361 Final

Describe two kinds of constructivism and distinguish these from constructionism

1. psychological constructivism- like paged are concerned with how individuals make sense of their world, based on individual knowledge, beliefs, self-concept, or identity--- also called first wave constructivism 2. social constructivists- like Vygotsky believe that social interaction, cultural tools, and activity shape individual development and learning--- also called second wave constructivism. by participating in a broad range of activities with others, learners appropriate the outcomes produced by working together; they acquire new strategies and public knowledge of their world. 3. Constructionists are interested in how public knowledge in academic disciplines is constructed as well as how everyday beliefs about the world are communicated to new members of a sociocultural group.

Describe the 5 elements that define true cooperative learning

1. students interact face to face and close together (promotitive interaction)- not across the room; members encourage and facilitate one another's efforts 2. group members experience positive interdependence (positive interdependence)- they need each other for support, explanations, and guidance. 3. demonstrating learning on their own and accountable for learning (individual accountability)- often through individual tests and assessments 4.collaborative and social skills- constructive feedback, reaching consensus, and involving every member-- often must be taught 5. group processing- make sure the group is working effectively and to learn about the dynamics of groups

what is culturally responsive management and why is it needed

African Americans and Latino/a Americans, especially males, are punished more often and more harshly than other students, but they do not commit more serious offenses. instead, these students are punished more seriously for minor offenses such as rudeness or defiance---words and actions that are interpreted by teachers as meriting severe punishment. one explanation is lack of cultural synchronization between teachers and students. culturally responsive management combines high expectations for students' appropriate behavior with warmth and caring for the students as individuals

what does TARGET stand for

TARGET is an acronym for the six areas in which teachers make decisions that can influence student motivation to learn: the nature of the task that students are asked to do, the autonomy students are allowed in working, how students are recognized for their accomplishments, grouping practices, evaluation procedures, and the scheduling of time in the classroom

describe mastery, performance, work-avoidant, and social goals

a mastery goal is the intention to gain knowledge and master skills, leading students to seek challenges and persist when they encounter difficulties. a performance goal is the intention to get good grades or to appear smarter or more capable than others, leading students to be preoccupied with themselves and how they appear (ego-involved learners). students can approach or avoid these two kinds of goals---the problems are the greatest with avoidance. another kind of avoidance is evident with work-avoidant learners who simply want to find the easiest way to handle the situation. students with social goals can be supported or hindered in their learning, depending on the specific goal (e.g. have fun with friends or bring honor to the family)

what does the new latest research on teaching show

a program of large-scale, longitudinal research has identified three aspects of classroom climate that are related to the development and learning of preschool and elementary school students. these three dimensions are consistent with the characteristics of teachers identified in earlier research on teaching and cover affective, behavioral, and cognitive dimensions. the affective dimension is teacher emotional support, similar to teacher warmth and enthusiasm identified in early research. the cognitive dimension is instructional support, which includes concept development (activities and discussions that promote student higher-order thinking) and quality feedback that is specific and focused on the learning process. the third dimension is classroom organization, which includes behavioral concerns such as classroom and lesson management with clear activities and routines that make more time for learning and really engage students--similar to the teacher characteristics of clarity and organization

How should tasks match design in cooperative learning

a relatively structured task works well with a structured technique; extrinsic rewards can enhance motivation, effort, and persistence under these conditions; roles, especially those that focus attention on the work to be accomplished, may also be productive. on the other hand, strategies that encourage extended and productive interactions are appropriate when the goal is to develop higher order thinking and problem solving. the use of rewards may divert the group away from the goal of in-depth cognitive processing. when the goal of peer learning is enhanced social skills or increased intergroup understanding and the appreciation of diversity, the assignment of specific roles and functions within the group might support communication. rewards probably are not necessary and may actually get in the way because the goal is to build community, a sense of respect, and responsibility for team members

what are general characteristics of good teaching

a variety of teacher qualities are related to good teaching. research suggests that teachers who receive proper training and certification have more successful students. although it is important, teacher knowledge of a subject is not sufficient for effective teaching. thorough knowledge does lead to greater clarity and better organization, which are both tied to good teaching. teachers who provide clear presentations and explanations tend to have students who learn more and who rate their teachers more positively. teacher warmth, friendliness, and understanding seem to be the traits most strongly related to positive student attitudes about the teacher and the course in general

what are the problems with ability grouping

academic ability groupings can have disadvantages and advantages for students and teachers. student in higher ability groups may benefit, but students in lower ability groups are less likely to be asked critical questions and give fewer opportunities to make choices about readings and assignments. for schools with lower-SES students, grouping often means that these students are segregated even in their own classes, so ability grouping can create segregation within diverse schools

what are the three dimensions of attribution in Weiner's theory

according to Weiner, most of the attributed causes for successes or failures can be characterized in terms of three dimensions: locus (location of the cause internal or external to the person), stability (whether it stays the same or can change), and responsibility (whether the person can control the cause). the greatest motivational problems arise when students attribute failures to stable, uncontrollable causes. these students may seem resigned to failure, depressed, helpless-- what we generally call "unmotivated"

what is adaptive teaching

adaptive teaching provides all students with challenging instruction and uses supports when needed, but removes those supports as students are able to handle more on their own

what is an instructional objective

an instructional objective is a clear and unambiguous description of your educational intentions for your students. Mager's influential system for writing behavioral objectives states that a good objective has three parts--the intended student behavior, the conditions under which the behavior will occur, and the criteria for acceptable performance. Gronlund's alternative approach suggests that an objective should be stated first in general terms, and then the teacher should clarify by listing sample behaviors that would provide evidence that the student has obtained the objective. the most recent research on instructional objectives tends to favor approaches similar to Gronlund's

how does anxiety interfere with learning

anxiety can be the cause or the result of poor performance; it can interfere with attention to, learning of, and retrieval of information. many anxious students need help in developing effective test-taking and study skills

what are key factors in motivation according to a behavioral viewpoint? humanistic viewpoint? cognitive viewpoint? sociocultural viewpoint?

