a & p exam 3 (part 2)

hypothalamus, and stimulate that temperature center, which is the anterior nucleus. Will cause the hypothalamus to upregulate the bodies temperature.

Fever proteins will travel to the

acetyl-coA, then create FA, and then can piece them all together to create TG

From hepatocytes, they can take glucose, and through glycoysis they can create

facilitated diffusion

Fructose will be absorbed through

cotransport with sodium ions.

Glucose and galactose are absored via

glucose, which can also be sent out to other tissues as well to be used as an energy source.

Glycerole that enters the Hepatocytes can be converted back into

chylomicrons

Golgi apparatus (in fat digestion) takes the triglycerides and it combines them cholesterol, phospholipids, and carrier proteins to form

are another form of special antigen. Are going to be too small to be antigens by themseles, however when they enter the body, the can bind to a host molecule which will then be large enough to trigger an immune response.

Haptens

Abs(antibodies) bind to complement proteins to a pathogen and when it binds complement proteins to at pathogen it triggers inflammation, phagocytosis, clearance, cytolysis (taking a complement protein and sticking it to a pathogenic cell; after it is stuck to a pathogenic cell, it will go through the pathway where complement proteins will help degrade and kill off that pathogenic cell)

How do antibodies "complement fixation" a pathogen

by masking pathogenic regions of antigen- Antibodies can bind and block if it is a small pathogenic region and if you block that region, now that antigen is not pathogenic to your system.

How do antibodies neutralize a pathogen?

Immunocompetent B cells are exposed to antigen. Antigen binds only to B cells with complementary receptors. (each B cell is specific to only one antigen. when an antigen comes in contact, it if matches the receptor, it will bind)

How does recognition work in the humoral pathway?

3 weeks

How long does it take for T cells to mature in the medulla to be release into the blood?

50% of starch (remember, the Duodenum is where the majority of food is digested- but half of all starch is broken before it gets there)

How much start is digested before it even gets to the Duodenum?

Monosaccharides and AA come up through the hepati portal venule, but chylomicons arrive through the hepatic artery instead (because they are coming from the heart)

How to chylomicron reminants enter the liver?

enzymes are using Water to break down the chemical bonds of those larger molecules.

Hydrolysis reactions means (like in salivary amilase)

release chemicals that are going to directly kill that infected cell. The cytotoxic T cells will release perforins, which create a hole in the target cells and release interferons that help neutralize the pathogen. (toxic= releasing perforated knifes)

If Cytotoxic Tc cell is recognizing a MHC I complex and becomes activated by binding to that costimulation, it will

Lymphedema (edema-= buildup of fluid because it had been pushed out of the capillaries)

If there is any type of interference with fluid recovery- if the lymphatic capillaries/vessels are blocked, then this can cause

the fat itself can be stored in the liver and develop fatty liver, resulting in severe liver damage and diminished function of the liver

If there is way too much fat being processed, then

anitbodies that will detect the foreign antigens that you are being transfused with. it will take the foreing RBCs, clumping them together, and allowing the other WBCs to break them down.

If you recieve a blood transfusion of a type that does not match yours, your blood will have

help pick up a little bit of the job that the spleen had it terms of filtering out RBCs because the liver has a lot of sinusoids going through it as well. BUT you do lose the immune system function of the spleen and it is very important.

If you remove the spleen, then the liver can

these antigens are linking these antibody receptors- so it brings two antibodies together, because two different branches of diffrent antibodies are now sharing and are bound to one antigen.

