unit 4: foreign policy

1796- President George Washington's Farewell Address

After serving two terms, George Washington planned to retire and wrote a farewell letter to the nation in the American Daily Advertiser. In his farewell address, Washington advised the nation on many topics, including a warning that Americans should resist political ties with foreign nations: "The great rule of conduct for us, in regard to foreign nations, is in extending our commercial relations, to have with them as little political connection as possible. . . . Hence, therefore, it must be unwise in us to implicate ourselves, by artificial ties, in the ordinary vicissitudes of her [Europe's] politics, or the ordinary combinations and collisions of her friendships or enmities. It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world."

1955 — 1973 Vietnam War

After the country of Vietnam gained its independence in the mid-twentieth century, a civil war started between communist North Vietnam and non-communist South Vietnam, which eventually sparked a larger conflict: the Vietnam War. Under the domino theory, President Dwight D. Eisenhower believed that it was a responsibility of democratic nations such as the United States to come to the aid of Vietnam and other countries that were under threat of a communist takeover. To this end, the United States gradually became more involved in the conflict in Vietnam. Many think that by the early 1960s, US forces were the only barrier standing in the way of a full communist takeover of South Vietnam. Opposition to the war grew among Americans, however, and by 1969, many in the United States wanted the troops to withdraw. The last US troops withdrew in March 1973, but the fighting between North and South Vietnam continued until 1975. Following the fall of Saigon, the South Vietnamese capital, the peninsula was reunited under communist control.

how US involvement in the Cold War represented a shift from isolationism to intervention?

During the Cold War, the United States actively worked against the Soviet Union and tried to stop the spread of communism in countries and regions around the world.

1969 — 1976 Détente

Détente refers to a period of improved relations between the United States and the Soviet Union beginning in 1967 and ending around 1979 with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Under these circumstances, following his election in 1968, President Richard Nixon used the improved relations to negotiate arms reductions with the USSR. Between 1969 and 1979, the United States and the Soviet Union held a series of negotiations known as the Strategic Arms Limitations Talks, also known as SALT I and SALT II. As a result of these negotiations, the two countries agreed to limit production of certain types of missiles. In 1972, President Nixon went to Moscow to sign the SALT I documents, becoming the first US president to visit the Soviet Union.

1990 — 1991 First Gulf War

On August 2, 1990, the country of Iraq, under the leadership of Saddam Hussein, invaded the neighboring country of Kuwait. Iraqi forces quickly overwhelmed Kuwaiti defenses, and within two days, Kuwait was under Iraqi control. Immediately following these events, the international community, led by the United Nations, condemned the Iraqi invasion. When sanctions placed against Iraq by the United Nations failed to resolve the situation, a US-led coalition of 34 countries formed to force Iraqi troops out of Kuwait. The United States launched Operation Desert Storm on January 17, 1991. The offensive was over in a matter of weeks, resulting in a resounding coalition victory.

The Executive Branch

Despite the Constitution's relatively even distribution of authority between the executive and legislative branches, in practice the president leads and executes foreign policy by directing various government departments and agencies. The president's most important foreign policy advisers, including the vice president, the national security adviser, the secretaries of state and defense, the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the director of central intelligence, sit on the National Security Council (NSC). The president often invites other government officials, such as the attorney general, to attend meetings of the council. The national security adviser directs the work of the NSC. He or she also helps the president formulate foreign policy and coordinate it across the executive branch. The national security adviser usually becomes the president's closest foreign policy adviser, along with the secretary of state. The president appoints key individuals to foreign policy positions, such as secretary of state. The State Department is responsible for the diplomatic aspects of foreign policy. It manages US embassies and consulates abroad and takes the lead in negotiations with other countries. The State Department links foreign governments and US policy makers. Formed after World War II, the Department of Defense provides civilian (nonmilitary) supervision over the armed forces of the United States. The secretary of defense helps form foreign policy from a military perspective to review with the president and other relevant departments, such as the State Department. By law, the secretary of defense must be a civilian, not an active member of the military. The chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff serves as the US military's representative on the NSC. The Joint Chiefs of Staff is a small group composed of the highest-ranking leaders from the four branches of the armed forces—Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines—and includes a chairman selected by the president. The Joint Chiefs of Staff provide defense recommendations to the president. Successful foreign policy is heavily dependent on having accurate information, or intelligence. The diplomatic and military branches of the US foreign policy machine depend on about a dozen different agencies to collect, analyze, and distribute intelligence to help make informed foreign policy decisions. You've probably heard of the CIA in spy movies, but this agency plays a role in US policy as well as a role in movies. In the real world, the CIA, or Central Intelligence Agency, gathers and analyzes information about foreign governments, corporations, groups, and individuals. The CIA also leads covert operations and provides invaluable information to the president, Congress, and government departments. Another important intelligence agency, the National Security Agency (NSA), concentrates on the collection and analysis of electronic communication. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) works primarily within the United States to investigate interstate crimes, national security issues, and crimes against the government. After the September 11 terrorist attacks in 2001, the US government realized that intelligence needed to be shared more between different agencies. The government formed the Department of Homeland Security to meet this need. Working in both foreign and domestic policy, the Homeland Security Department works to improve domestic security. This department encompasses the Transportation Security Administration (TSA), the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the Coast Guard, the Secret Service, and other organizations.