behaviorists tend to emphasize extrinsic motivation caused by incentives, rewards, and punishment. humanistic views stress intrinsic motivation created by the need for personal growth, fulfillment, and self-determination. cognitive views stress a person's active search for meaning, understanding, and competence, and the power of the individual's attributions and interpretations. social cognitive theories take into account both the behaviorists' concern with the consequences of behavior and the cognitivists' interest in the impact of individual beliefs and expectations. many influential social cognitive explanations of motivation can be characterized as expectancy x value theories. sociocultural views emphasize legitimate engaged participation and identity within a community

Describe the three taxonomies of educational objectives

bloom and others have developed taxonomies categorizing basic objectives in the cognitive, affective, and psycho-motor domains. in real life, of course, behaviors from these three domains occur simultaneously. a taxonomy encourages systematic thinking about relevant objectives and ways to evaluate them. six basic objectives are listed in the cognitive domain: remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating and creating, acting on four kinds of knowledge: factual, conceptual, procedural, and meta-cognitive. objectives in the affective domain run from least committed to most committed. objectives in the psycho-motor domain generally move from basic perceptions and reflex actions to skilled, creative movements

What are the challenges of classroom management

classrooms are by nature multidimensional, full of simultaneous activities, fast paced and immediate, unpredictable, public, and affect by the history of students' and teachers' actions. a teacher must juggle all these elements everyday. productive classroom activity requires students' cooperation. maintaining cooperation is different for each age group. young students are learning how to "go to school" and need to learn the general procedures of school. older students need to learn the specifics required for working in different subjects. working with adolescents requires teachers to understand the power of the adolescent peer group.

what is cognitive behavior modification

cognitive behavior modification is a process in which self-talk is used to regulate behavior. cognitive behavior modification may take many forms, including helping to keep students engaged in their learning or helping them deal effectively with anger and aggression. some research has identified four skills that are particularly helpful self talk strategies: listening, planning, working, and checking. cognitive behavior modification can be used for students of all ages, but helping students engage in self-talk may require more adult assistance and guidance for younger children, or those who have not had opportunities to practice good self regulation strategies

what is meant by empathetic listening

communication between teacher and student is essential when problems arise. all interactions between people, even silence or neglect, communicate some meaning. empathetic, active listening can be a helpful response when students bring problems to teachers. teachers must reflect back to the students what they hear them saying. this reflection is more than a parroting of words; it should capture the emotions, intent, and meaning behind them

in what ways do constructivist views differ about knowledge sources, accuracy, and generality?

constructivists debate whether knowledge is constructed by mapping external reality, by adapting and changing internal understandings, or by and interaction of external forces and internal understandings. most psychologists believe there is a role for both internal and external factors, but differ in how much they emphasize one or the other. also, there is discussion about whether knowledge can be constructed in one situation and applied to another or whether knowledge is situated, that is, specific and tied to the context in which it was learned. enculturation is a broad and complex process of acquiring knowledge and understanding consistent with Vygotsky's theory of mediated learning. just as our home culture taught us lessons about the use of language, the culture of a classroom can tech us lessons about thinking by giving us models of good thinking; providing direct instruction in thinking processes; and encouraging practice of those thinking processes through interactions with others.

what are some current issues in testing

controversy over standardized testing has focused on the role and interpretation of tests, the widespread use of tests to evaluate schools, the problems with accountability based on test scores, and the testing of teachers. if the test matches important objectives of the curriculum, is given to students who actually studied the curriculum for a reasonable period of time, is free of bias, fits the students' language capabilities, and was administered properly, then test results provide some information about the effectiveness of the school. but studies of actual tests in action show troubling consequences such as narrowing the curriculum and pushing some students out of school early. teachers should use results to improve instruction, not to stereotype students or justify lowered expectations

Distinguish between convergent and divergent and high level vs low level questions

convergent questions have only one right answer. divergent questions have many possible answers. higher level questions require analyzing, evaluating, and creating--students have to pick for themselves. the best pattern for younger students and lower-ability students of all ages is simple questions that allow a high percentage of correct answers, ample encouragement, help when the student does not have the correct answer, and praise. for high ability students the successful pattern includes harder questions at both higher and lower levels and more critical feedback. whatever their age or ability, all students should have some experience with thought provoking questions and if necessary help in learning how to answer them

what is authentic assessment

critics of traditional testing believe that teachers should use authentic tests and other authentic assessment procedures. authentic assessment requires students to perform taks and solve problems that are similar to the real-life performance that will be expected of them outside of school

what are alternatives available for grouping in classes, including flexible grouping

cross age grouping by subject can be an effective way to deal with ability differences in school. within class ability grouping, if handled sensitively and flexibily, can have positive effects, but alternatives such as cooperative learning may be better