Immunocompetent B cells are exposed to antigen. Antigen binds only to B cells with complementary receptors. each B cell is specific to only one antigen. when an antigen comes in contact, it if matches the receptor, it will bind. More than one antibody can bind to one antigen, and when that happens,

microbe population

In your large intestince, there is a large ________ population

Tissues for storage (store TG) or can be used for energy. ("bad" cholesterol)

VLDL (very low density lipoproteins) can be sent to

anaerobic fermination as they breakdown proucts, as they go through anaerobic fermination they are able to break down things such as cellulose- which is what causes us to have gas

bacteria allow forthe digestion of nutrients that remain after it was unable to digest by our own system. because there is a small amount of O2 available, the bacteria will go through

the digestion of nutrients that remain after it was unable to digest by our own system.

bacteria is important because it allows for

is the Upper right half of our body (right head/ neck and righ chest/ arm)

basically the areas of our body that drain into the Right subclavian vein

Lymphatic system. The lymphatic system ultimatley drains back into the blood through the left subclavian vein- so they eventually make it to the blood it just has to go through the lymphatic system first.

because chylomicrons are too bid to leave through the capillaries of the villus, they leave through the Endothelial gaps of lacteals and are transported through the

hte Cisternal chyli (basically, a large resivoir) (which also merges with the thoracic duct and will also dump into that left subclavian region.)

below the diaphragm/ the entire abdominal region will merge together at

clear fluid, taken up near tissues from blood filtration (fluid that will collect from the filtrate that is filtering out the capillaries due to the hydrostatic pressure)

lymph definition

in almost every tissue except cartilage, bone marrow, and cornea.

lymphatic capillaries are found where?

gaps; endothelial cells (larger than the blood capillaries)( that is how things like cancer cells and larger bacteria are able to get through)

lymphatic capillaries have very large ________ between ________

present of the erythrocytes that are being produced within the marrow itself

the reason that the Bone marrow is red is because of the

the are not fully developed

the reason that we do not want immature T cells to go into the Thymus medulla/ blood vessels is becase

1) Salivary amylase 2) Pancreatic amylase ( 3) Oligiosaccharides and Disaccharides 4) lactose, maltose, and Sucrose (lil Moma Sweet) 5) brush boarder enzymes

** need to know this whole chart so write it out

facilaited diffusion

10) AA leave the epithelial cells by ____________(capillary system), enther the capillary blood in the villi, and are transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein

1) Large polypeptides 2) Pepsin (stomach glands) in presence of HCL 3) small polypeptides, small polypeptides 4) Pancreatic enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase) 5) Amino acids (some dipeptides and tripeptides) 6) Brush border encymes (aminopeptidase, carboxypeptidase, and dipeptidase)

1-6

1) Unemulsified triglycerides 2) lingual lipase 3) Gastric lipase 4) Emulsification by the detergent action of bild salts ducted in from the liver 5) Pancreatic lipases 6) Monoglycerides (or diglycerides with gastric lipase) and fatty acids

1-6

Lacteals

10)

Lymph in the thoracic duct

11)

Diffusion

12)

Via diffusion

7)

cotransport with sodium ions

7) AA are absored via

Triglycerides

8)

cotransport with H+ and hydrolyzed to amino acids within the cells

8) some dipeptides and tripeptides are absored via

Exocytosis

9)

transcytosis

9) Infrequencly, ___________ of small peptides occur

Dermicidin

Antibacterial components of the skin

Heparin (inhibits blood clotting to allow for adequate blood flow the the affect areas)

Basophils secrete _____ which inhibits clotting

Antigen Presenting cells. Purpose is to take the antigen and present it on the cell.

APC stands for. what is its purpose.

producing antibodies

Active immunity refers to producing

It will present antigen to Tc and Th cells Tc cells respond/bind(blue) to MHC-I proteins Th cells respond/bind(blue) to MHC- II proteins -has to then bind to another protein close to the MHC complex- called a costimulation protein(red) (a second checkpoint just to make sure that the cells want to go thorugh a second immune response and that the foreign pathogen is still there) -so when the T cell binds to these two things: MHC and costimulation, then T cell are activated to go through mitosis and rapidly replicate into: cytotoxic t cells and memory cells.