how US involvement in World War II represented a shift from isolationism to intervention?

The United States got involved in World War II after being attacked by the Japanese at Pearl Harbor. During and after the war, however, the country took an active part in the planning of the post-war world, including becoming a part of the United Nations.

how US involvement in the Spanish-American War represented a shift from isolationism to intervention?

The United States intervened between Spain and its colonies and was able to take control of those territories from the Spanish. The Spanish-American War established the United States as a real world power on the international stage.

1994-NAFTA

The United States, Canada, and Mexico created the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) to facilitate free trade and investment between North American countries. This agreement, which went into effect in 1994, lifted restrictions on trade between the three neighboring countries. Although the trade agreement draws some criticism, NAFTA has opened up trade between the three nations and represents part of the US focus on economic growth in an increasingly global world.

1812-1815-War of 1812

The War of 1812 was an important moment in US history. Barely three decades after the Revolutionary War's end, the young United States felt threatened by Britain's interference with US international trade. The United States also had dreams of expanding and becoming more of a voice in the Western Hemisphere and the world. On June 18, 1812, Congress declared war on Britain. At first, US forces scored victories on the high seas. Then, in August 1814, British troops stunned Americans when they set the Capitol and the White House on fire. Ultimately, US forces were able to defend New York, Baltimore, and New Orleans, and Britain signed a peace treaty in 1815. Victory in the War of 1812, which has sometimes been called the second American Revolution, further solidified US independence and sovereignty in the world.

What was the significance of the War Powers Act?

It limited the president's ability to start and continue a war. Congress passed the War Powers Act after the Vietnam War to limit the president's ability to start a war.

Congress

Although the Constitution grants significant foreign affairs powers to the executive branch, Congress also plays an important role in deciding US foreign policy. Through congressional leadership, oversight committees, trade and treaty approval, and funding, Congress decides US foreign policy. In all, Congress has four major powers that pertain to foreign policy. While the president is commander in chief of the military, only Congress has the authority to declare war on another country. In recent decades, however, the United States has engaged in several prolonged military conflicts without a formal declaration of war. Congress also exercises authority over military and foreign affairs through its control of fiscal appropriations, or funding. The executive branch can accomplish little without first convincing Congress to fund certain programs. Congress's power over appropriations is limited, however, especially in military matters. The increased presence and role of US armed forces around the globe make it difficult to cut US military funding, which stands as the largest defense budget in the world. The Constitution states that any treaty negotiated with a foreign country must be approved by a two-thirds majority vote in the Senate. In US history, however, the Senate has rejected only about 20 treaties, including the famous Treaty of Versailles, which created the League of Nations after World War I. Through various committees and other actions, Congress ensures that the foreign policy of the executive branch is constitutionally legal. This oversight power provides important checks and balances for US foreign policy. Congress frequently uses its oversight authority to investigate foreign policy issues, especially those involving fraud or major errors by the executive branch. Congress also requires the executive branch to inform legislators "in a timely fashion" about US covert operations and to make annual reports on a variety of issues, such as international human rights. Numerous events in the 1970s caused the US government to reevaluate the nation's foreign policy system. Questionable US involvement in the Vietnam War caused many Americans to debate the role and purpose of US foreign policy. The passage of the War Powers Act in 1973 is one example of Congress trying to check the executive branch's powers in the area of foreign policy.

Diplomacy

For thousands of years, people have attempted to bring order to the international system by establishing rules and norms to govern the interactions between nations. Over time, these rules and norms have developed into a system of international law. With no formal higher authority to enforce international law, however, countries often violate it or even ignore it completely. Nevertheless, international law does exercise a significant influence on the actions of nation-states. One of the oldest and most basic aspects of international law comes in the right of legation. The right of legation gives all countries the right to send and receive diplomatic representatives. A nation that agrees to receive the diplomatic representative of another nation indicates that it recognizes the legitimacy of the other nation's government. Diplomatic relations often result in a treaty, or a formal agreement, between two or more nations. Treaties deal with a huge variety of issues, from making peace to expanding trade to establishing international law. In the United States, treaties must be ratified by the Senate before they can take effect. Once they gain Senate approval, treaties have the force of law.