how does curiosity affect learning and what can teachers do to stimulate curiosity in their subject area

curiosity is the tendency toward interest in a variety of things. students' curiosity is guided by their interest, and thus provides them with a self driven motivation to explore new ideas and concepts. as a result curiosity can be a powerful motivational tool that captures and maintains students attention in school. teachers can foster curiosity by tapping into students interests, illustrating connections between course material and applications that may be interesting to students, and allowing students to find these connections for themselves. an example might include asking students to identify which simple machines are at work in a skateboard or roller coaster

how can you match teaching to your goals

different goals and students require different teaching methods. direct instruction often leads to better performance on achievement tests, whereas open, informal methods such as discovery learning or inquiry approaches are associated with better performance on tests of creativity, abstract thinking, and problem solving. in addition, the open methods are better for improving attitudes toward school and stimulating curiosity, cooperation among students, and lower absence rates

what is direct instruction

direct instruction is appropriate for teaching basic skills and explicit knowledge. it includes the teaching functions of review/overview, presentation, guided practice, feedback and correctives (with reteaching if necessary), independent practice, and periodic reviews. the younger or less able the students the shorter the presentation should be, with more cycles of practice and feedback

contrast the first school week of effective and ineffective classroom managers

effective classroom managers spent the first days of class teaching a workable, easily understood set of rules and procedures by using lots of explanation, examples, and practice. Students were occupied with organized, enjoyable activities, and they learned to function cooperatively in the group. quick, firm, clear, and consistent responses to infractions of the rules characterized effective teachers. the teachers had planned carefully to avoid any last minute tasks that might have taken them away from their students. these teachers dealt with the children's pressing concerns first. in contrast, for ineffective managers, procedures for accomplishing routine tasks varied from day to day and were never taught or practiced. students talked to one another because they had nothing productive to do. ineffective teachers frequently left the room. many became absorbed in paperwork or in helping just one student. they had not made plans for how to deal with typical problems such as late-arriving students or interruptions

what characterizes effective teaching for students with disabilities

effective teaching for students with disabilities does not require a unique set of skills. it is a combination of good teaching practices and sensitivity to all students. students with disabilities need to learn the academic material, and they need to be full participants in the day-to-day life of the classroom.

what are the skills involved in emotional self regulation

emotionally self regulating individuals are aware of their own emotions and feelings towards others-- realizing that inner emotions can differ from outward expressions. they can talk about and express emotion in ways that are appropriate for their cultural group. they can feel empathy for others in distress and can also cope with their own distressing emotions-- they can handle stress. these individuals know that relationships are defined in part by how emotions are communicated within the relationship. all these skills come together to produce a capacity for emotional self regulation

what are epistemological belief and how do they affect motivation

epistemological beliefs are ways of understanding how you think and learn. individuals epistemological beliefs can impact their approach to learning, their expectations of themselves and the work they do, and the extent to which they engage in academic tasks. specifically, epistemological beliefs include your understanding of the structure, stability, and certainty of knowledge. a belief that knowledge can be organized into a grand scheme in which all things are related, for example, may lead students to try to connect all new knowledge with previous knowledge in a meaningful way. if the task proves excessively challenging , these students may believe the new information is not relevant to them or worth understanding

What are some common elements in most constructivist views of learning?

even though there is no single constructivist theory, many constructivist approaches recommend complex, challenging, co-construction, multiple representations of content, understanding that knowledge is constructed, and student ownership of learning

what are expectancy x value theories

expectancy x value theories suggest that motivation to reach a goal is the product of our expectations for success and the value of the goal to us. if either is zero, our motivation is zero as well

What methods have been used to study teaching

for years, researchers have tried to unravel the mystery of effective teaching using classroom observation, case studies, interviews, experimentation with different methods, stimulated recall )teachers view videotapes and explain their teaching), analysis or lesson transcripts, and other approaches to study teaching in real classrooms

what are the sources of self efficacy

four sources are mastery experiences (direct experiences), level of arousal as you face the task, vicarious experiences (accomplishments are modeled by someone else), and social persuasion (a "pep talk" or specific performance feedback)

what kinds of goals are the most motivating

goals increase motivation if they are specific, moderately difficult, and able to be reached in the near future

describe two kinds of grading

grading can be either norm-referenced or criterion-referenced. one popular norm-referenced system is grading on a curve, based on a ranking of students in relation to the average performance level. this is not recommended. criterion-referenced report cards usually indicate how well the individual has met each of the objectives.

how does self efficacy affect motivation

greater efficacy leads to greater effort, persistence in the face of setbacks, higher goals, and finding new strategies when old ones fail. if sense of efficacy is low, however, people may avoid a task altogether or give up easily when problems arise

what are the uses and disadvnatages of group discussion

group discussion helps students participate directly, express themselves clearly, justify opinions, and tolerate different views. group discussion also gives students a chance to ask for clarification, examine their own thinking, follow personal interests, and assume responsibility by taking leadership roles in the group. thus, group discussions help students evaluate ideas and synthesize personal viewpoints. however, discussions are quite unpredictable and may easily digress into exchanges of ignorance

list three structure goals and distinguish among them

how students relate to their peers in the classroom is influenced by the goal structure of the activities. goal structures can be competitive, individualistic, or cooperative. cooperative goal structures can encourage motivation and increase learning, especially for low achieving students

how can teachers encourage engagement

in general, as teacher supervision increases, students' engaged time also increases. when the task provides continuous cues for the student about what to do next, involvement will be greater. activities with clear steps are likely to be more absorbing, because one step leads naturally to the next. making work requirements clear and specific, providing the needed materials, and monitoring activities all add to engagement

distinguish between norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests

in norm referenced tests, a students' performance is compared to the average performance of others. in criterion referenced tests scores are compared to a pre-established standard. norm-referenced tests cover a wide range of general objectives. however, results of norm-referenced tests do not tell whether students are ready for advanced material, and they are not appropriate for affective and psychmotor objectives. criterion-referenced tests measure the mastery of very specific objectives.