After an antigen has been presented on the cell, it will

lymph nodes- this is when they will then communicate with other cells such as T-cells and activate the immune response

After dendritic (APCs) cells have gone through endocytosis, of these particulates, they can migrate into

Emulsify and surround those pieces of triglycerides (so we have little fluid droplets of triglycerides that are surrounded by phoshoplipids of bile to create mycelles)

After we have fats being broken down in the stomach, bile is added, because CCK signals to the gallbladder to release bile, and that bile will

pancreatic lipase; start breaking down those triglycerides that are inside of the mycelles

After we have fats being broken down in the stomach, bile is added, because CCK signals to the gallbladder to release bile, and that bile will Emulsify and surround those pieces of triglycerides. then we have ______ lipase, which is going to start

Mucus membranes

Eosinophils are present in

antigen-antibody complexes (basically, if it detects and antigen that has been bound to an antibody, it can phagocatyse that and break that down)

Eosinophils can phagocytize

parasites and allergens

Eosinophils help attack things such as

immunoglobulins. Proteins of the globulin family.

Antibodies are

it is clumping antigens (not cells) (think precipitaiton/ rain, is clumping ants) which also allows WBCs to come and phagocatyze them or go through respiratory burst

Antibodies attacking: precipitation is similar to agglutiation, exepct,

-will Tag pathogens for destruction, will typically be extracellular

Antibody-mediated (humoral) adaptive immunity- works how?

that there is more complexity(which is usually a good thing for our immune system), meaning more uniqueness the antibodies have to be to recognize that molecule. which means that there is less of a mistake that it is not your antibody or it is your antibody- will not trigger an autoimmune attack. (if you have a small molecule, then there is less uniquiness and can make more mistakes)

Antigens are going to be larger molecules. Larger molecules is going to mean

an immune response (usually pathogenic, although your RBCs have antigens on them that are not pathogenic, it just tells you your blood type)

Antigens are molecules that can trigger

you are producing antibodies from a vaccination (dead or attenuated pathogens)

Artifical active immunity is when

injection of some sort of immune serum from another person/animal. ex: snakebite . Is temporary

Artificial passive immunity is

develop and mature in bone marrow. B cells can develop and mature into Plasma cells, which are the types of cells that are producing and releasing antibodies (as a part of our adaptive immunity and response)

B lymphocytes (B cells)

chemotaxis (so as basophils are releasing chemicals, the other WBCs will detect the chemicals and will follow the chemicals towards the higher concentration gradient- which meant that they are traveling toward this active site)

Basophils move through

the mobility of other WBCs by secreteing chemicals that attract other WBCs. typicall are attracting and activating Neutrophils and Eosinophils (chemotaxis)

Basophils primarily aid in

C3a and C3b

C3 (compliment system) is inactive until it is activated; it is then split into two active forms:

C3a and C3b and it is then active.

C3 is inative until it gets broken down into

Opsonization (the coating allows for more efficient opsonization)

C3B Coating the microbes during phagocytosis is called

inflammation

C3a will trigger

Cytolysis. C3b will break apart into different inactive complement proteins and those will recruit more complement proteins(a different set)

C3b is involved in ______ pathway. How?

when there are intracellular pathogens that antigens cannot access because they are inside of the cell. ex: viral particles, certain bacteria

Cell-mediated adaptive immunity is

Lipogenesis- the formation of fat

Chylomicron remnants that make their way to the liver (how triglycerides make their way into the hepatocytes) -Additionally, we usually have a large intake of carbohydrates when we are consuming food as well- a lot of monosaccharides from carb digestion directly entering the liver from the small intestine. -If we have a lot of glucose that gets transported to the hepatocytes, then the hepatocytes can go through

Exocytosis

Chylomicrons are so large that they have to leave through

Has to go through exocytosis to release those chylomicrons into that extracellular fluid. they are too big to fit into the capillaries- they would bounce right off if they tried. BUT, the gaps are large enough in the Lacteals so that the chylomicrons can pass into the lacteals of the lymphatic system.

