9310 Leadership Theories
Categorical Variable
A variable that has mutually exclusive ("named") groups that lacks intrinsic order. Gender, Ethnicity, or political affiliations are examples of categorical variables. The type of variable defines the test to be used to measure the variables. Categorical variable suggests using a t-test to measure the difference between group means. Any variable that is not quantitative is categorical. i.e. Results indicated a significant difference was found between genders and their mean transformational scores.
Laissez-Faire
Full Range Leadership Model The absence of leadership. A leader that avoids making decisions and carrying out their supervisory responsibilities exemplifies it. They are not reactive or proactive but in fact inactive and passive in their leadership role (Bass & Avolio, 1994).
Power distance
Project GLOBE, Cultural dimension The degree to which members of an organization expect and agree that power should be stratified and concentrated at higher levels of an organization or government.
Humane orientation
Project Globe, cultural dimension The degree to which individuals in organizations encourage and reward individuals for being fair, friendly, generous, caring and kind to others.
Humane-oriented leadership
Reflects supportive and considerate leadership, but also includes compassion, modesty, generosity and an emphasis on being humane.
Satisfiers
Theory: Two Factor Theory, Herzberg Activities that motivate workers: recognition, achievement, growth, job challenge Satisfaction pertains to the team's ability to maintain employee commitment and enthusiasm by meeting the personal needs of its members. Inadequate pay unsafe working conditions, or a noisy environment will cause people to be dissatisfied, but their correction will not cause a high level of work enthusiasm and satisfactors.(Daft, 2008)
Gender egalitarianism
Theory:Project Globe-cultural dimension The degree to which an organization or a society minimizes gender role differences while promoting gender equality.
Collectivism (institutional)
Theory:Project Globe-cultural dimension The degree to which organizational and societal institutional practices encourage and reward collective distribution of resources and collective action. This is a part of the Project Globe Dimensions of Culture.
Forming
Tucker's Stages A period of orientation and getting acquainted. Members find out what behavior is acceptable to others, explore friendship possibilities, and determine task orientation. Forming is the first stage in the stages of team formation.
Organizing
Work arrangements, establishing structures, creating authority and responsibility of task management.
belongingness and love
belong to a group, close friends in which to confide
safety
feel free from immediate danger
esteem
feeling of moving up in wold, recognition, few doubts about self
physiological
food, water, shelter
Self actualization
know exactly who you are; where you are going, and what you want to accomplish. A state of well being.
performance orientation
the degree to which an organization or society encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence
humane orientation
the degree to which individuals in organizations or socieities encourage and reward individuals for being fair, altruistic, friendly, generous, caring and kind to others
Variable
Any quantity that may take on several points on a dimension. As a first step to gauge leader effectiveness across cultures, GLOBE empirically established nine cultural dimensions that make it possible to capture the similarities and/or differences in norms, values, beliefs -and practices—among societies. They build on findings by Hofstede (1980), Schwartz (1994), Smith (1995), Inglehart (1997), and others. They are: Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Humane Orientation, Collectivism I:(Institutional), Collectivism II:(In-Group), Asertiveness, Gender Egalitarianism, Future Orientation, and Performance Orientation.
Middle of the Road or Status Quo 5, 5
Blake and Mouton studied leadership behavior and described two extremes of leadership concern: Concern for Production: The leader cares little about people and operates in fear of something going wrong. This person's focus is on achieving results and productivity. Concern for People: This leader cares little about productivity and operates wholly from a desire to be loved and approved of. The (5,5) Leader is a compromiser who wants to maintain the status quo and avoid any problems. Is aware of and wants a focus on productivity but not at the expense of the morale of his/her team.
Self-confidence
Consist of self-esteem, self awareness, and a belief in oneself to make a difference for others. ... is another trait that helps one to be a leader. .. is the ability to be certain about one's competencies and skills. It includes a sense of self-esteem and self-assurance and the belief that one can make a difference. Leadership involves influencing others, and self-confidence allows the leader to feel assured that his or her attempts to influence others are appropriate and right (Northouse, 2010). According to Daft, A related characteristic is having a positive attitude about oneself. Leaders who know themselves develop self-confidence, which is an assurance in one's own judgments, decision making, ideas, and capabilities. Self-confidence doesn't mean being arrogant and prideful, but rather knowing and trusting in oneself.
Ratio Data
Data that are ordered so that we can make inferences regarding magnitude, have equal intervals between values, and contain an absolute zero point. Height is an example of ratio data: 60 inches is taller thatn 55 inches, the distance between 60 and 55 inches is the same as the distance between 30-25 inches, and a height of 0 inches implies no height at all.
Interval Data
Data that possess magnitude; one value can be judged greater than, less than, or equal to another and a constant distance between intervals such as units of measurement are the same on the scale regardless of where the unit falls. Example: In measuring temperature, the difference between 100 degrees and 99 degrees is the same as the difference between 40 degrees and 39 degrees.
Planning
Defining goals and objectives, developing strategies, using budgets and setting policies and procedures. Operational-Tactical-Strategic. Planning involves gathering all those involved in a specific activity, goal or project and brainstorming on how to reach success. Discussion should involve ensuring all necessary components are included; and, factors that may wreak havoc on said activity, goal or project. Planning involves creation of a detailed plan involving questions and answers to: Who, What, When, Where, How and Why. Creation of a structure/tool that enables the team to achieve success is key. Task management, including effective use of resources, is also crucial. Planning involves looking at the "big picture." E.G. If a school system desires their students to achieve the highest standards of education success possible, then they should begin with strategizing on what it takes to get a student to earn their PhD and work there way backwards.
Controlling
Development performance standards, report systems, monitoring activities and making corrections.