What makes goal setting effective in a classroom

in order for goal setting to be effective in the classroom, students need accurate feedback about their progress toward goals and they must accept the goals set. generally, students are more willing to adopt goals that seem realistic, reasonably difficult, meaningful, and validated by activities connecting them to their intrinsic interests.

what are some effects of time on motivation

in order to foster motivation to learn, teachers should be flexible in their use of time in the classroom. students who are forced to move faster or slower than they should or who are interrupted as they become involved in a project are not likely to develop persistence for learning

distinguish between formative and summative assessment

in the classroom, assessment may be formative (ungraded, diagnostic) or summative (graded). formative assessment helps form instruction, and summative assessment summarizes students accomplishments

how can teachers use informal assessments

informal assessments are ungraded (formative) assessments that gather information from multiple sources to help teachers make decisions. some examples of informal assessment are student observations and checklists, questioning, and student self assessment. journals are very flexible and widely used informal assessments. students usually have personal or group journals and write in them on a regular basis

what is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

intrinsic motivation is the natural tendency to seek out and conquer challenges as we pursue personal interests and exercise capabilities--it is motivation to do something when we don't have to. extrinsic motivation is based on factors not related to the activity itself. we are not really interested in the activity for its own sake; we only care about what it will gain for us.

what do expert teachers know

it takes time and experience to become an expert teacher. these teacher have a rich store of well-organized knowledge about the many specific situation of teaching. this includes knowledge about the subjects they teach, their students, general teaching strategies, subject-specific ways of teaching, settings for learning, curriculum materials, and the goals of education. expert teachers also know how to be reflective practitioners--how to use their experience as a way to grow and improve in their teaching

What are some basic assumptions of the learning sciences?

key assumptions in the learning sciences are that experts develop deep conceptual knowledge, learning comes from the learner, creating learning environments is the responsibility of the schools, students' prior knowledge is key, and reflection is a critical component of learning. These common assumptions enable researchers to from a variety of disciplines to address the same issues of learning from a variety of perspectives

how do interests and emotions affect learning

learning and information processing are influenced by emotion. students are more likely to pay attention to, learn, and remember events, images, and readings that provoke emotional responses or that are related to their personal interests. however, there are cautions to responding to students interests. "seductive details", interesting bits of information that are not central to learning can hinder learning

What is modeling?

learning by observing others is a key element in the social cognitive theory. modeling is influenced by the developmental characteristics of the observer, the status and prestige of the model, the consequences of the models actions as seen by the observer, the observers expectations about performing the observed behaviors (will I be rewarded?), the links that the observers perceive between their goals and the models' behaviors (will doing what the model does get me what I want?), and the observer's self-efficacy (can I do it?)

what are the learning theory underpinnings of cooperative learning

learning can be enhanced in cooperative groups through rehearsal and elaboration (information processing theories), creation and resolution of disequilibrium (piaget's theories), or scaffolding of higher mental processes (Vygotsky's theory)

how can testing support learning

learning is supported by frequent testing using cumulative questions that ask students to apply and integrate knowledge. with the goals of assessment in mind, teachers are in a better position to design their own tests or evaluate the tests provided by textbook publishers.

what is legitimate peripheral participation

legitimate peripheral participation means that beginners are genuinely involved in the work of the group, even if their abilities are underdeveloped and their contributions are small. the identities of the novice and the expert are bound up in their participation in the community. they are motivated to learn the values and practices of the community to keep their identity as community members

distinguish between bounded and unbounded choices

like totally unguided discovery or aimless discussions, unstructured or unbounded choices can be counterproductive for learning. the alternative is bounded by choice--giving students a range of options that set out valuable tasks for them, but also allow them to follow personal interests. the balance must be just right so that students are not bewildered by too much choice or bored by too little room to explore.

Distinguish between deficiency needs and being needs in Maslow's theory

maslow called four lower-level needs-- survival, safety, belonging, and self-esteem-- deficiency needs. when these needs are satisfied, the motivation for fulfilling them decreases. he labeled the three higher-level needs--intellectual achievement, aesthetic appreciation, and self-actualization--being needs. when they are met, a person's motivation increases to seek further fulfillment

how does self-worth influence motivation

mastery-oriented students tend to value achievement and see ability as improvable, so they focus on mastery goals, take risks, and cope with failure constructively. a low sense of self-worth seems to be linked with the failure-avoiding and failure-accepting strategies intended to protect the individual from consequences of failure. these strategies may seem to help in the short term but are damaging to motivation and self-esteem in the long run

distinguish between measurement and assessment

measurement is the description of an event or characteristic using numbers. assessment includes measurement but is broader because it includes all kinds of ways to sample and observe a students' skills, knowledge, and abilities