Chylomicrons will leave the golgi through a vessicle, and the vessicle

kill infected cell themselves (toxic= kill)

Cytotoxic Tc cells do what?

on the skin: Epidermis, mucous membranes, lymph organs Dendritic cells will alert immune system to pathogens- pathogens that are breaching our body surfaces (APCs)

Dendritic cells

lectin pathway include plasma proteins (pLasma Lectin) will recognize sugars on microbial cells (think lectins in beans/ carbs/sugar) they are binding to sugars on microbial cells. If these plasma proteins bind to sugars on the micrbial cells, it will trigger a reaction cascade and produce more C3b (alternative school is a cascade of more B's and not A's)

During the Lectin pathway of the compliment system will work similarly to the alternative pathway, however

free radicals and H2o2(hydrogen peroxide) and also secrete neurotoxins for larger parasites

Eosinophils also kill parasites by using

there needs to be some sort of reaction. C3b will take that antigen-antibody complex and bind it to RBCs. the Rbcs will take the antigen-antibody complex to lypmhatic organs such as the liver and spleen which help remove those complexes and break down pathogen that are associated with those complexes. they will digest those pathogens from the RBCs. CB3 will take antibodies bound to antigens, will attach to RBCs, and send them off towards the liver and the spleen and take care of the rest, will digest the pathogens from that RBC.

Explain Immune clearance when antibodies bind to antigens, it is a signal that

part of bile is phospholipids and bile salts will surround the small pieces of fat that has been broken down in the stomach (like detergent) it prevents the small pieces from getting back together into larger pieves.

Explain emulsificaiton

Nonspecific (ex: skin, antiviral effects of liver)

Innate immunity is ______________. is a Broad spectrum defense.

memory (Innate immunity is what you are born with so that's what you get)

Innate immunity lacks ________. it is not "easier" to defend with more exposure

protein; cells; a virus

Interferons are ____ products secreted by ______, usually when they are infected by _____

different cells that are in different states.

Interferons are released by infected cell and can communicate with a wide variety of

natural killer cells and macrophages

Interferons can bind to ______ and _______ and can activate them

1) signal uninfected cells to destroy RNA and reduce protein synthesis (only produce proteins that are antivirals; basically protecting itself incase it were to become infected) 2) signal neighboring infected to cells to undergo apoptosis(programmed cell death)- to prevent even more release of the virus 3) Activate immune cells (can travel to receptors on immunce cells and trigger an immune response)

Interferons(red dots) can do one of three things:

Nk cells, T cells (most common), and B cells (t and B cells are part of the adaptive immunity) NK cells are part of innate immunity

Lymphocytes include what kind of cells?

MHC I= all cells that have a nucleus MHC II= on antigen-presentig cells

MHC I vs MHC II

-Epithelial barriers (skin, mucus membranes) -Leukocytes, macrophages, antimicrobial proteins, killer cells, fever, inflammation (for pathogens getting through first line) -adaptive immunity

Lines of defense (3)

Hyaluronic acid. is a viscous and thick material which makes it difficult for microbes to move. is also low in pH to help lower the bacterial growth

Loose areolar tissue (top section of the dermis) produces ____________. Which is what kind of material????

an ID tag for every single cell in your body.

MHCs are important because they serve as

typically monocytes that have transformed into macrophages- monocyte that have left the blood and entered into connective tissue. the macrophages crawl around/ patron the connective tissue for any type of suspicious material like bacteria, debris, dead neutrophils, and foreign material and will go through phagocytosis. will present any fragments/particulates as antigens to T cells, and the T cells will trigger the rest of that immune response.

Macrophages

RBC fragments that ruptured in the red region.

Macrophages can also cleanup

don't leave the Thymus because they don't pass the test.

Majority of the T cells that make it to the thymus.....

that some of the ends of the cells are actually sticking into the inside of that lymphatic vessel; and the overlapping cells create valves- which prevent the back flow of lymph

Many endothelial cells in Lymphatic Vessels overlap, meaning

Have no mitochondria

Mature RBCs are efficient at conserving transported oxygen becay they _________

quick/fast production in a few days (it is so effective that the second time you are exposed to it, there is little effect from antigen)

Memory cells: With a 2nd exposure to the same pathogen, memory B cells (mostly in lymph nodes) will have very _____ production

3-6 days, ~ 10 days.