Self protective leadership
Focuses on ensuring the safety and security of the individual and group through status enhancement and face saving. These leaders are self-centered, status conscious and conflict inducers who emphasize procedures and saving face. Reflects behaviors that ensure the safety and security of the leader and the group (Nothouse, 2010)
Management-By-Exception (Passive)
Full Range Leadership Model Facets of passive leadership, which describes leaders who fail to intervene until problems become serious. They wait for mistakes to be brought to their attention before they take corrective action (Bass, 1985).
Management-By-Exception (Active)
Full Range Leadership Model MBE (active) is a facet of Bass and Avolio's Full Range Leadership Model. MBE (active) is part of the transactional section of the Full Range Model along eith Management - by- Exception (passive) and contingent reward. MBE (active) describes leaders who monitor followers' performance and take corrective action if deviations from standards occur. They enforce rules to avoid mistakes (Bass, 1985). The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire is the instrument used to measure the full range leadership model.
Contingent Reward
Full Range Leadership Model A behavior facet of transactional leadership, which describes leaders who engage in a constructive path-goal transaction of reward for performance (Bass, 1985). Part of the Full Range Model and relies on the followers being offered some type of monetary compensation for their work, loyalty etc.
Transformational Leadership
Full Range Leadership Model, 5I's-MISC Leader-follower exchange relationship in which the followers feel trust, loyalty, and respect toward the leader, and are motivated to do more than originally expected (Bass, 1985). The full range of leadership introduces four elements of transformational leadership: 1. Individualized Consideration - the degree to which the leader attends to each follower's needs, acts as a mentor or coach to the follower and listens to the follower's concerns and needs. The leader gives empathy and support, keeps communication open and places challenges before the followers. This also encompasses the need for respect and celebrates the individual contribution that each follower can make to the team. The followers have a will and aspirations for self development and have intrinsic motivation for their tasks. 2. Intellectual Stimulation - the degree to which the leader challenges assumptions, takes risks and solicits followers' ideas. Leaders with this style stimulate and encourage creativity in their followers. They nurture and develop people who think independently. For such a leader, learning is a value and unexpected situations are seen as opportunities to learn. The followers ask questions, think deeply about things and figure out better ways to execute their tasks. 3. Inspirational Motivation - the degree to which the leader articulates a vision that is appealing and inspiring to followers. Leaders with inspirational motivation challenge followers with high standards, communicate optimism about future goals, and provide meaning for the task at hand. Followers need to have a strong sense of purpose if they are to be motivated to act. Purpose and meaning provide the energy that drives a group forward. The visionary aspects of leadership are supported by communication skills that make the vision understandable, precise, powerful and engaging. The followers are willing to invest more effort in their tasks, they are encouraged and optimistic about the future and believe in their abilities. 4. Idealized Influence (attributes/behaviors)- Provides a role model for high ethical behavior, instills pride, gains respect and trust. Transformational leadership is defined as a leadership approach that causes change in individuals and social systems. In its ideal form, it creates valuable and positive change in the followers with the end goal of developing followers into leaders. Enacted in its authentic form, transformational leadership enhances the motivation, morale and performance of followers through a variety of mechanisms. These include connecting the follower's sense of identity and self to the mission and the collective identity of the organization; being a role model for followers that inspires them; challenging followers to take greater ownership for their work, and understanding the strengths and weaknesses of followers, so the leader can align followers with tasks that optimize their performance. Transformational leadership differs from transactional leadership in four significant areas: 1)Transformational leadership develops followers into leaders. 2)Transformational leadership elevates the concerns of followers from lower level physical needs (such as for safety and security) to higher level psychological needs (such as for self esteem and self actualization). 3)Transformational leadership inspires followers to go beyond their own self interests for the good of the group. 4)Transformational leadership paints a vision of a desired future state and communicates it in a way that makes the pain of change worth the effort. Transformational leaders create significant change in followers as well as organizations. (Daft, 357)
In-group (Collectivism)
GLOBE The degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations or families. In group collectivism is concerned with the extent to which people are devoted to their organizations.
Future orientation
GLOBE, cultural dimension The degree to which individuals engage in future-oriented behaviors such as planning, investing in the future, and delaying individual or collective gratification. PROJECT GLOBE's major premise (and finding) is that leader effectiveness is contextual, that is, it is embedded in the societal and organizational norms, values, and beliefs of the people being led. As a first step to gauge leader effectiveness across cultures, GLOBE empirically established nine cultural dimensions that make it possible to capture the similarities and/or differences in norms, values, beliefs -and practices—among societies. They build on findings by Hofstede (1980), Schwartz (1994), Smith (1995), Inglehart (1997), and others. They are: 1) Assertiveness, (2) Future orientation (3) Gender differentiation, (4) Uncertainty avoidance, (5) Power distance,(6) Institutional collectivism (individualism vs. Collectivism) (7) In-group/family collectivism (8) Performance orientation (9) Humane orientation
Sociability
Has to do with friendliness, diplomacy, empathy, and tactfulness, seek out pleasant social relationships. Northouse (2010) Sociability is aleader's inclination to seek out pleasant social relationships. Leaders who show sociability are friendly, outgoing, courteous, tactful, and diplomatic. They are sensitive to others' needs and show concern for their well-being. Social leaders have good interpersonal skills and create cooperative relationships with their followers.
Intelligence
Includes Verbal Ability, Perceptual Ability, and Reasoning Ability with skills to complete complex problem-solving and to make social judgments with effectiveness.
Integrity
Is found in honesty and trustworthiness. .. is a reflection of one's values, ethics and morals. When "character" is referred to, the reference is usually to one's integrity. It is found in Honesty, Trustworthiness, and is a reflection of one's values, ethics and morals
Encourage the Heart
Key Practices, Kouzes and Posner, LPI One of the 5 key practices established by Kouzes and Pousner, and generated from the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI). Accomplishing extraordinary things in organizations is hard work. To keep hope and determination alive, leaders recognize contributions that individuals make. In every winning team, the members need to share in the rewards of their efforts, so leaders celebrate accomplishments. They make people feel like heroes.