Define motivation

motivation is an internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior. the study of motivation focuses on how and why people initiate actions directed toward specific goals, how long it takes them to get started in the activity, how persistent they are in their attempts to reach these goals, and what they are thinking and feeling along the way.

how can communications with families support learning

not every communication from the teacher needs to be tied to a grade. communication with students and families can be important in helping a teacher understand students and present effective instruction by creating a consistent learning environment. students and families have a legal right to see all information in the students' records, so the contents of files must be appropriate, accurate, and supported by evidence.

what kinds of out comes can observational learning encourage

observational learning can lead to five possible outcomes including (1) directing attention, (2) encouraging existing behaviors, (3) changing inhibitions, (4) teaching new behaviors and attitudes, (5) arousing emotions. by directing attention we gain insight into how others do things and what objects are involved in their actions. encouraging or fine-tuning existing behaviors can lead to the development of good habits or make work more efficient. observing others also has the capacity to cue us into others' attention, which can cause us to become more or less "self-conscious" about our behavior; when others are doing something, it's easier for us to do the same. young children in particular learn by watching and emulating others, but everyone can gain insight into how something is done well (or poorly) by observing someone else do it. finally, observing can lead to the association of emotions with certain activities. if others are observed enjoying an activity, the observer may learn to enjoy the activity as well

what factors are involved in self regulated learning

one important goal of teaching is to prepare students for life long learning. to teach this goal, students must be self-regulated learners; that is, they must have a combination of the knowledge, motivation to learn, and volition that provides the skill and will to learn independently, and effectively. knowledge includes and understanding of self, subject, task, learning strategy, and contexts for application. motivation to learn provides the commitment, and volition is the follow-through that combats distraction and protects persistence

what is teachers' sense of efficacy

one of the few personal characteristics of teachers related to student achievement is a teacher efficacy belief that he or she can reach even difficult students to help them learn. teachers with a high sense of efficacy work harder, persist longer, and are less likely to experience burnout. teachers sense of efficacy is higher in schools where the other teachers and administrators have high expectations for students and where teachers receive help from their principals in solving instructional management problems. efficacy grows from real success with students, so any experience or training that helps you succeed in the day-to-day tasks of teaching will give you a foundation for developing a sense of efficacy in your career. there may be some benefits to lower efficacy, if this encourages teacher to pursue professional development and improvement.

What are the differences between collaboration and cooperation

one view is that collaboration is a philosophy about how to relate to others-- how to learn and work. collaboration is a way of dealing with people that respects differences, shares authority, and builds on the knowledge that is distributed among other people. cooperation, on the other hand is a way of working together with others to attain a shared goal

what is peer mediation

peer mediation is one good possibility for preventing violence in schools. the steps for peer mediation are (1) jointly define the conflict, (2) exchange positions and interests, (3) reverse perspectives, (4) invent at least three agreements that allow mutual gain, (5) reach an integrative agreement

can students become better test takers? how?

performance on standardized tests can be improved if students gain experience with this type of testing and are given training in study skills and problem solving. many students can profit from direct instruction about how to prepare for and take tests. involving students in designing these test preparation programs can be helpful. students with learning challenges may benefit from intensive and ongoing preparation for taking tests, particularly if the test taking strategies are tied to specific problems and content learned and tested

describe constructivst planning

planning is shared and negotiated in student-centered, or constructivist, approaches. rather than having specific student behaviors as objectives, the teacher has overarching goals or "big ideas" that guide planning. integrated content and teaching with themes are often part of the planning. assessment of learning is ongoing and mutually shared by teacher and students

describe portfolios and exhibitions

portfolios and exhibitions are two examples of authentic assessment. a portfolio is a collection of the student's work, sometimes chosen to represent growth or improvement or sometimes featuring "best work". exhibitions are public performances of the students understandings. with portfolios and exhibitions, there is an emphasis on performing real-life tasks in meaningful contexts

how can recognition undermine motivation and a sense of self-efficacy

recognition and reward in the classroom will support motivation to learn if the recognition is for personal progress rather than competitive victories. praise and rewards should focus on students' growing competence. at times, praise can have paradoxical effects when students use the teachers praise or criticism as cues about capabilities

distinguish between rules and procedures

rules are the specific dos and don'ts of classroom life. they usually are written down or posted. procedures cover administrative tasks, student movement, housekeeping, and routines for accomplishing lessons, interactions between students and teachers, and interactions among students. rules can be written in terms of rights and students may benefit from participating in establishing these rules. consequences should be established for following and breaking the rules and procedures so that the teacher and the students know what will happen.

what are some examples of teaching students to be more self-regulating

self regulating learners engage in four types of activities (1) analyzing the task, (2) setting goals and designing plans, (3) engaging in learning, (4) adjusting their approach to learning. teaching students to more self-regulating might take the form of providing opportunities to identify and analyze the task at hand. students should ask themselves what is the task? what is an ideal outcome of the task? students may also benefit from goal-setting practice; they may ask what are my short term goals? what are my long term goals? learning strategies such as identifying important details and developing a big picture of material is the next step in the process. finally, students need to reflect on whether they were successful and devise strategies for overcoming shortcoming in their self-regulation process. they may ask themselves where was I successful? where do I need to improve in order to meet my goals in the future?

what are the basic needs that affect motivation, and how does self-determination affect motivation?