Memory cells: with the 1st exposure, antibodies appear in the body after __________ days. The absolute Peak producting begins _______

connective tissue; macrophages (which can help phagocatize pathogens and help clean up infected area/dean neutrophils)

Monocytes travel through the blood and when they leave the blood and are attracted to a particular region and enter the ________, in which they can develop into ______

infected cells (whole goal is to destroy them before they release the replicated viruses)

NK cells and macrophages can destory

bind to pathogens (basically hijacking that cell's DNA system, transcription and translation mechanisms that create the viral proteins)

NK cells have activating receptors that will

you are producing antibodies because you have been naturally exposed to some sort of pathogen.

Natural active immunity(producing antiboides) is when

getting(not producing) antibodies from another person thorugh fetus/placenta, and breast feeding. Temporary

Natural passive immunity is

Recruit

Neutrophils can also release chemicals that _______ more neutrophils and macrophages

receptor-mediated endocytosis of the B cells and digest the antigens through lysozome action

Once B cells are exposed to antigen and more than one antibody binds to one antigen, then those are linking antibody receptors- therefore brining two different branches of different antibodies sharing one antigen. so when the antibody receptors are linked, then that triggers

that cell surface of the B cell, and those antigen fragments are going to be bound to MHC II proteins. (remember, the B cells were a specific type of antigen presenting cell, which means that they have these MHC II proteins) in sum, the fragments have been broken down, transported to MHC II proteins, and are presented on that cell

Once B cells are exposed to antigen and more than one antibody binds to one antigen, then those are linking antibody receptors- therefore brining two different branches of different antibodies sharing one antigen. so when the antibody receptors are linked, then that triggers receptor-mediated endocytosis of the B cells and digest the antigens through lysozome action. Those fragments that have been generated, are going to be sent to

Lipoprotein Lipase (anchored to those endothelial cells). and if a chylomicron comes in contact with a Lipoprotein Lipase(the function of Lipase is to break down tryglycerides). So, those Lipoprotein Lipase will begin breaking down some of thoe Triglycerides in the Chylomicrons into smaller FA

Once chylomicrons are in systemic circulation, along endothelial cells are protein complexes, which contains an enzymes called

right atrium of the heart through the superior vena cava, goes through pulmonary circulation, then chylomicrons have to get sent out to the systemic tissues through the aorta

Once chylomicrons get dumped through the left subclavian vein, that enters the

Triglycerides; Golgi apparatus (the golgi apparatus takes the triglycerides and it combines them with chloesterol, phospholipids, and carrier proteins)

Once fatty acids and monoglycerides enter brush border cells, the endoplasmic reticulum recombines them back into _____ and then get sent to

emulsification (part of bile is phospholipids and bile salts will surround the small pieces of fat that has been broken down in the stomach)

Once food enters the duodenum, if there is enough fat, it will release a hormone called CCK. one of the functions of CCK is to tell the gallbladder to release its bile that it has been storing. the function of bile is

CCK (Cholecystokinin) which travels to the gallbladder and the pancrease. when it gets to the gallbladder, it tell it to release bile that it has been storing. when it gets to the pancrase to realease its pancreatic juices with its digestive enzymes.

Once food enters the duodenum, if there is enough fat, it will release a hormone called _______. what does the hormone do?

micelles (little pieces of fat that are surrounded by phospholipids) and now the pancreatic lipase have more surface area to break them down into fatty acids - this is done through hydrolysis (lipase enzymes are using water to break down triglycerides into fatty acids and monoglycerides)

Once we have emulsificaiton, we creates

Tricuspid and pulmonary valves

Oxygen-poor blood passes through the

when you are not producing antibodies, but you are getting the antibodies from another source. will typically be temporary

Passive immunity is

apoptosis (if you pop your toes, then go through suicide)

Programmed called death=

enzymes that break down proteins (pro teasers will eat a lot of protein)

Proteases are

Proteases (unlike carbs, there is NO protease enzymes found in saliva) (pro teasers eat a lot of protein)

Protein is similar to carb digestion. The Enzymes that break down proteins are called

Constant regions- have the same exact type of Amino acid sequence between different antibodies.

