World History Units 3/4
States sought to centralize their rule by including foreigners whose positions were dependent on the state to serve in the bureaucracy.
In the context of the period 1450-1750, which of the following most likely explains why the Qing government employed the scholars shown in the image?
increase of maritime trade along the African coast
In the period after circa 1450, trade along the routes shown on the map declined in large part because of the
The Americas
In which of the following regions between 1450 and 1750 was Christian missionary activity met with the LEAST amount of resistance by non-European states?
The spread of Islam to new locations on the margins of the Muslim world, such as southeast Asia
Outside of the Ottoman Empire, Sufis contributed most directly to which of the following during the period before 1750?
The increasing expansion and centralization of state power
The actions of the Maroons that forced British colonial authorities to conclude a treaty with them are best explained as evidence of reactions against which of the following global trends in the period 1450-1750 ?
The state sponsorship of Jesuit missions to native populations
The attitude toward religious practice expressed in Source 2 was most directly apparent in which of the following Spanish policies in the Americas in the period circa 1500-1750 ?
The mercantilist trade regulations enforced by Spanish colonial authorities
The author's claim that the Spanish inhabitants of Manila act as agents for the inhabitants of Mexico can best be described as a reference to which of the following?
Brazil
The data in the table regarding Portuguese vessels in the period 1701-1800 most directly reflect trends in the plantation economy of
The formation of new identities as part of the restructuring of social hierarchies
The dispute described in the court case is most directly an effect of which of the following processes in colonial American societies?
The relative risks of continuing to pursue a trade policy that forced foreign states to acknowledge China's political superiority
The emperor's question to Sun Yuting was most likely intended to assess which of the following?
Joint-stock trading companies
The establishment of Dutch economic and political influence in Southeast Asia as shown in Map 1 was most directly a result of which of the following?
Improved ship designs and navigational technologies
The expansion of trade routes along the coast of Africa as shown on Map 2 was most directly facilitated by which of the following?
Increasing global connections expanded the reach of existing religions.
The implicit claim made by the image about a connection between religious devotion and maritime exploration best demonstrates which of the following in the period circa 1450-1750 ?
significance of European access to precious metals from the Americas
The main arguments of the two sources are most similar in their emphasis on the
Trade networks continued to flourish and gave Europeans direct access to precious luxury goods.
The material used to create the plaque best reflects which of the following historical situations in the Indian Ocean region in the period 1450-1750 ?
The influence of European merchants and missionaries along Asian maritime trade routes
The object shown in the image is best understood in the context of which of the following developments between 1450 and 1750 ?
The sponsorship of art by new elites
The painting can best be used as evidence for which of the following world historical trends that took place during the period 1450 C.E. to 1750 C.E.?
could be used as a symbol of the union between the state's ruling class and the majority of its population
The painting shows celebrations of the wedding of the Muslim ruler of Golkonda and his Hindu bride. The newlyweds are surrounded by attendants of both religions. The particular event depicted in the painting was likely important to Golkonda rulers mostly because it
It was conquered by the Mughal Empire.
The painting shows celebrations of the wedding of the Muslim ruler of Golkonda and his Hindu bride. The newlyweds are surrounded by attendants of both religions. Which of the following most likely describes the fate of the Golkonda state after 1650 ?
Christian religious practices were shared by many social groups.
The passage best illustrates which of the following features of colonial Latin American history?
The Mughals' toleration of different religious traditions within their state
The portrait of Emperor Jahangir in Image 2 is best seen as evidence of which of the following?
The development of trading-post empires
The production of the plaque in Goa is best understood in the immediate context of which of the following?
limit trade and other contacts with foreigners
The spread of new cultural ideas, such as those illustrated by the religious beliefs of Xu Guangxi and Candida Xu, most strongly encouraged some Asian governments in Eurasia in the period 1450-1750 to
The discovery of maritime routes that linked Europe and Asia through the Indian Ocean
Which of the following developments in the late fifteenth century could best be used as evidence to support Darwin's argument in the second paragraph regarding a change in patterns of long-distance trade?
The establishment of the Safavid Empire
Which of the following developments in the period 1450-1750 could best be used as evidence to modify Darwin's argument in the first paragraphabout the establishment of Eurasian empires on "nomadic foundations"?
Trade routes extending east and west from Eurasia toward the Americas
Which of the following aspects of Map 2 can best be used to support the claim that a truly global trading system developed during the period from 1450 to 1750 ?
