covert behaviors that take place within the skin.
According to Alfred Adler, which of the following statements is true about maladjusted people?
they set their goals too high.
According to Alfred Adler, which of the following statements is true about people with exaggerated physical deficiencies?
they tend to be overly concerned with themselves
Alfred Adler believed that the essence of maladjustment is in a person's
underdeveloped social interest
Traits generated through factor analysis may be either ________ or ________.
unipolar; bipolar
Which concept best describes Allport's view of personality?
uniqueness
May believed that people's task is to
unite love and will
The least common schedule of reinforcement is the ________ schedule of reinforcement.
variable-interval
For humans, playing slot machines best illustrates the influence of a ________ schedule of reinforcement.
variable-ratio
In his philosophy of science, Skinner
wanted to know how behavior can be described, predicted, and controlled.
In the context of the striving force as compensation, Alfred Adler believed that the tendency toward completion or wholeness
was innate but needed to be developed
Erikson's biological father
was never known to Erikson.
From Alfred Adler's biography, we know that he
was second born
As an adolescent, Rogers
was shy and socially incompetent.