1898-Spanish American War and Imperialism

In 1898, the United States aimed to defend its economic and political interests in Cuba against Spanish occupation of the island. With growing anti-Spanish sentiment in the country, the explosion of the USS Maine in February 1898 in Havana Harbor, Cuba, acted as the ignition for the United States to declare war on Spain. The United States and Spain fought in Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Caribbean Sea as well as in the Philippines and Guam in the western Pacific Ocean. After three months of fighting, the United States scored a resounding victory and received control of these areas from the Spanish. The war elevated the international standing of the United States and contributed to the continued decline of the Spanish Empire.

Roosevelt Corollary and the Panama Canal

In 1904, President Theodore Roosevelt worried that European powers might intervene in a debt dispute between Venezuela and creditors. The Roosevelt Corollary of 1904 was a more forceful addition to the Monroe Doctrine. The corollary stated that the United States reserved the right to police the countries of the Western Hemisphere and, as an extension of the Monroe Doctrine, it would actively keep European powers from interfering. By the early twentieth century, the United States had become more powerful and was willing to defend its Western Hemisphere interests more assertively. Roosevelt used this same approach to begin construction of the Panama Canal. The US government negotiated with Colombia about building a canal in Panama, which was a part of Colombia at the time. The two sides were unable to finalize a deal. Taking an aggressive stance, Roosevelt used the US Navy to support the Panamanian revolution for independence. Colombia was unable to prevent Panama from splitting away, and the United States forged a deal with the new government in Panama to begin construction on the canal. Since its completion in 1914, the Panama Canal has drastically reduced travel times and costs between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Covert Operations

In addition to collecting information, intelligence agencies also participate in covert operations. Covert, or secret, operations allow the government to undertake military action against a target without engaging in full-scale war. Usually, the United States hides its involvement in such operations. In the early twenty-first century, counterterrorism has relied heavily on intelligence gathering that often results in small-scale, covert operations. To maintain the secrecy of its missions, the US government often reveals little to no information about these operations, leaving the US public largely in the dark. Data gathering and surveillance programs have caused civil liberties groups to question the constitutional legality of some covert operations. For instance, how much intelligence does the US government collect on individual US citizens? At what point does this data gathering invade Americans' Fourth Amendment rights (freedom from unreasonable searches)? These questions are important to ask, especially in the online world of the twenty-first century.

Making Foreign Policy

In its foreign policy, the United States seeks to preserve global peace and stability while protecting human rights, democracy, and economic growth. At the same time, the United States is willing to act forcefully—even resorting to acts of war—to protect the lives and interests of its citizens and allies. US politicians often discuss guarding these ideals in the name of national defense. As it does in most areas of government policy, the Constitution divides authority over foreign affairs between the legislative and executive branches of the federal government. However, presidents have increased their control of foreign policy greatly over time. Today, the president and executive agencies take the lead in both formulating and implementing US foreign policy.

1992-Somalia

In the early 1990s, a humanitarian crisis brought on by a civil war in Somalia gained the country international attention. Severe drought and conflicts between warring clan militias caused mass starvation throughout the country. On December 3, 1992, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 794 authorizing a coalition force to create a safe zone for humanitarian workers who were providing food to the population. When Somalian warlord Mohamed Farrah Aidid refused to obey the objectives of the UN resolution, the United States sent troops to capture him. During the ensuing Battle of Mogadishu, two Black Hawk helicopters were shot down and US soldiers became trapped fighting Somali militia in the streets of the city. The death of the US soldiers and the failure of the operation were major contributors to the eventual US withdrawal from the conflict, although the US foreign policy of the 1990s continued to focus on intervention and humanitarian aid.

The United Nations

In the modern world, nations are growing economically and militarily while also facing a shrinking supply of resources, such as oil. Many difficult events stemming from this tension have shown nations around the world the need to communicate and work out problems before declaring war. After World War I, leading nations attempted to create a forum, called the League of Nations, to address these problems. Although the League of Nations fell apart, the world community set up the United Nations (UN) at the end of World War II. The UN has emerged as an important force for international issues, such as protecting peace, human rights, and economic opportunity. Like the League of Nations, the United Nations seeks to preserve peace through international cooperation and collective security. The UN does not make laws, and it is not a world government. Rather, it helps the nations of the world come together to resolve international conflict and address problems of common concern. National sovereignty—the right of nations to control what happens within their borders—stands as a primary principle of the UN. Although the UN will suggest courses of action, the UN will almost never dictate how a member country runs its own internal affairs. The UN's almost absolute respect for national sovereignty often limits its ability to accomplish other goals, such as preventing conflict and protecting human rights. No organization can fix all the world's problems, but the UN has become an important forum for discussing and assisting with global issues.