Transactional Leadership
Leader-follower exchange relationship in which the follower receives some reward related to lower-order needs in return for compliance with the leader's expectations (Bass, 1985). Transactional leadership is a term used to classify a formally known group leadership theories that inquire the interactions between leaders and followers. A transactional leader focuses more on a series of "transactions". This person is interested in looking out for oneself, having exchange benefits with their subordinates and clarify a sense of duty with rewards and punishments to reach goals. * Leaders are aware of the link between the effort and reward * Leadership is responsive and its basic orientation is dealing with present issues * Leaders rely on standard forms of inducement, reward, punishment and sanction to control followers * Leaders motivate followers by setting goals and promising rewards for desired performance * Leadership depends on the leader's power to reinforce subordinates for their successful completion of the bargain.
Leadership
Leadership involves influence, it occurs among people, those people intentionally desire significant changes, and the changes reflect purpose shared by leaders and followers. Influence means that the relationship is not passive but multitdirectional and noncoercive. Relationship in which an individual influences a group of individuals to make change or achieve a common goal: a.) a process, b.) involves influence, c.) occurs in groups, d.) has common goals. Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal.
Neuroticism
OCEAN part of Big 5 Personality Dimension ( refer to acronym of OCEAN) emotional stability- the degree to which a person is not well-adjusted, calm and secure. A leader, who is emotionally stable handles stress well, is able to handle criticism and generally doesn't take mistakes or failures personally. Leaders with emotional stability typically develop positive relationships and can also improve relationships with others (Daft, pg102).
Extraversion
OCEAN, Big Five Personality Traits The degree to which a person is outgoing, sociable, talkative, and comfortable meeting and talking to people. One of the Big Five Personality Dimensions, under the acronym OCEAN. Ranked as most important in effective leadership. is made up of traits and characteristics that influence behavior in group settings. Someone low on extraversion may come across as quiet, withdrawn and socially unassertive. This dimension also includes the characteristic of dominance. A person with a high degree of dominance likes to be in control and have influence over others. These people often are quite self-confident, seek out positions of authority and are competitive and assertive. They like to be in charge of others or have responsibility for others. It is obvious that both dominance and extraversion could be valuable for a leader. However not all effective leaders necessarily have a high degree of these characteristics.
Consideration
Ohio State Studies, LBDQ the extent to which a leader is sensitive to subordinates, respects their ideas and feelings, and establishes mutual trust; relationship behaviors such as building respect and liking between leaders and followers. Falls on the Grid From Consideration to Initiating Structure. Ohio State Leadership Studies Prior to 1945 most studies of leadership sought to identify the individual traits of effective leaders. Trait theories of leadership were the first to attempt a systematic approach of studying leadership. However these studies yielded disappointing results when no set of traits were found that explained effective leadership. In 1945, a group of researchers at the Ohio State University sought to identify the observable behaviors of leaders instead of identifying personality traits. To accomplish this they generated a list of 1790 statements. This was narrowed down to 150 statements designed to measure nine different dimensions of leader behavior. These statements were used to develop the Leaders Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ). The surveys would be given to members of a group and asked to respond to a series of statements about the leader of their group. Respondents of the LBDQ would rate leaders on how frequently they engaged in a certain behavior. The results showed two factors accounted for most of the variance. These two factors were labeled Consideration and Initiating Structure
Initiating Structure
Ohio State Studies, LBDQ Task behaviors organizing work, giving structure to work.
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ)
One of the most widely used measurements of leadership. The 45 question inventory provides scores for transformational, transactional, and passive leadership (Bass and Avolio, 1994). Programs designed to develop transformational leadership usually require that leaders or their associates take the MLQ to determine the leader's particular strengths and weaknesses in transformational leadership. The MLQ helps leaders pinpoint areas in which they could improve their leadership (Northhouse, pg.198).
Uncertainty avoidance
Project GLOBE, Cultural dimension The degree to which members of an organization strive to avoid uncertainty by relying on established social norms, rituals, and bureaucratic practices. Uncertainty avoidance deals with a society's tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; it ultimately refers to man's search for Truth. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; 'there can only be one Truth and we have it'. "High uncertainty avoidance means that members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity and thus support beliefs and behaviors that promise certainty and conformity. Low uncertainty avoidance means that people have a high tolerance for the unstructured, the unclear, and the unpredictable. High uncertainty avoidance cultures include Greece, Portugal, and Uruguay. Signapore and Jamaica are two cultures with low uncertainty avoidance values." (Daft, 24
Team-oriented leadership
Project GLOBE, leadership dimension Emphasizes effective team building and implementation of a common purpose or goal among team members. These leaders are collaborative integrators who are diplomatic, benevolent, administratively competent and procedural. To describe how different cultures view leadership behaviors in others, GLOBE researchers identified six global leadership behaviors: charismatic/ value based, team oriented, participative, humane oriented, autonomous, and self-protective (House & Javidan, 2004). One of these is team-oriented leadership which emphasizes team building and a common purpose among team members. This kind of leadership includes being collaborative, integrative, diplomatic, nonmalevolent, and administratively competent.
Staffing
Recruitment, selection and training of personnel. Koontz, O'Donnell and Weirich( 1980 ) Principle of staffing objectives: The positions provided by the organization structure must be staffed with personnel able and willing to carry out the assigned functions. Principle of staffing: The quality of management personnel can be ensured through proper definition of the job and its appraisal in terms of human requirements, evaluation of candidates and incumbents, and appropriate training. Principle of job definition: Specifications for the job rest on organization requirements and on provision for incentives to induce effective and efficient performance of the tasks involved. Principle of managerial appraisal: Performance must be appraised against the management action required by superiors and against the standard of adherence in practice to managerial principles. Principle of open competition in promotion: Managers should be selected from among the best available candidates for the job, whether they are inside or outside the enterprise. Principle of management development: The objective of management development is to strengthen existing managers. The most effective means of developing managers is to have the task performed primarily by a manager's superior. Principle of universal development: The enterprise can tolerate only those managers who are interested in their continuous development.