They acquired enslaved persons from the African interior and sold them to European merchants located along the African coast.
Which of the following best characterizes the role of West African states in the trade shown in the table?
Adoption and improvement of maritime technologies by Europeans
Which of the following best explains Europe's ability to gain a greater share of global trade in the early modern period?
Increased demand for sugar in European markets
Which of the following developments most directly accounts for the total volume of the slave trade shown in the table for the period 1676-1800?
The Manchu Empire in East Asia
Which of the following imperial expansions was most similar to those of the Ottoman and Mughal Empires?
Conflicts between the Shi'a Safavids and neighboring Sunni empires
Which of the following most directly caused a disruption in the land-based trade of the Safavid empire during the period circa 1500-1750 ?
The expansion of the plantation system for growing sugarcane and other crops
Which of the following most directly led to the arrival of substantial numbers of Africans in the Americas at the time of the painting?
The trading posts in both regions were intended to allow the Portuguese to control access to heavily trafficked maritime routes.
Which of the following best explains a similar motivation behind the establishment of Portuguese trading posts in Africa and the establishment of Portuguese trading posts in Asia?
They were often launched in the hopes of finding alternative sailing routes to Asia.
Which of the following best explains a similarity between the earliest English and French voyages across the North Atlantic in the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries?
They greatly increased interest in transoceanic travel and trade in other European countries.
Which of the following best explains an effect of Spanish voyages across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans in Europe in the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries?
Caribbean society was built on racial hierarchies that generally reserved elite status for people of European ancestry.
Which of the following best explains why the painting was seen as a challenge to social conventions when it was painted?
Ottoman policies sought to limit the activities of some religious groups.
Which of the following conclusions regarding the Ottoman Empire is best supported by the passage?
The Protestant Reformation led the Catholic Church to seek new converts outside of Europe.
Which of the following developments in Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries most directly helps to explain the presence of the scholars shown in the image of China?
The Ottoman Empire's rivalry with the Safavid Empire
Which of the following most directly strengthened Sunni religious scholars' role as official interpreters of Islamic doctrine within the Ottoman Empire, as suggested by the passage?
The development and spread of gunpowder weapons across Eurasia
Which of the following most strongly contributed to the shift of power from nomadic empires to settled states that Darwin identifies in the second paragraph?
The Spanish conquered all Maya towns.
Which of the following pieces of evidence does the author use to support his claim that the arrival of the Spanish "destroyed our people"?
suppress resistance to their rule by co-opting local groups
"Colonel Robert Bennett, under the authority of the Governor of Jamaica, makes a treaty with the rebellious Blacks, today, June 23, 1739. Captain Quao, and several other Black officers under his command, surrendered under the following terms. 1. All hostilities on both sides shall cease forever, Amen. 2. Captain Quao and his people shall have a certain quantity of land given to them, in order to raise crops, hogs, fowls, goats, or whatsoever stock they may think proper, with sugarcanes excepted. 3. Four White men shall constantly live and reside with them in their town, in order to keep a good correspondence with the Black inhabitants of this Island. 4. Captain Quao and his people shall destroy all other rebellious Blacks in any part of Jamaica. They shall be paid to apprehend any runaway Blacks and return them to their respective owners. 5. If any White man shall disturb or annoy any of the people or property that may belong to the said Captain Quao and his people, they may complain to a magistrate and receive justice." Treaty between British colonial authorities and the Windward Maroons, Jamaica, 1739. The Windward Maroons were descendants of Africans brought to the Americas in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries who had fled to the mountainous regions of the island. Article 4 of the treaty is best explained as evidence of how states in the period 1450-1750 sought to
Enslaved peoples and their descendants used violent means to escape oppression and maintain their freedom.
"Colonel Robert Bennett, under the authority of the Governor of Jamaica, makes a treaty with the rebellious Blacks, today, June 23, 1739. Captain Quao, and several other Black officers under his command, surrendered under the following terms. 1. All hostilities on both sides shall cease forever, Amen. 2. Captain Quao and his people shall have a certain quantity of land given to them, in order to raise crops, hogs, fowls, goats, or whatsoever stock they may think proper, with sugarcanes excepted. 3. Four White men shall constantly live and reside with them in their town, in order to keep a good correspondence with the Black inhabitants of this Island. 4. Captain Quao and his people shall destroy all other rebellious Blacks in any part of Jamaica. They shall be paid to apprehend any runaway Blacks and return them to their respective owners. 5. If any White man shall disturb or annoy any of the people or property that may belong to the said Captain Quao and his people, they may complain to a magistrate and receive justice." Treaty between British colonial authorities and the Windward Maroons, Jamaica, 1739. The Windward Maroons were descendants of Africans brought to the Americas in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries who had fled to the mountainous regions of the island. The passage could best be used to explain which of the following developments in the Americas in the period 1500-1750 ?