Purple regions are

more T cells and more T memory cells

Recognition: after T cell has been activated, it created

Axial skeleton, and proximal heads of humerus and femur

Red Bone marrow is specific to

all classes of formed elements of the blood including WBCs, RBCs, and platelets

Red bone marrow produces

Sinuses where RBCs will pass through.

Red pulp of the spleen consists of

produce a part of the connective tissue framework of the lymphatic system. also like the other lymphatic cells, Reticular cells can detect antigents and present them to the immune system

Reticular cells

chylomicrons (white balls in picture) to squeese through

Sinusoids have very large gaps for thinks like plasma proteins and

modified, used for metabolism, or after modification they can be send out of the liver to be used by other cells; essentially Hepatocytes are processing the produce of digestion

Space of Disse is where blood plasma is going to accumulate such as chylomicrons as well as AA and monosaccharides and can be absorbed in the liver through hepatocytes where they can be

removal of the spleen. is not common in modern medicine but does occur for reasons like cancer, tumors, or ruptures of the spleen.

Splenectomy is what? why does it happen?

Pancreatic amylase. Pancrease is in close proximity to the duodenum, and it contains acinar cells, which produce a wide variety of digestive enzymes including pacreatic amylase

Starch digestions: after salivary amylase breaks down starch in the mouth, it will enter the stomach and start churning that food. Once bolus has been churned around, it is called chyme, which will first go through the pyloric sphincter, and the enter the small intestine which is the duodenum, now what helps break starch down more?

will develop and be produced in bone marrow, but will Mature in the Thymus.

T lymphocytes (t cells)

Hemopoietic stem cells

T-cells (T lymphocytes) are formed in Red Bone Marrow by

directly

T-cells _______ attack infected/foreign cells

antigen. lymphatic tissues and organs where the undergo further actions.

T-cells can be activated if they are presented with an ________ and they will travel to ________

they are actually bound to an antigen- making sure it is a pathogenic antigen (not a harmless one) and then T-cells will initiate an immune response. So, an immune response will occur once T-cells detect an antigen.

T-cells roam araound, monitoring, and testing these APCs to make sure that

first, the Cortex of the thymus- when the immature cells arrive at the cortex, the epithelial cells are going to test to make sure they have the right receptors.

T-cells will develop in red bone marrow(by hemopoietic stem cells) and will travel to

VLDL (very low density lipoprotein. "bad cholesterol")

TG in the liver can be repackaged and sent to other tissues. Hepatocytes can package TG into units that we call

chemicals/ compounds called inTerleukins that stimulate multiple forms of attack. the interleukins will attract neutrophils as well as NK cells and macrophages. another action of interleukin is to stimulate T and B cell mitosis and development.

Th cells that recognized MHC II complex, those helper t cells are going to release

fever proteins

The neutrophils and macrophages- part of the innate immune system. When they are activated (like things like basophils), they will release

the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum.

The stomach releases hydrochloric acid which is a strong enough acid to activate lingual lipase; therefore, once in the stomach gastric lipase and lingual lipase will both work together to start breaking down fat in the stomach. so the stomach will start digesting fat, will churn all of the food and create chyme, and will send the chyme through

Cortex (t cells mostly develop in bone marrow)

in the Thymus, T cells mature in the

hepatic portal triad

in the corner of each heaptic lobule is

we have all of the intercostal trunks from the ribs merging with the large duct that is going all the way up, all of the trunks will merge with that thoracic duct; after everything merges, it maintains that name of the thoracic duct will will dump into that left subclavian vein and dump into the superior vena cava.