S2 - Selling / Coaching
Situational Theory, Hersey and Blanchard High task focus, high relationship focus-leaders still define roles and task, but seek ideas and suggestions for the follower. Decisions remain the leader's prerogative; much communication is much more two-way. For people who have some competence but lack commitment. They need direction and supervision because they are still relatively inexperienced. They also need support and praise to build their self-esteem, and involvement in decision-making to restore their commitment.
S3 - Participating / Supporting
Situational Theory, Hersey and Blanchard Low task focus, high relationship focus-leaders pass day-to-day decisions, such as task allocation and processes, to the follower. The leader facilitates and takes part in decisions, but control is with the follower. For people who have competence, but lack confidence or motivation. They do not need much direction because of their skills, but support is necessary to bolster their confidence and motivation.
S4 - Delegating
Situational Theory, Hersey and Blanchard Low task force, low relationship focus-leaders are still involved in decisions and problem-solving, but control is with the follower. The follower decides when and how the leader will be involved. For people who have both competence and commitment. They are able and willing to work on a project by themselves with little supervision or support. In Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Theory of Leadership, delegating is low task guidance and low relationship focus. Leaders turn over responsibility for decisions and implementation. (Daft, 2008) This is Vroom's adaptation of Tannenbaum and Schmidt's Taxonomy- Delegate- You permit the group to make the decision within prescribed limits. The group undertakes the identification and diagnosis of the problem, and decides one one or more alternative situations. While you play no direct role in the group's deliberations unless explicitly asked, your role is an important one behind the scenes, providing needed resources and encouragement. ( Daft, 20
S1 - Telling / Directing
Situational Theory, Hersey and Blanchard High task focus, low relationship focus- leaders define the roles and tasks of the follower, and supervise them closely. Decisions are made by the leader and announced, so communication is largely one-way. For people who lack competence but are enthusiastic and committed. They need direction and supervision to get them started.
Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)
The Ohio State Leadership Studies which began in the 1940s and focused on how leaders could satisfy common group needs. The findings indicated that the two most important dimensions in leadership included: "initiating structure," and "consideration." These characteristics could be either high or low and were independent of one another. The research was based on questionnaires to leaders and subordinates. These questionnaires are known as the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire. The questionnaire comprised of 150 questions given to 100's of individuals in many sectors that showed that certain clusters of behaviors were typical of leaders.
Participative leadership
The degree to which leaders involve others in making and implementing decisions. ... is one of four leadership styles under the Path-Goal Theory created by Dr. Robert House. ... emphasize democratic and participative decision making, usually under small team settings. It is the act of inviting subordinates, peers, supervisors and other stakeholders to share in decision making on how group/organization will proceed. Also known as consultation, empowerment, joint decision-making, democratic leadership, Management by Objective (MBO) and power-sharing. There are various levels: A) Autocratic decision by leader (Non-participative); B) Leader proposes decision, listens to feedback then makes a decision; C) Team proposes decision, leader makes final decision; D) Joint decision with team as equals; and E) Full delegation of decision to team (Highly Participative). Leaders are advised to use this leadership in settings where tasks are ambiguous and staff is generally autonomous.
Effectiveness
The degree to which the organization achieves a stated goal-"Are we doing the right things?" Team effectiveness can be defined as achieving four performance outcomes - innovation/adaptation, efficiency, quality and employee satisfaction (Daft, 305).
Correlation Coefficient
The relationship between two variables obtained from the same cases. It can range from +1.00 through 0.00 to -1.00. It is the ratio of how much one (standardized) variable's changes coincide with the changes in the other (standardized) variables. Both the independent and dependent variables are continuous. The relationship between two variables obtained from the same cases. It can range from +1.00 through 0.00 to -1.00. It is the ratio of how much one (standardized) variable's changes coincide with the changes in the other (standardized) variables. Both the independent and dependent variables are continuous.The correlation coefficient is a statistic that is calculated from sample data and is used to estimate the corresponding population correlation coefficient. Correlation coefficients generally take values between −1 and +1. A positive value implies a positive association between variables (i.e., high values of one variable are associated with high values of the other), while a negative value implies a negative association between variables (i.e., high values of one variable are associated with low values of the other). Thus, a coefficient of −1 means the variables are perfectly negatively related; while +1 means a perfect positive relation. A coefficient of 0 means the variables are not related.
Determination
Theory: 5 Leadership Traits, Northouse Involves initiative, persistence, dominance, and drive to get a job done. A person with this is proactive and perseveres to the completion of a responsibility. Part of the great evolution of leadership theories which involved trait studies. Northouse identified 5 Leadership Traits. Intelligence, Self Confidence, Determination, Integrity, Sociability People are willing to assert themselves, are proactive, and have the capacity to persevere in the face of obstacles. It includes showing dominance at times and in situations where followers need to be directed.( Northouse, 20)
Team or Sound Leadership, 9, 9
Theory: Leadership Grid, Blake and Mouton The leader initiates team action in a way that invites involvement and commitment. Explores all facets and alternative views to reach a shared understanding of the best solution. Blake and Mouton (1964) In this leadership style, the leader has high concern for the employees and the production. The leader constantly encourages the employees and promotes teamwork. Even though the leader has high concern for the employees, he also encourages them to be productive. He shares his goals and objectives with them, so that they can together work towards achieving those goals. He makes them feel a part of the organization.