Non-Muslims were second-class citizens who endured prejudice.
"In the context of the Ottoman Empire, toleration [ensured] that, as a rule, non-Muslims would not be persecuted. No doubt, as dhimmis,* according to Islam, they were second-class citizens . . . who endured a healthy dose of daily prejudice. [Nevertheless, the Ottomans tolerated religious and ethnic difference] because it had something to contribute. That is, difference added to the empire; it did not detract from it and, therefore, it was commended. Toleration had a [beneficial] quality; maintaining peace and order was good for imperial life, diversity contributed to imperial welfare. . . . The Ottoman Empire fared better than did its predecessors or contemporaries [in tolerating religious and ethnic difference] until the beginning of the eighteenth century, largely as a result of its understanding of difference and its resourcefulness in [administrative organization]. It maintained relative peace with its various communities and also ensured that interethnic strife would not occur." Karen Barkey, Turkish-American historian and sociologist, Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective, published in 2008 Which of the following claims that Barkey makes in the passage appears to contradict most directly her assertion in the first sentence of the first paragraph?
The establishment of racial categories of social hierarchy under the casta system in Spanish colonies in the Americas
"In the context of the Ottoman Empire, toleration [ensured] that, as a rule, non-Muslims would not be persecuted. No doubt, as dhimmis,* according to Islam, they were second-class citizens . . . who endured a healthy dose of daily prejudice. [Nevertheless, the Ottomans tolerated religious and ethnic difference] because it had something to contribute. That is, difference added to the empire; it did not detract from it and, therefore, it was commended. Toleration had a [beneficial] quality; maintaining peace and order was good for imperial life, diversity contributed to imperial welfare. . . . The Ottoman Empire fared better than did its predecessors or contemporaries [in tolerating religious and ethnic difference] until the beginning of the eighteenth century, largely as a result of its understanding of difference and its resourcefulness in [administrative organization]. It maintained relative peace with its various communities and also ensured that interethnic strife would not occur." Karen Barkey, Turkish-American historian and sociologist, Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective, published in 2008 Which of the following developments in the period 1450-1750 would a historian most likely cite to support Barkey's claim regarding the Ottoman Empire and its predecessors and contemporaries in the first sentence of the second paragraph?
A small number of women were able to acquire wealth and property on their own.
"Last Will and Testament I, Anna de São Jozé da Trindade, Roman Catholic since baptism, always firm in the faith of the Catholic religion, declare the present Will in the following manner: I declare that I was born on the Coast of Africa from where I was transported to the states of Brazil and the city of Salvador in the state of Bahia where I have lived until the present. I was a slave of Theodozia Maria da Cruz, who bought me as part of a parcel of slaves, and who freed me for the amount of one hundred mil-réis,* which I gave her in cash. And as a freed woman I have enjoyed this same freedom without the least opposition until the present time. I declare that I was never married and always remained single. And in this state I had five children. I declare that the goods I possess are the following: a slave by the name of Maria, whom I leave conditionally freed for the amount of sixty mil-réis, to be paid to my granddaughter. I also possess a group of two-story houses with shops at street level and a basement below with lodgings, located on the Ladeira do Carmo, where I live on land belonging to me." Anna de São Jozé da Trindade, Afro-Brazilian woman, last will and testament, 1823 The passage best supports which of the following statements?