Thoaracic duct is where

Cholsterol, a little bit of Triglyceride remaining, and phospholipids and transport proteins. so what is left after Liposprotein Lipase activity is Chylomicron reminants

Triglycerides are broken down by Lipoprotein Lipase, but it does not break down every single triglyceride. So what is left after FA diffuse into tissue, is

LDL (bad cholesterol). because if there is an abundance of LDLs in your circulation, that means that there are a lot of cholesterol and triglycerides that are being sent to your bodies tissues; is an indication that there are too many triglycerides and too much cholesterol in your system

VLDL is also known as _____. because

Collecting ducts; subclavian veins

_______ are the largest of the lymphatic vessels and they empty into the _________

collecting ducts

________ are what ultamently send the lymp back into the blood where we have the subclavian vein

pancreatic lipase. Fatty acids and monoglycerides

_________ will breakdown micelles into ______

Macrophages (we need macrophages to regulate any type of irregular production)

__________ are also found in red bone marrow. Their purpose is to break down irregular RBCs.

Keratinocytes; Defensins

__________________ in the epidermis create ______ which are anti pathogenic substances; will be enhanced by Vitamin D

Interferons (interferon/ interfering to alert)

______are secreted by cells infected with viruses, alerting neighboring cells or triggering apoptosis infected neighboring cells.

Glycerole backbone and 3 FA chains (tri)

a Triglycerides consists of

1) Phagocytosis (engulf an antigen) 2) Can break it up through the lysosome action- and when they break it up into smaller fragments, those fragments will be bound to proteins complexes that are on the cell surface called MHC proteins(ID tag). 3) MHCs will bind to these antigen fragments,

a cell that is antigen presenting, can go through

there is some sort of immune response that your body is initiating, the lymphocytes can leave those lymph nodes if they are stimulated to, so they can travel to the blood and go towards where that site of infection is. (if you have a lot of lymphocytes leaving the nodes at once, it will also cause a cloudy white color because of all of the lymphocytes that are densely collected together. )

a large number of lymphocytes can leave the nodes if

Exfoliation (and dead skin cells are breaking off an can carry those microbes with it); therefore, exfoliation is preventing a lot of microbial growth

a lot of skin go through _______; where you are constantly abrading the skin

Picks up any extra fluid that gets pushed out of the blood that the capillaries do not pick back up (remember, as blood is pushing through capillaries near the tissues, the large/high hydrostatic pressure is pushing fluid out through those endothelial cells - usually there is a little bit of fluid that does not get picked up by the capillaries, so the lymphatic system will pick up the extra extracellular fluid, that has been produced from the hydrostatis pressure from the blood capillaries; it helps recycle that fluid back into the blood)

a major function of lymphatic system is that it cleans up. How?

Respiratory burst

a nonspecfific immune response can include

shortness of breath

a patient is experiencing localized edemas. Tests indicate normal protein levels, healthy kidney levels, and readings of 95 mL blood supply from the pulmonary trunk and 75 mL blood supply from aorta. what symptoms would you expect?

~10 days (that's why they say about two weeks)

a vaccine starts to become effective when?

450

about how many lymph nodes are in adults?

Antibodies and special B cells that are producing the antibodies and monitoring for pathogens.

adaptive immunity does create memory in the form of

defeat pathogens but also works to create immune memory (as the name suggests, adapts to pathogens); will develop antibodies against those pathogens so that next time you come in contact there is a faster response time

adaptive immunity works to

Th cells are goin to bind to the MHC II complex (because T helper cells are associated with MHC II), so now, those T helper cells are going to cause the cloning of more B cells

after B cells digest and break down antigens, they have fragments that will be sent to that cell surface of the B cell, and those fragements will be bound to MHC II proteins and are presented on that cell for T cells, now.

other tissues where they can be used as an energy source.

after Hepatocytes convert FA into ketone bodies, those ketone bodies can be sent out to

Carbon dioxide and water, as well as a little bit of ATP and heat. Also, the coenzymes such as FAD and NAD and picking up a lot of H+, so that they can go through that electron transport chain.

after Ketones and Glucose get transported back into other tissues, they can both be converted back into Acetyl Coa and go trough the citric acid cycle and generate

Medulla of the thymus. instead of epithelial cells, Macrophages are giving the test.

after T cells pass the cortex test, they will pass to the

through negative selection- because what they want to see, is NO reaction. The reason that they do not want to see a reaction, is because those macrophages are presenting these immature T cells with your bodies own antigens. Making sure that you do not have an autoimmune attack

after T celss pass the cortex and then enter the medulla of the Thymus, macrophages will give the next test. How is this tested?