Directing or Controlling 9, 1
Theory: Leadership Grid, Blake and Mouton A facet of Blake and Mouton's Leadership Grid which first appeared in the early 1960s and has been refined and revised several times. The Leadership Grid was designed to help explain how leaders help organizations reach their purposes for two factors: concern for production and concern for people. Concern for production refers to how a leader is concerned with achieving organizational tasks. It involves a wide range of activities including attention to policy decisions, new product development, process issues, workload, and sales volume, to name a few. Concern for people refers to how a leader attend to the people in the organization who are trying to achieve its goals. This includes building organizational commitment and trust, promoting personal worth of employees, providing good working conditions, maintaining the fair salary structure, and promoting good social relations. The Leadership Grid joins concern for production and concern for people in model that has two intersecting axes. The horizontal access represents the leader's concern for results and the vertical axis represents the concern for people. The LG portrays five major leadership styles and 9,1 is the Authority-Compliance style. This style of leadership places heavy emphasis on task and job requirements, and less emphasis on people, except to the extent that people are tools for getting the job done. Communicating with subordinates is not emphasized except for the purpose of giving instructions about the task. This style is driven and people are regarded as tools to that end. The 9,1 leader is often seen as controlling, demanding, hard driving, and overpowering.
Impoverished Management or Indifferent 1, 1
Theory: Leadership Grid, Blake and Mouton From the Leadership Grid, lower, left quadrant. The leader distances herself from taking active responsibility for results to avoid getting entangled in problems. If forced, takes a passive or supportive position. The style is representative of a leader who is unconcerned with both the task and with interpersonal relationships. This type of leader goes through the motions of being a leader but acts uninvolved and withdrawn. The 1.1 Leader often has little contact with followers and could be described as indifferent, noncommittal, resigned and apathetic.
Country Club or Accommodating 1, 9
Theory: Leadership Grid, Blake and Mouton The leader supports results that establish and reinforce harmony. Generate enthusiasm by focusing on positive and pleasing aspects of work. Thoughtful attention to the needs of people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable, friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo. It occurs when primary emphasis is given to people rather than to work outputs.
Agreeableness
Theory: OCEAN, Big Five Personality Traits One of the Big Five Personality Traits, under the acronym OCEAN, Agreeableness is the degree to which a person is able to get along with others by being good natured, cooperative, forgiving, compassionate, understanding, and trusting. (Trust, Modesty, Compliance, Altruism, Straightforwardness, Tender-Mindedness) is important in effective leadership, but does not rank as highly as Extraversion and Emotional Stability. A leader who scores high on this trait seems warm and approachable, whereas one who is low may seem cold, distant, and insensitive.
Directing
Theory: Path Goal Theory Use of influence and rewards to motivate employees as well as delegation and coordination. tells subordinates exactly what they are supposed to do. Leader behavior includes planning, making schedules, setting performance goals, and behavior standards, and stressing adherence to rules and regulations... is similar to the initiating structure or task oriented leadership style described earlier. Also, similar to the telling style in situational leadership.The path goal theory is another contingency approach to leadership. According to the path goal theory, the leader's responsibility is to increase subordinates motivation to attain personal and organizational goals. The path goal theory suggests a fourfold classification of leader behaviors. These classifications are the types of behavior the leader can adopt including supportive, directive, achievement-oriented, and participative styles.
Assertiveness
Theory: Project Globe-cultural dimension The degree to which individuals in organizations or societies are assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in societal relationships. is concerned with how much a culture or society encourages people to be forceful, aggressive, and tough, as opposed to encouraging them to be timid, submissive, and tender in social relationships. One of eight cultural dimensions identified by Project Globe researchers. (Northouse, 341 & 344). High-Score Clusters - Eastern Europe & Germanic Europe. Low-Score Clusters - Nordic Europe.
Autonomous leadership
Theory: Project Globe-leadership dimension Independent and individualistic leadership attributes. These leaders emphasize individualism, independence and autonomy and have unique attributes. No impact to outstanding leadership. Sub-Saharan Africa Societal Cluster scored lowest (M = 3.63) indicating it was in the range of no impact to slightly inhibiting outstanding leadership Eastern Europe Societal Cluster (M = 4.20) scored the highest, but 4.20 indicates no impact to "slightly" contributing outstanding leadership One of six Project Globe dimensions of leadership. (Northouse, 348) It is #5 in global preference (order) of the six dimensions.
Dissatisfiers
Theory: Two Factor Theory, Herzberg Similar: Maslow's Hierarchy-deficiency needs They don't motivate workers, but the absence of these lower motivation: salary, working conditions, job security, benefits, status, supervision Frederick Herzberg developed another popular needs based theory of motivation called the two factor theory. Herzberg interviewed hundreds of workers about times when they were highly motivated to work and other times when they were dissatisfied and unmotivated to work. His findings suggested that the work characteristics associated with dissatisfaction were quite different from those pertaining to satisfaction, which prompted the notion that the two factors influence work motivation. Herzberg believed that two entirely separate dimensions contribute to an employee's behavior at work. The first dimension, called hygiene factors, involve the presence or absence of job dissatisfiers, such as working conditions, pay, company policies, and interpersonal relationships. When hygiene factors are poor, work is dissatisfying. This is similar to the concept of deficiency needs described by Maslow. Good hygiene factors remove the dissatisfaction, but they do not themselves cause people to become highly satisfied and motivated in their work. (Daft, 230) In summary, satisfiers describe a person's relationship with what she or he does, many related to the tasks being performed. Dissatisfiers, on the other hand, have to do with a person's relationship to the context or environment in which she or he performs the job. The satisfiers relate to what a person does while the dissatisfiers relate to the situation in which the person does what he or she does.
Challenge the Process
Theory:5 Practices of Exemplary Leadership, Kouzes and Posner Leaders search for opportunities to change the status quo. They look for innovative ways to improve the organization. In doing so, they experiment and take risks. And because leaders know that risk taking involves mistakes and failures, they accept the inevitable disappointments as learning opportunities. one of the 5 Practices of Exemplary Leadership based on Kouzes and Posner. Research has shown that the more frequently an individual is perceived as demonstrating the behaviors, the more likely that person will be identified as an effective leader. K&P developed the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) which is a 360° assessment instrument that measures the frequency of 30 behaviors, identified as the behaviors that leaders engage in most frequently while performing at their best. The LPI is a tool which helps leaders assess the extent to which they actually use those practices, so that they can determine a workable strategy for improvement.