an impartial observer describing the controversy without taking sides
"Many [Ottoman] Sunni religious scholars have labeled the Sufi whirling rituals* as 'dancing,' and have pronounced them forbidden, branding those who approve of them as infidels. The Sufis counter that these rituals are not dancing, arguing instead that they enliven the soul through a combination of music and movement, which, they say, allows them to focus on the spiritual aspects of religion. The common people flock to the Sufis, giving them offerings and gifts. Since their whirling rituals play a big part in their popularity, they will not abandon these practices anytime soon. The Sunni scholars have written many tracts and opinions against them . . . and this tug-of-war between the two parties has brought them into a vicious circle." Katip Çelebi, Ottoman official, The Balance of Truth, philosophical and scientific treatise, 1656 The author's position on the religious controversy in the passage can best be described as that of
Safavid exchanges with European trading-post empires in Asia
"The Muslims are not the greatest traders in Asia, though they are dispersed in almost every part of it. In Ottoman Turkey, the Christians and Jews carry on the main foreign trade, and in Persia the Armenian Christians and Indians. As to the Persians, they trade with their own countrymen, one province with another, and most of them trade with the Indians. The Armenian Christians manage alone the whole European trade [with Persia]. The abundance of the Persian silk that is exported is very well known. The Dutch import it into Europe via the Indian Ocean to the value of near six hundred thousand livres* yearly. All the Europeans who trade in Ottoman Turkey import nothing more valuable than the Persian silks, which they buy from the Armenians. The Russians import it as well. Persia exports to the Indies [an] abundance of tobacco, all sorts of fruit, marmalade, wines, horses, ceramics, feathers, and Turkish leather of all colors, of which a great amount is exported to Russia and other European countries. The exportation of steel and iron is forbidden in the kingdom, but it is exported notwithstanding. There are some Persian traders who have deputies in all parts of the world, as far as Sweden on the one side and China on the other side." Jean Chardin, French jeweler and merchant, on his travels to Safavid Persia, 1686 Which of the following most directly contributed to the geographic expansion of Safavid trade during the period from 1450 to 1750, as indicated in the passage?
The Chinese emperor could build a palace from all the silver that arrives from Peru.
"There are one hundred and fifty households in Manila. The houses of the city are so suitable and those of the country so charming that life in those islands is altogether delightful. At one end of the city is the quarter for the Chinese merchants. There are about twenty thousand of them. It is a very curious place to see, because of the fine order in which the Chinese live. Every kind of merchandise has its own separate area, and those goods are so rare that they merit admiration. The Spanish merchants of Manila intermix with the Chinese and the Portuguese of Macao so that they may enjoy the freedom to participate in commerce with China. The Spanish do not attempt to hide the fact that they are acting as agents for the inhabitants of Mexico and lately they have sent a great quantity of merchandise to Peru and to Mexico from Asia. The emperor of China could build a palace with the silver bars from Peru that have been carried to his country because of that traffic, without their ships having been registered, and without taxes having been paid to the king of Spain." Jerónimo de Bañuelos y Carrillo, Spanish admiral, description of the trade of the Philippines, published in Mexico, 1638 Which of the following claims made in the second paragraph would a historian likely cite to demonstrate how European expansion created a truly global economy in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries?
To characterize the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire as unjust and illegitimate
"Wila Uma, the Inca general, addressed the Spanish [conquistadors] with the following words: 'What are you doing to our ruler?* This is how you repay his good will? Did he not command all of his people to give you tribute? Did he not give you a house filled with gold and silver? Did he not give you his servants to serve you? What more can he give you now that you have imprisoned him? All the people of this land are so distressed by your actions, because they have lost all they possess, and their distress leaves them no choice but to hang themselves or risk everything by rebelling. Thus, I believe it would be best for you to release him from this prison to lessen the grief of these people.' . . . *Manco Inca, a previous Inca ruler and father of Titu Cusi, whom the Spanish had imprisoned after conquering the Inca capital of Cuzco in 1533 Titu Cusi, ruler of a regional Inca state established after the Spanish had conquered the Inca Empire,letter to the Spanish king detailing the abuses of the Spanish during the conquest, 1570 Which of the following is the most likely purpose of Titu Cusi's letter?
Spanish advantages over native American populations in terms of technology and disease immunity
"Wila Uma, the Inca general, addressed the Spanish [conquistadors] with the following words: 'What are you doing to our ruler?* This is how you repay his good will? Did he not command all of his people to give you tribute? Did he not give you a house filled with gold and silver? Did he not give you his servants to serve you? What more can he give you now that you have imprisoned him? All the people of this land are so distressed by your actions, because they have lost all they possess, and their distress leaves them no choice but to hang themselves or risk everything by rebelling. Thus, I believe it would be best for you to release him from this prison to lessen the grief of these people.' . . . *Manco Inca, a previous Inca ruler and father of Titu Cusi, whom the Spanish had imprisoned after conquering the Inca capital of Cuzco in 1533 Titu Cusi, ruler of a regional Inca state established after the Spanish had conquered the Inca Empire,letter to the Spanish king detailing the abuses of the Spanish during the conquest, 1570 Which of the following most directly facilitated the conquest alluded to in the passage?