self-determination theory suggests that motivation is affected by the need for competence, autonomy and control, and relatedness. when students experience self-determination, they are intrinsically motivated--they are more interested in their work, have a greater sense of self-esteem, and learn more. whether students experience self-determination depends in part on if the teacher's communications with students provide information or seek to control them. in addition, teachers must acknowledge the students' perspective, offer choices, provide rationales for limits, and treat poor performance as a problem to be solved rather than a target for criticism

what is self-efficacy and how is it different from other self schemas

self-efficacy is distinct from other self-schemas in that it involves judgements of capabilities specific to a particular task. self-concept is a more global construct that contains many perceptions about the self, including self-efficacy. compared to self-esteem, self-efficacy is concerned with judgements of personal capabilities; self-esteem is concerned with judgements of self-worth

what are some key characteristics of service learning

service learning activities should be organized around and designed to meet actual community needs, and integrated into the student's curriculum. teachers should provide time for students to reflect on and write about their service experience, offer opportunities to apply newly learned academic skills and knowledge, and strive to enhance both academic learning and a sense of caring for others. service learning activities ought not be supplementary to students' regular activities, but should be an integral part of their learning

which is better "social promotion" or "being held back"

simply retaining or promoting a student who is having difficulty will not guarantee that the student will learn. unless the student is very young or emotionally immature compared to others in the class, the best approach may be to promote, but provide extra support such as tutoring or summer school sessions. differentiated instruction could prevent problems.

Distinguish between social learning and social cognitive theories

social learning theory expanded behavioral views of reinforcement and punishment. in behavioral views, reinforcement and punishment directly affect behavior. in social learning theory, observing another person, a model. being reinforced or punished can have similar effects on observer's behavior. social cognitive theory expands social learning theory to include cognitive factors such as beliefs, expectations, and perceptions of the self. current social cognitive theory is a dynamic system that explains human adaptation, learning, and motivation. the theory addresses how people develop social, emotional, and behavioral capabilities; how people regulate their own lives; and what motivates them

what are some different avenues for communicating teacher expectations

some teachers tend to treat student differently, depending on their own views of how ell the students are likely to do. differences in treatment toward low-expectation students may include setting less challenging tasks, focusing on lower-level learning, giving fewer choices, and communicating less respect and trust. students may behave accordingly, fulfilling teachers predictions or staying at an expected level of achievement

what is test reliability

some tests are more reliable than others; that is they yield more stable and consistent estimates. care must be taken in the interpretation of test results. each test is only a sample of a students' performance on a given day. the score is only an estimate of a students hypothetical true score. the standard error of measurement takes into account the possibility for error and is one index of test reliability

what are some sources of teacher expectations

sources include intelligence test scores, gender, notes from previous teachers, medical or psychological reports found in cumulative folders, ethnic background, prior knowledge about older brothers and sisters, physical characteristics, previous achievement, socioeconomic status, and the actual behaviors of the student

what are some possible strategies for cooperative learning

strategies include reciprocal questioning, Jigsaw, structured controversy, and many cooperative structures described by Spencer Kagan.

how can failure support learning

students need to experience coping with failure, so standards must be high enough to encourage effort. occasional failure can be positive if appropriate feedback is provided. students who never learn how to cope with failure and still persist in learning may give up more quickly when their first efforts are unsuccessful

Describe the six features that most cognitive apprenticeships share

students observe and expert (usually the teacher) model the performance; get external support through coach or tutoring; and receive conceptual scaffolding, which is then gradually faded as the student becomes more competent and proficient. Students continually articulate their knowledge-- putting into words their understanding of the processes and content being learned. they reflect on their progress comparing their problem solving to an experts performance and to their own earlier performances. finally, students explore new ways to apply what they are learning--- ways that they have not practiced at the master's side.

define motivation to learn

teachers are interested in a particular kind of motivation--student motivation to learn. student motivation to learn is both a trait and a state. it involves taking academic work seriously, trying to get the most from it, and applying appropriate learning strategies in the process.

describe seven levels of intervention in misbehavior

teachers can first make eye contact with the student or use other nonverbal signals, then try verbal hints such as simply inserting the students name into the lecture. next the teacher asks if offender is aware of the negative effects of the actions, then reminds the student of the procedure and has her or him follow it correctly. if this does not work, the teacher can ask the student to state the correct rule or procedure and then to follow it, and then move to telling the student in a clear, assertive, and unhostile way to stop the misbehavior. if this fails too, the teacher can offer a choice--stop the behavior or meet privately to workout the consequences

what are the three levels of planning and how do they affect your teaching

teachers engage in several levels of planning--by the year, term, unit, week, and day. all the levels must be coordinated. the plan determines how time and materials will be tuned into activities for students. there is no single model of planning, but all plans should allow for flexibility. planning is a creative problem-solving process for experienced teachers. it is more informal "in their heads"

what can teachers do about bullying, teasing, and cyberbullying

teachers often underestimate the amount of peer conflict and bullying that happens in schools. bullying involves both an imbalance of power between students and repeated attempts at harm and may take place in a variety of settings--including those in which students are not face-to-face with one another at school. teachers can think of bullying as a form of violence and approach strategies for overcoming bullying as they would strategies to overcoming other violent acts. for example, prevention of bullying can take the form of developing a respectful classroom community and discussing conflict.