Conscientiousness
Theory:OCEAN, Big Five Leadership Traits The degree to which a person is responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement-oriented. Is found under the psychology/sociology area. Part of the Big Five Leadership Traits, Part of the OCEAN. Additional definition Conscientiousness: Common features of this dimension include high levels of thoughtfulness, with good impulse control and goal-directed behaviors. Those high in conscientiousness tend to be organized and mindful of details Conscientiousness - (efficient/organized vs. easy-going/careless). A tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behavior.
Performance orientation
Theory:Project Globe-cultural dimension The degree to which an organization encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence. Under the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) Project, a 62 nation, 11-year study involving 170 researchers worldwide, nations were evaluated on measurement standards (cultural dimensions) utilized for perferred leadership styles. Performance orientation is one of those cultural dimensions and it reflects the extent to which a community encourages and rewards innovative, high standards, excellence, and performance improvement. Anglo societies (USA, Canada, and Australia), Confuciun Asia (China, Taiwan and Korea) and Germanic Europe (England, Ireland and Austria) lean favorably toward performance orientation. This involves the high value placed on training and development; and, competiveness and materialism. Additionally, feedback provided on a formal basis for further development and perfromance is greatly favored. There is more value placed on the position than on the individual. Lastly, explicit and direct communication is often utilized. On the other hand, socities in Eastern Europe and Latin America place a much lower value on performance orientation. They place higher value on the family, society and the environment. Formal evaluation is not frequently utilized and communication is generally subtle.
Collectivism/In group
Theory:Project Globe-cultural dimension The degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations or families. This is a part of the Project Globe Dimensions of Culture.
Charismatic/Value Based
Theory:Project Globe-leadership dimension The ability to inspire, to motivate, and to expect high performance outcomes from others on the basis of firmly held core beliefs. These leaders are visionary, inspirational, engage in self-sacrifice, and are decisive and performance-oriented. Universally Endorsed. On a scale of 1-7, societal clusters ranged from (M = 5.35 - 6.05) Middle East Societal Cluster scored lowest (M = 5.35) but still felt it contributed a little greater than "slightly" to outstanding leadership Anglo Societal Cluster (M = 6.05) felt the strongest that it contributed somewhat to greatly to outstanding leadership One of six Project Globe dimensions of leadership. (Northouse 348) It is #1 in global preference (order) of the six dimensions.
Individual Consideration
Theory:Transformational Leadership, Full Range Leadership Model, 5Is-MISC A behavior facet of transformational leadership, which describes leaders who act as coaches, teachers and mentors to their followers. Encourages followers, provide continuous feedback, and link the followers current needs to the organization's mission (Avolio, 1999). This includes, A) Empathizing with individual needs, B) Making interpersonal connections with employees C) Genuinely caring and showing this compassion in action, D) Encouraging continuous development and growth of employees and E) Sending the message, "I care about you and am looking out for your best interest."
Intellectual Stimulation
Theory:Transformational Leadership, Full Range Leadership Model, 5Is-MISC A behavior facet of transformational leadership, which describes leaders who encourage innovation and creativity through challenging the normal beliefs or views of their followers. Leaders promote critical thinking and problem solving to make the organization better (Avolio, 1999).
Inspirational Motivation
Theory:Transformational Leadership, Full Range Leadership Model, 5Is-MISC A behavior facet of transformational leadership, which describes leaders who motivate and inspire followers to commit to the vision of the organization. Encourages team spirit, and provide meaning and challenge to their follower's work (Avolio, 1999). Inspirational motivation includes A) Inspiring others to perform, B) Clarifying where the organization will be in the future, C) Creating a strong sense of purpose among employees, D) Aligning individual and organizational needs, E) Helping followers achieve even more what they thought was possible, F) Sending the message - "If we focus on what this organization stands for...we can achieve whatever we desire."
Idealized Influence (Attributes)
Theory:Transformational Leadership, Full Range Leadership Model, 5Is-MISC A facet of transformational leadership, which describes leaders who are exemplary role models. Leaders are admired and respected, and followers want to emulate them. (Bass 1999)
Idealized Influence (Behaviors)
Theory:Transformational Leadership, Full Range Leadership Model, 5Is-MISC A facet of transformational leadership, which describes leaders who can be counted on to do the right thing through high ethical and moral standards (Bass, 1999). a. Demonstrating an inclusive vision b. Walking the Walk (Talk) c. Exhibiting great commitment and persistence in pursuing objectives d. Expressing confidence in the vision of the organization e. Developing trust and confidence among employees f. symbolizing the goals and mission of the organization g. Sending the message, "I believe that this is truly the right thing to do."
Storming
Tucker's Stages Individual personalities emerge more clearly. People become more assertive in clarifying their roles; this state is marked by conflict and disagreement. Bruce Tuckman (1965) Decisions don't come easily within group. Team members vie for position as they attempt to establish themselves in relation to other team members and the leader, who might receive challenges from team members. Clarity of purpose increases but plenty of uncertainties persist. Cliques and factions form and there may be power struggles. The team needs to be focused on its goals to avoid becoming distracted by relationships and emotional issues. Compromises may be required to enable progress.
Performing
Tucker's Stages The major emphasis is on accomplishing the team's goals. Members are committed to the team's mission and interact frequently. One of four stages (Forming, Storming, Norming and Performing) within the team development concept created by Bruce Tuckman, peforming is the last stage. At this stage, members are committed to the team's mission and are interacting frequently, coordinating actions in handling disagreements in a mature, productive manner---all in the name of task accomplishment. At this stage the leader should concentrate on high task performance and allow the team to self-manage to reach its goals.