1973-Oil Embargo

On October 6, 1973, the combined forces of Egypt and Syria invaded Israel, sparking the Fourth Arab-Israeli War, also known as the Yom Kippur War. The fighting lasted for weeks, but with US support, the Israeli forces were eventually able to push back against the Egyptian and Syrian armies. During the fighting, the Arab nations of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) instituted an oil embargo against the United States in retaliation for US support of Israel. The embargo caused considerable stress to the US economy as the price of gas rose significantly. In response to the embargo, national policies were enacted under the Emergency Petroleum Allocation Act to reduce dependence on foreign oil. These policies included lowering the national speed limit, using price control measures such as gas rationing, and promoting conservation.

International Relations

One of the primary responsibilities of any national government is interacting with the world outside its borders. Since the Revolutionary War, relations with other nations have occupied a central role in the US government. In fact, the need for the states to coordinate their foreign policy was one of the main reasons that a national government of the United States was created. Efforts in foreign policy pursue the same ultimate objective as US domestic policy: to secure the Declaration of Independence's guarantees of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." Yet, the government formulates and carries out foreign policy under very different conditions and assumptions than domestic policy. For an illustration of the differences between foreign and domestic affairs, recall the philosopher Thomas Hobbes's ideas about the state of nature. Hobbes believed that without civilization, humans would exist in a state of perfect freedom. However, such unlimited freedom would have terrible consequences: with no higher authority to regulate people's actions, the strong would be free to exploit the weak, and every person would live in constant fear of violence. According to Hobbes, people avoid this awful situation by creating a social contract. In this contract, all people in a society voluntarily agree to give up some of their freedom to a government responsible for regulating the behavior of the people. As part of the social contract, each sovereign government holds a monopoly on legitimate political authority within its borders. Citizens resolve disputes according to the law, not by violence. International affairs, on the other hand, operate very differently from domestic affairs. No higher authority exists to regulate relations between nation-states. The international system therefore more resembles Hobbes's vision of the state of nature. Stronger nations prey upon weaker ones, and disputes between countries often degenerate into violence.

2003 — 2011 The Second Gulf War

President George W. Bush and his administration believed that Iraq was a particular threat of continuing terrorism, setting the stage for the Second Gulf War. The United States believed that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction, though no hard evidence of their existence could be found. The UN declined to authorize the use of force against the country. President Bush ultimately decided to proceed with the invasion of Iraq on March 19, 2003, without UN authorization. Iraqi forces were overrun, and Baghdad, the nation's capital, fell within a month. Although the operation initially seemed a success, the US military maintained a presence in Iraq to help the newly created government. Resistance to the new government continued throughout the decade. The United States withdrew its final troops in 2011. Unrest continues in the country.

1823- Monroe Doctrine

President James Monroe announced what came to be known as the Monroe Doctrine in his annual message to Congress in 1823. In a world dominated by increasing nationalism, Monroe asserted this policy shortly after several Latin American colonies gained their independence from European powers. Madison's address stated that European countries would no longer be allowed to create new colonies or to interfere with the affairs of independent nations in the Western Hemisphere, declaring that "the American continents . . . are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers." The Monroe Doctrine carried great influence on US foreign policy for much of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and was used as justification for US involvement in the affairs of various countries in Latin America.

1981-Iran Hostage Crisis

The Iranian hostage crisis resulted from growing issues both within Iran and between the country's new government and the United States. The former leader, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, had attempted to Westernize the nation with the support of the United States. A new Iranian government under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini began to suppress political opposition and enforce strict social and religious values. Foreign policy under the new government became particularly antiforeign and anti-Western. In 1979, largely in response to the shah's move to the United States, a group of radical Iranian students seized the US embassy in Tehran, Iran, and held the officials hostage. The Iranian hostage crisis lasted 444 days, from November 1979 to January 1981. As a result of the hostage crisis, the diplomatic relationship between the United States and Iran was broken, and the United States began to support other nations in the Arab world, such as Saudi Arabia.