how can teachers support the development of self efficacy and self regulated learning

teachers should involve students in complex meaningful tasks that extend over long periods of time; provide them control over their learning processes and products-- they need to make choices. they should involve students in setting criteria for evaluating their learning process and products, and give them opportunities to make judgments about their progress using those standards. finally, teachers should encourage students to work collaboratively with and seek feedback from peers.

what are some challenges in secondary classrooms

teachers working in secondary schools should be prepared to handle students who don't complete schoolwork, repeatedly break the same rule, or openly defy teachers. these students may also be experiencing new and powerful stressors. as a result, secondary students may benefit if teacher provide opportunities or point out resources for these students to seek out help and support. teacher might also find consultation with guidance counselors and parents or caregivers helpful

what are some possible uses of technology in education

technology such as computers, iPods, smart phones, digital readers, and interactive gaming systems are extremely popular among young people. In fact, the many ways of communicating and interacting with others through technology may even shape the way students think about what it means to socialize. these technologies can be useful teaching tools, but they do have limitations. first, technology cannot necessarily replace the teacher when it comes to direct instruction (and not all programs are able to bring about learning). classrooms of the future may take greater advantage of learning environments that immerse students in virtual worlds where they work alone or with other to solve problems, create projects, simulate the skills of experts, visit historical sites, tour world class museums, or play games that teach and apply academic skills. the results of research on technology-enhanced learning emphasize that technology by itself will not guarantee improvement in academic achievement-- like any tool, technology must be used well by confident, competent teachers.

what is absence of bias

tests must be free of assessment bias. bias occurs when tests include material that offends or unfairly penalizes a group of students because of the students' gender, SES, race, or ethnicity. culture fair tests have not proved to solve the problem of assessment bias

what is the value of the four different perspectives of learning

the behavioral, cognitive, constructivist, and social cognitive learning theories are four pillars for teaching. students must first understand and make sense of the material (constructivist); then they must remember what they have understood (cognitive--information processing); then they must practice and apply (behavioral) their new skills and understanding to make them more fluid and automatic-- a permanent art of their repertoire. finally, they must take charge of their own learning (social cognitive). failure to attend to any part of the process results in lower quality learning.

how does locus of causality apply to motivation

the essential difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is the person's reason for acting, that is, whether the locus of causality for the action is inside or outside the person. if the locus is internal, the motivation is intrinsic; if the locus is external, the motivation is extrinsic. in fact, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation may be two separate tendencies--both can operate at the same time in a given situation.

what are the two kinds of expectation effects and how do they happen

the first is the self fulfilling prophecy, in which the teachers beliefs about the student have no basis in fact, but student behavior comes to match the initially inaccurate expectation. the second is a sustaining expectation effect, in which teachers are fairly accurate in their initial reading of students' abilities and respond to students appropriately, but they do not alter their expectations to take account of any improvement. when this happens, the teachers unchanging expectation can sustain the student's achievement at the expected level. in practice, sustaining effects are more common than self fulfilling prophecy effects

Describe the use of dialogue in reciprocal teaching

the goal of reciprocal teaching is to help students understand and think deeply about what they read. to accomplish this goal, student in small reading groups learn four strategies: summarizing the content of a passage, asking a question about the central point, clarifying the difficult parts of the material, and predicting what will come next. these strategies are practiced in a classroom dialogue about the readings. teachers first take the central role, but as the discussion progresses, students will take more and more control

what are the goals of effective classroom management

the goals of effective classroom management are to make ample time for learning; improve the quality of time use by keeping students actively engaged; make sure participation structures are clear, straightforward, and consistently signaled; and encourage student self-management, self-control, and responsibility.

Distinguish between inquiry methods and problem-based learning

the inquiry strategy begins when the teacher presents a puzzling event, question or problem. The students ask questions (only yes-no questions in some kinds of inquiry) and then formulate hypotheses to explain the event or solve the problem; collect data to test the hypotheses about casual relationships; form conclusions and generalizations; and reflect on the original problem and the thinking processes needed to solve it. Problem-based learning may follow a similar path, but the learning begins with an authentic problem-- one that matters to the students. the goal is to learn math or science or history or some other important subject while seeking a real solution to a real problem.

what are mean, median, mode, and standard deviation

the mean (arithmetical average), median (middle score), and mode (most common score) are all measures of central tendency. the standard deviation reveals how scores spread out around the mean. a normal distribution is a frequency distribution represented as a bell-shaped curve. many scores cluster in the middle; the farther from the midpoint, the fewer the scores

how does the evaluative climate affect goal setting

the more competitive the grading, the more students set performance goals and focus on the "looking component", that is, they are more ego involved. when the focus is on performing rather than learning, students often see the goal of classroom tasks as simply finishing, especially if the work is difficult

what is test validity

the most important consideration about a test is the validity of the decisions and judgements that are based on the test results. evidence of validity can be related to content, criterion, or construct. construct related evidence for validity is the broadest category and encompasses the other two categories of content and criterion. tests must be reliable and valid, but reliability does NOT guarantee validity

distinguish among passive, hostile, and assertive response styles

the passive style can take several forms. instead of telling the student directly what to do, the teacher simply comments on the behavior, asks the student to think about the appropriate action, or threatens but never follows through. in a hostile response style, the teacher makes you statements that condemn the student without stating clearly what the student should be doing. an assertive response communicates to the students that the teacher cares too much about them and the process of learning to allow inappropriate behavior to persist. assertive teachers clearly state what they expect