Norming
Tucker's Stages conflict has been resolved and team unity and harmony emerge. Consensus develops as natural team leaders emerge and members' roles are clear. Team members come to understand and accept one another as differences are resolved. Is the 3rd stage of Tucker's Stages of Team Development, in which conflicts have been resolved and team unity emerges. Consensus develops as to who the natural teams are, and members' roles are clear. Team members come to understand and accept one another. Differences are resolved and members develop as sense of cohesiveness. This stage typically is of short duration and moves quickly into the next stage (Daft, pg.299).
Efficiency
Using resources in such a way as to maximize the production of goods and services-"Are we doing things right?" One of the four performance outcomes of team effectiveness... pertains to whether the team helps the organization attain goals using fewer resources. (Daft, 306)
technology adoption curve
a model which describes the rate at which consumers adopt new technologies and the chasm at which new technology becomes cheap enough, is reliable enougth, and has enough desired features that early majority pragmatists invest/buy the technology
mechanistic
a stable environment which is somewhat rigid, with a strict hierarchy, and more centralized vertical communication
Tacit knowledge
based on personal experience, rules of thumb, intuition and judgment
organic
characterizes a looser, free flowing, and adaptive internal organization which fits with rapidly changing environments
entreprenuerial stage
creating a product, surviving in the marketplace (stages of growth)
goals and strategy
define the purpose and competitive techniques that set it apart from other organizations
hierarchy of authority
describes who reports to whom and the span of control for each manager/leader
collectivity stage
develop a structure, develop clear goals and direction(stages of growth)
formalization stage
develop rules, procedures and controls systems, communication becomes more formal and less frequent (stages of growth)
Team oriented leadership
emphasizes effective team building and implementation of a common purose or goal among team members. Collaborative integrators who are diplomatic, benovolent, administratively competent and procedural.
self protective leadership
focuses on ensuring the safety and security of the individual and group through status enhancement and face saving. Leaders are self centered, status conscious and conflict inducets who emphasizse procedures and saving face
firewall
hardware and software placed between an organization's internal network and an external network to prevent outsiders from invading private networks
environment
includes all elements outside the boundary of the organization
Explicit knowledge
is formal, systematic knowledge that can be codified,written down, and passed on to others in documents or general instructions
formalization
is the degree to which an organization has rules, procedures, and written documentation
size
is the organizations magnitude as reflected in the number of people in the organization
elaboration stage
new sense of collaboration and teamwork; social control and self discipline replaces new or additional formal systems(stages of growth)
Openness
part of Big 5 Personality Dimension ( refer to acronym of OCEAN) openness to experience - the degree to which a person has a broad range of interests and is imaginative, creative and willing to consider new ideas People of openness are intellectually curious and often seek out new experiences through travel, the arts, movies, reading widely or other activities. Openess is important to leaders because leadership is about change rather than stability (Daft, pg. 103
personnel ratios
refers to the deployment of people to various functions and departments. Contextual dimensions characterize the whole organization and describe the organizational setting
Knowledge managment
refers to the efforts to systematically find, organize, and make available a company's intellectual capital and to foster a culture of continuous learning and knowledge sharing so that organizational activities build on what is already known
centralization
refers to the hiearchical level that has authority to make a decision
autonomous leadership
refers to the independent and individualistic leadership attributes. Autonomous leaders emphasize individualism, independence and autonomy and have unique attributes
complexity
refers to the number of levels in a hierarchy and the number of departments or jobs
organizational technology
refers to the tools, techniques, and actions used to produce the organization's products or services
competitive advantage
refers to the what sets the organization apart from others and provides it with a distinctive edge for meeting customer or client needs in the marketplace
Locus of control
refers to whether a person places the primary responsibility within himself or on the outside forces
accomodating
reflects a high degree of cooperativeness, used when people realize they are wrong, when an issue is more important to others than to oneself, when building social credits for use in large discussions, or when maintaining cohesiveness is especially important(Conflict Mgmt)
competing
reflects assertiveness to get one's way, used when quick decision is vital on important issues or unpopular actions (Conflict Mgmt)
compromising
reflects moderate assertiveness and cooperation when goals are equally important,(Conflict Mgmt)
avoiding
reflects neither assertiveness nor cooperation, used for trivial issues, when there is no chance of winning, when a delay to gather information is needed, or when disruption would be costly (Conflict Mgmt)
Humane oriented leadership
reflects supportive and considerate leadership, but also includes compassion, modesty, generosity, and an emphasis on being humane
Participative leadership
reflects the degree to which leaders involve others in making and implementing decisons. Emphasizes democratic and participative decision making
core competence
something the organization does especially well in comparison to its competitors
Customer relationship management
systems help companies track customer's interactions with the firm and allow employees to call up a customer's past sales and service records, outstanding orders, and unresolved problems
Charismatic/Value Based leadership
the ability to inspire, to motivate, and to expect high performance outcomes from others on the basis of firmly held core beliefts. These leaders are visionary, inspirational, engage in self sacrifice, demonstrate integrity and are decisive and performance oriented.
bandwidth
the capacity of communications channel as measured by the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies that can be transmitted by that channel
gender egalitarianism
the degree to which an organization or society minimizes gender role differences while promoting gender equality
collectivism (in group)
the degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations or families
future orientation
the degree to which individuals in organizations or socieities engage in future oriented behaviors such as planning, investing in the future, and delaying individual or collective gratification
assertiveness
the degree to which individuals in organizations or societies are assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in social relationships
power distance
the degree to which members of an organization or society expect and agree that power should be stratified and concentrated at higher levels of an organization or government.