History of US Foreign Policy: From Isolation to Intervention

The foreign policy of the United States has changed dramatically since the framers of the Constitution first set the framework for the nation. In the early nineteenth century, the United States was still finding its way as an independent nation. Many politicians during the 1800s believed the United States should stand between two oceans and isolate itself from foreign problems. In the early 1900s, this isolationist view began to change. The Spanish-American War and World War I led the United States to become more active in world affairs, a trend that has continued almost uninterrupted to the present day.

2001-September 11 and the Beginning of the War on Terror

The worst terrorist attack on US soil took place on September 11, 2001. Terrorists from al-Qaeda, an extremist Islamic group, hijacked four airplanes. They crashed two planes into the World Trade Center's twin towers in New York and the other plane into the Pentagon near Washington, DC, killing approximately 3,000 people. The fourth plane's intended target was never reached. That flight's passengers fought back against the terrorists, and the plane crashed in a field in Pennsylvania. It is thought that the intended target was either the US Capitol or the White House. Following the September 11 terrorist attacks, President George W. Bush popularized the phrase "War on Terror" to describe the beginning of a global military and political struggle against terrorism. This term applies to relations with countries and regimes that were accused of having a connection to terrorism or providing terrorists with support. Within a month of September 11, the United States led an international effort to overthrow the Taliban-run government of Afghanistan, which had provided safe harbor for al-Qaeda leadership and training operations. A UN-backed interim government replaced the Taliban on December 5, 2001. The country has remained unstable for years, leading to a surge of US troops in 2009, and a continued US military presence expected to last through the end of 2014.

War

Treaties, diplomacy, and international law all provide ways for countries to resolve their differences without resorting to violence. Unfortunately, such measures often fail to prevent the outbreak of war. War is the organized armed conflict between nations, often with the objective of domination. Nearly every nation in the world maintains a military to enable it to successfully prosecute a war and defend itself from foreign attack. Many people have attempted to make wars less common and more humane. One such attempt, known as just war doctrine, established a set of rigorous conditions that must be met for a war to be considered morally permissible: -The war must confront a real and certain danger. -Only a proper authority, a government, can wage war. -All peaceful means must be exhausted before war can be declared. -The war must be fought with correct intention. -The good accomplished by the war must outweigh the damage caused by it. The Geneva Conventions adhere to the principles of the just war doctrine and contain a series of international agreements, signed by nearly every nation in the world, that aim to reshape the experience of war. The first Geneva Convention was adopted in 1864 as part of the founding of the Red Cross, a neutral organization dedicated to helping the victims of war. The first Convention, which regulated the treatment of injured soldiers, contained the first standing written rules of universal scope designed to protect war victims. Subsequent Geneva Conventions have covered the treatment of civilians and prisoners of war.

1949-The Cold War Begins

With their status as the only post−World War II superpowers, the relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union naturally colored world affairs. Although allies during the war, the differences in ideology quickly created tension between the two nations. As a result, US foreign policy during the period known as the Cold War was focused almost exclusively on stopping Soviet expansion of communism. Presidents Truman, Eisenhower, and others worked tirelessly in pursuit of containment, where the United States would do all in its power to contain Soviet influence. These plans included the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a military alliance between the United States and Western Europe, and the creation of the Marshall Plan, which aimed to rebuild Europe following the damage of World War II. These plans aimed to prevent any European country from embracing communism.

1914-1918 World War 1

World War I, once known as the Great War, began in Europe in 1914. Continuing an isolationist policy, the United States declared neutrality immediately when the war began. The German use of unrestricted submarine warfare and the close trading relationship between the United States and Great Britain made neutrality difficult to maintain. The United States eventually entered the war on April 6, 1917, following years of growing tensions between the United States and Germany. World War I carried many lasting consequences for the United States and the world. The war brought up questions about the country's continued alliance with other nations. The treaty that ended the war also created the League of Nations, and many Americans feared that the United States' participation in the League would increase the risk of getting pulled into another European war. As a result, the United States did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles and took no part in the League of Nations, returning instead to a policy of isolationism.

1939 — 1945 World War II

World War II was fought from 1939 until 1945 in Europe, East Asia, North Africa, and in many places throughout the Pacific Ocean. Though the United States again attempted to maintain neutrality throughout the war, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, forced the United States into the war on the side of the Allied Powers. The United States left its mark in many important battles during the war. The island hopping of the Pacific Theater to take back territory from Japanese forces, the invasion of Normandy, France, to liberate continental Europe from the Germans, and the dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki illustrate only a few important moments of the United States' impact on the war. By the war's end, more than 400,000 Americans were dead, and the Germans and the Japanese were defeated. The United States came out of the war as one of the only two remaining superpowers in the world, sharing the title with the Soviet Union.