resistance to European colonial expansion and control
"Wila Uma, the Inca general, addressed the Spanish [conquistadors] with the following words: 'What are you doing to our ruler?* This is how you repay his good will? Did he not command all of his people to give you tribute? Did he not give you a house filled with gold and silver? Did he not give you his servants to serve you? What more can he give you now that you have imprisoned him? All the people of this land are so distressed by your actions, because they have lost all they possess, and their distress leaves them no choice but to hang themselves or risk everything by rebelling. Thus, I believe it would be best for you to release him from this prison to lessen the grief of these people.' . . . The sentiments expressed in the passage most directly indicate
The Maya were converted to Christianity.
Which of the following pieces of evidence does the author use to support his implicit argument that Maya society underwent a dramatic cultural change in the sixteenth century?
Mughal rulers were interested in portraying themselves as champions of religious harmony.
A historian would most likely use the image in Source 1 as support for which of the following assertions?
Portuguese naval activities in the Indian Ocean region were favored by divine forces
A likely purpose for including the religious figure in the plaque was to show that
The Mughal Empire under Akbar
Which of the following states in the period 1450-1750 adopted a religious policy that was most different from the religious policy expressed in Source 2 ?
The Ottoman army increasingly relied on the contributions of the Janissary corps, which was mostly composed of soldiers of non-Turkic origin.
All of the following statements about the Ottoman Empire in the period 1450-1750 are factually accurate. Which would most strongly support Barkey's claim regarding the Ottoman state and toleration in the passage?
Emperor Aurangzeb was a strong proponent of Sunni Islam, while the rulers of Golconda were supporters of Shiism
All of the following pieces of additional information regarding the events portrayed in Image 2 are factually accurate. Which would be most useful in evaluating the message that the image was intended to convey?
The disease led to the arrival of Dominican friars.
All of the following pieces of evidence in the passage directly support the author's claim that the "pestilence" was "terrible" EXCEPT:
He was a Jesuit and based his book on Jesuit missionary reports.
All of the following statements about Du Halde are factually accurate. Which would most likely lead historians to question the objectivity of his portrayal of the scholars shown in the image?
A lasting shift in the balance of trade between Europe and Asia
Which of the following was the most important long-term effect of the European acquisition of the wealth and resources of the Americas, as alluded to in the passage?
bolster the legitimacy of the Golkonda dynasty by celebrating its past
Based on the location of the painting, it can be inferred that its primary purpose was to
The participation of multiple ethnic and religious groups in interregional trade
Based on the passage, in which of the following ways were Safavid Persian trading practices similar to those of other land-based Islamic empires during the seventeenth century?
Mounting resistance to slavery in the Americas, reflected in challenges to imperial authority
Commander Cotton's reaction to the events in Jamaica, in the notice above, might best be understood in the context of which of the following?
Technological developments in cartography and navigation
The Portuguese presence in southern China as described in the passage was most directly enabled by which of the following?
The global circulation of goods was fueled by European merchants' access to Asian markets.
Sun Yuting's analysis of the factors that contributed to the relative economic strength of China and Great Britain best illustrates which of the following continuities from the period 1450-1750 ?
Gunpowder technology facilitated the expansion of land-based empires.
Taken together, the two images best support which of the following claims regarding developments in the period from 1450 to 1750 ?
Both empires were religiously and culturally diverse.
The Mughal Empire and the Ottoman Empire before 1700 C.E. shared which of the following characteristics?
The Haitian Revolution
The trade illustrated by the map contributed most directly to which of the following?
the relative importance of Europe in the global economy
The two interpretations of economic history of the early modern period differ most strongly concerning
While some states were willing to tolerate diversity within their territories, others suppressed diversity.
The two passages best illustrate which of the following continuities in world history?
Some Asian states sought to limit foreign encroachment in their internal affairs.
The use of objects such as the one shown in the image best illustrates which of the following historical processes from 1450 to 1750 ?