how do task affect motivation

the tasks that teachers set affect motivation. when students encounter tasks that are related to their interests, stimulate their curiosity, or are connected to real life situations, they are more likely to be motivated to learn. tasks can have attainment, intrinsic, or utility value for students. attainment value is the importance to the student of succeeding. intrinsic value is the enjoyment the student gets from the task. utility value is determined by how much the task contributes to reaching short term or long term goals

what is the role of arousal in learning

there appears to be an optimum level of arousal for most activities. generally speaking, a higher level of arousal is helpful on simple tasks, but lower levels of arousal are better for complex tasks. when arousal is too low teachers can stimulate curiosity by pointing out gaps in knowledge or using variety in activities. severe anxiety is an example of arousal that is too high for optimal learning

describe different kinds of scores

there are several basic types of standardized test scores: percentile rankings, which indicate the percentage of other who scored at or below an individuals score; grade equivalent scores, which indicate how closely a students performance matches average scores for a given grade; and standard scores, which are based on the standard deviation. T and z scores are both common standard scores. A stanine score is a standard score that incorporates various percentile rankings.

what is the self regulated learning cycle

there are several models of self-regulated learning. Winne and Hadwin describe a four phase model" analyzing the task, setting goals, and designing plans, enacting strategies to accomplish the task, and regulating learning. Zimmerman notes three similar phases: forethought( which includes setting goals, making plans, self-efficacy, and motivation); performance (which involves self-control and self-monitoring) and reflection (which includes self evaluation and adaptations, leading to the forethought/planning phase again)

distinguish between personal territories and interest-areas spatial arrangements

there are two basic kinds of spatial organization, territorial (the traditional classroom arrangement) and functional (dividing space into interest or work areas) flexibility is often the key. access to materials, convenience, privacy when needed, ease of supervision, and a willingness to reevaluate plans are important considerations in the teacher's choice of physical arrangements

explain the factors identified by Kounin that prevent management problems in the classroom

to create a positive environment and prevent problems, teachers must take individual differences into account, maintain student motivation, and reinforce positive behavior. successful problem preventers are skilled in four areas described by Kounin: "withitness", overlapping, group focusing, and movement management. when penalties have to be imposed teachers should impose them calmly and privately. in addition to applying Kounin's ideas, teachers can prevent problems by establishing a caring classroom community and teaching students to use social skills and emotional self regulation skills

how do teachers help students form connections with schools

to get started on building connections, teachers should make expectations for both academic work and student behaviors clear. respect for students' needs and rights should be at the center of class procedures. students know that their teachers care about them when teachers try to make classes interesting, are fair and honest with them, make sure they understand the students' concerns and troubles.

What is triarchic reciprocal causality?

triarchic reciprocal causality is the dynamic interplay between three kinds of influences: personal, environmental, and behavioral. personal factors (beliefs, expectations, attitudes, and knowledge), the physical and social environment (resources, consequences of actions, and physical settings) and behavior (individual actions, choices, and verbal statements) all influence and are influenced by each other

describe the two kinds of traditional testing

two traditional formats for testing are the objective test and the essay test. objective tests, which can include MC, T/F, fill in, and matching items, should be written with specific guidelines in mind. writing and scoring essay questions requires careful planning, in addition to criteria to discourage bias in scoring.

what are the issues of reliability, validity, and equity with portfolios and performance assessment

using authentic assessments does not guarantee reliability, validity, and equity (absence of bias). using rubrics is one way to make assessment more reliable and valid. but the results from assessment based on rubrics may not predict performance on related tasks. also, rater bias based on the appearance, speech, or behavior of minority-group students or a lack of resources may place minority group students at a disadvantage in performance assessments or projects

what is learned helplessness and what deficits does it cause

when people come to believe that the events and outcomes in their lives are mostly uncontrollable, they have developed learned helplessness, which is associated with three types of deficits: motivational, cognitive, and affective. students who feel hopelessness will be unmotivated and reluctant to attempt work. they miss opportunities to practice and improve skills and abilities, so they develop cognitive deficits and they often suffer from affective problems such as depression, anxiety, and listlessness

how do beliefs about ability affect motivation

when people hold an entity theory of ability-- that is, they believe that ability is fixed--they tend to set performance goals and strive to protect themselves from failure. when they believe ability is improvable (an incremental theory) however, they tend to set mastery goals and handle failure constructively

what resources do teachers have to work effectively with students with disabilities

when students have special needs, they may be referred for evaluation to specialists such as child study teams, school psychologists, or teachers of students with special needs. the outcome of this process sometimes includes preparation of an individualized education program (IEP) which will have teaching ideas and guidelines. in addition, differentiated instruction can improve learning for all students and developing mentoring relationships with students can help teachers connect with student abilities and needs

how can wait time affect student learning

when teachers pose a question and the learn to wait at least 3 to 5 seconds before calling on a student to answer, students tend to give longer answers; more students are likely to participate, ask questions, and volunteer appropriate answers; student comments involving analysis, synthesis, inference, and speculation tend to increase; and the students generally appear more confident in their answers

can grades promote learning and motivation

written or oral feedback that includes specific comments on errors or faulty strategies, but that balances this criticism with suggestions about how to improve along with comments on the postivie aspects of the work, increases learning. grades can encourage students' motivation to learn if they are tied to meaningful learning.