collectivism (institutional)
the degree to which organizational and societal institutions practices and rewards collective distribution of resouces and collective action
specialization
the degree to which organizational tasks are subdivided into separate jobs
uncertainty avoidance
the extent to which members of an organization or society strive to avoid uncertainty by relying established norms, rituals, or bereaucratic practices
standardization
the extent to which similar work activities are performed in a uniform manner
professionalism
the level of formal education and training of employees
Moore's Law
the observation that the number of components on a chip doubles every 18 months-technology doubles every 18 months
mission
the official overal goal for an organization. describes the organization's vision, its shared values and aspirations, and its reasons for existence
groupthink
the tendency to place relational concerns of group unity ahead of task concern for effective performance
culture
the underlying set of key values, beliefs, understandings, and norms shared by the employees
Enterprise resource planning (ERP)
these systems collect, process, and provide information about a company's entire enterprise, including order processing, product design, purchasing, inventory, manufacturing, distribution, human resources, receipt of payments, and forecasting of future demand
the learning and growth perspective
this perspective includes employee training and corporate cultural attitudes related to both individual and corporate self improvement (balanced scorecard)
Customer perspective
this perspective refers to customer focus, satisfaction, retention, acquisition, and market share(balanced scorecard)
the business process perspective
this perspective refers to internal business processess; metrics based on this perspective allow the managers to know how well their business is running, and whether its products and services conform to customer requirements(balanced scorecard)
financial perspective
this perspective refers to the financial aspect such as net profit and return on equity(balanced scorecard)
Model the Way
5 Key Practices, Kouzes and Posner, LPI Kouzes and Posner established five fundamental behaviors of exemplary leaders: Challenge the process; inspire a shared vision; enable others to act; model the way; encourage the heart. Leaders establish principals concerning the way people should be treated and the way goals should be pursued. They created standards of excellence and then set an example for others to follow. They unravel bureaucracy when it impedes action; they put up signposts when people are unsure of where to go or how to get there; and they create opportunities for victory.
Inspire a Shared Vision
5 Key Practices, Kouzes and Posner, LPI Leaders passionately believe that they can make a difference. They envision the future, creating an ideal and unique image of what the organization can become. They breathe life into their visions and get people to see exciting possibilities for the future.
Enable Others to Act
5 Key Practices, Kouzes and Posner, LPI One of the 5 key practices established by Kouzes and Pousner, and generated from the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI). Leaders foster collaboration and build spirited teams. They actively involve others, leaders understand that mutual respect is what sustains extraordinary efforts; they strive to create an atmosphere of trust and human dignity. They strengthen others, making each person feel capable and powerful.
Post Hoc Analysis
A statistical analysis that is chosen after the experimental data have been collected, not as a part of the original design of the experiment. Post hoc analysis involves reviewing the data collected for previously unspecified patterns with the purpose of discovering new or additional patterns that can be further analyzed with additional testing. Those results should be succintly explained within the final report but as additional information gathered.
T-Test
A statistical test of the difference of means for two groups. The dependent variable is continuous; the independent is categorical and there are only two groups. The t-test is the most commonly used method to evaluate the differences in means between two groups. For example, the t-test can be used to test for a difference in test scores between a group of patients who were given a drug and a control group who received a placebo. The p-level reported with a t-test represents the probability of error involved in accepting our research hypothesis about the existence of a difference.
Continuous Variable
A variable that is "a number". Age, height, score on an exam, response on a Likert scale on a survey are all continuous variable. It can be ordinal, interval or ratio types. Examples of continuous variables are blood pressure, height, weight, income, and age. Rank-ordering data simply puts the data on an ordinal scale. Ordinal measurements describe order, but not relative size or degree of difference between the items measured. In this scale type, the numbers assigned to objects or events represent the rank order (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.) of the entities assessed. A Likert Scale is a type of ordinal scale and may also use names with an order such as: "bad", "medium", and "good"; or "very satisfied", "satisfied", "neutral", "unsatisfied", "very unsatisfied." An example of an ordinal scale is the result of a horse race, which says only which horses arrived first, second, or third but include no information about race times. In interval measurement the distance between attributes does have meaning. For example, when we measure temperature (in Fahrenheit), the distance from 30-40 is same as distance from 70-80. The interval between values is interpretable. Because of this, it makes sense to compute an average of an interval variable, where it doesn't make sense to do so for ordinal scales. But note that in interval measurement ratios don't make any sense - 80 degrees is not twice as hot as 40 degrees (although the attribute value is twice as large). A ratio variable, has all the properties of an interval variable, and also has a clear definition of 0.0. When the variable equals 0.0, there is none of that variable. Variables like height, weight, enzyme activity are ratio variables. Temperature, expressed in F or C, is not a ratio variable. A temperature of 0.0 on either of those scales does not mean 'no temperature'. However, temperature in degrees Kelvin in a ratio variable, as 0.0 degrees Kelvin really does mean 'no temperature'. Another counter example is pH. It is not a ratio variable, as pH=0 just means 1 molar of H+. and the definition of molar is fairly arbitrary. A pH of 0.0 does not mean 'no acidity' (quite the opposite!). When working with ratio variables, but not interval variables, you can look at the ratio of two measurements. A weight of 4 grams is twice a weight of 2 grams, because weight is a ratio variable. A temperature of 100 degrees C is not twice as hot as 50 degrees C, because temperature C is not a ratio variable. A pH of 3 is not twice as acidic as a pH of 6, because pH is not a ratio variable.
Independent Variable
A variable that is manipulated in an experiment whose changes are considered to be the cause of changes in other variables (the dependent variables); variables selected in a survey for the same purpose. Two Kinds of independent variables 1. Categorical - Ex. Gender, Ethnicity 2. Continuous - Ex. Age, Salary
Dependent Variable
A variable whose changes are the consequences of changes in other variables. We can define the DV as the variable that is being measured. It is this variable that we, as the researchers, look at for change. IF there is a change, we may conclude that the IV affected the DV. The ultimate here is to establish that the IV caused the change in the DV ("cause-effect" relationship).
Analysis Of Variance
ANOVA Test A statistical test of the difference of means for more than two groups. The dependent variable is continuous; the independent is categorical and there are more than two groups. The test is used to determine the impact independent variables have on the dependent variable in a regression analysis.