The synthesis of African, American, and European cultures
With the powerful help of the Catholic Church and the religious orders, the Portuguese were able to impose their language and culture on a considerable portion of Brazil [by 1700]. Even the [colonial] elite had no educational opportunities in Brazil beyond . . . secondary school. Their only alternative was to leave Brazil for Coimbra University [in Portugal], where one hundred of the sons of the colonial Brazilian elite studied law or medicine during the colonial period. Even Coimbra was a very narrow window onto the intellectual revolution that was transforming the rest of Europe. The luckiest of the lucky young colonialists took a diversion to France, which by the early eighteenth century was caught up in the ferment of the Enlightenment. By the late 1700s, the . . . Portuguese influence began to lift, as the colonial elite began to produce its own literature. To this emerging literary tradition was added the beginnings of a popular culture. The first component—religious festivals . . . and a folklore that revolved around religious holidays—was imported from the Portuguese. . . . To this was added the Indian and African presence, which furnished the foundation for the rich tradition of popular music and dance in modern Brazil. In part, this evolution came about because Brazil had become richer and more important than the mother country. Portugal's fate was now tied to the wealth of its American colony, rather than the other way around." Thomas Skidmore, United States historian, excerpt from academic book, Brazil: Five Centuries of Change, 1999 The transformation described in the fourth and fifth paragraphs best reflects which development in the Americas from the period 1450-1750 ?
Mulatto and mestizo communities had some economic resources, but creoles were still economically dominant
[Testimony by the creole (European-ancestry) members of a lay religious brotherhood in the town of San Juan Peribán.] "Cristobál Bernal was elected chair of our brotherhood by a margin of only two votes. Most votes in Bernal's favor came from mulatto and mestizo brothers. However, we, the creole brothers, elected Don Carvajal, a resident of the town and owner of the hacienda and sugar mill there. We urge you to command that only creoles should vote for the positions of chair and deputy chairs and that neither mulattoes nor mestizos can serve in those positions, and that a new election must be held for these positions." [Response by the mulatto and mestizo brothers] "Since the brotherhood was founded, it has had the ancient custom of voting for and electing mulattoes and mestizos as deputies. And mestizos and mulattoes make up most of the membership and help the brotherhood grow. And mestizo and mulatto brothers had donated land, which earns 25 pesos rent per year for the brotherhood. And mulatto and mestizo brothers also collect alms for the brotherhood. If this brotherhood were actually two—one for creoles only and the other for mulattoes and mestizos—then the petitioners might have a case. But there is only one brotherhood in which creoles, mestizos, and mulattoes are mixed and, being members of it, they must enjoy the rights and advantages of the said brotherhood. Without question these rights should include voting and electing their own chair and deputies." [Judge's decision] "The election is declared valid, and Bernal is confirmed as chair." Based on the passage and your knowledge of world history, which of the following can be inferred about the economic hierarchy in San Juan Peribán?
ensuring that intercommunal conflicts were brought under control before they could disrupt public order
[Testimony by the creole (European-ancestry) members of a lay religious brotherhood in the town of San Juan Peribán.] "Cristobál Bernal was elected chair of our brotherhood by a margin of only two votes. Most votes in Bernal's favor came from mulatto and mestizo brothers. However, we, the creole brothers, elected Don Carvajal, a resident of the town and owner of the hacienda and sugar mill there. We urge you to command that only creoles should vote for the positions of chair and deputy chairs and that neither mulattoes nor mestizos can serve in those positions, and that a new election must be held for these positions." [Response by the mulatto and mestizo brothers] "Since the brotherhood was founded, it has had the ancient custom of voting for and electing mulattoes and mestizos as deputies. And mestizos and mulattoes make up most of the membership and help the brotherhood grow. And mestizo and mulatto brothers had donated land, which earns 25 pesos rent per year for the brotherhood. And mulatto and mestizo brothers also collect alms for the brotherhood. If this brotherhood were actually two—one for creoles only and the other for mulattoes and mestizos—then the petitioners might have a case. But there is only one brotherhood in which creoles, mestizos, and mulattoes are mixed and, being members of it, they must enjoy the rights and advantages of the said brotherhood. Without question these rights should include voting and electing their own chair and deputies." [Judge's decision] "The election is declared valid, and Bernal is confirmed as chair." The judge's decision in the case is best understood in the context of colonial authorities' policy of
Enslaved persons' resistance to authorities in the Americas
deas such as those expressed by Vieira in his sermon would have the most significant influence on which of the following?