Plasma cells(going to produce antibodies specific to that orgitional antigen that were specific to that B cell- then will circulate though the body and initate an attack) and some memory cells (will maintain that long term memory

after antigen recongition, antgen presentation, and clonal selection, Those B cells that started to divide will becomes

15% are going to get absorbed by the lymphatic capillaries and the capillaries will transport them into the lymphatic vessels and eventually circulate that fluid back into the blood circulation.

after capillaries have high hydrostatic pressure, it pushed out the fluid and are left with larger solutes; this creates an osmolarity that pulls water back in as blood is leaving the capillaries back to the heart. 85% get reabsorbed into the capillaries, which means that

start breaking down protein in the stomach and form chyme, and pass that chyme through the Pyloric sphincter into the duodenum

after hydrochloric acid activates pepsinogin into pepsin, pepsin will do what?

the pancreas will start releasing digestive enzymes like trypsin and will start breaking down protein there and will break down Polypeptide into oligopeptides

after hydrochloric acid activates pepsinogin into pepsin, pepsin will start breaking down protein in the stomach and form chyme, and pass that chyme through the Pyloric sphincter into the duodenum. once chyme has entered the duodenum,

they don't recieve a signal to save their life, but they can "retake" that test. At that point, the T cells that are immature, can go through somatic recombination, can reshuffle their DNA to create different receptors that might detect and pick up those antigens. (typically, ther are only allowed two different tires. So if they fail on the second try those cells are killed)

after immature cells arrive at the Thymus, epithelial cells are going to test to make sure they have the right receptors. -therefore epithelial cells have a bunch of antigens and are basically going to present those antigens to the immature T cells to makes sure they have the antigens that they want them to react to. -If immature T cells DO NOT have receptors and they DO NOT bind to antigens being presented to them,

then they recieve a tag called life-sparing singal (immunocompetent) (do pass the test and can move onto the next test)

after immature cells arrive at the Thymus, epithelial cells are going to test to make sure they have the right receptors. -therefore epithelial cells have a bunch of antigens and are basically going to present those antigens to the immature T cells to makes sure they have the antigens that they want them to react to. -If immature T cells DO have receptors and they DO bind to antigens being presented to them,

use all of those H+ that were carreid by coenzymes and allow for the generation of allot of ATP (this happens between meals when you dont have a lof of glucose to use)

after ketones and glucose get converted into Acytle-coa, go though the citric acid cycle, and the Coenzymes such as FAD and NAD pick up H+ and go thorugh the electron transport chian, the electron transport chain will then

can both be converted into Acetyl Coa, which will then go through the citric acid cycle

after meals, after FA and glycerol in the blodo get broken down into ketones and glucose, what happens when Ketones and Glucose get transported back into other tissues?

Diffuse into the brush border

after micelles are broken down by pancreatic lipase they are broken down into fatty acids and monoglycerides which will then

Oligopeptides and dipeptides into amino acids

after the somach and duodenum break down polypeptides into oligiopeptides, the brush border enzymes will break down

They will be absorbed into the blood capillaries

after the somach and duodenum break down polypeptides into oligiopeptides, the brush border enzymes will break down Oligopeptides and dipeptides into amino acids. Once the amino acids enter the bursh border epithelial cells,

by leaving the epithelial cells via faciliated diffusion, either the capillary blood in the villi, and are transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein.

all monosaccharides are absored

Undifferentiated blood cells. And when colony stimulating factors are released from the reticular cells, they will cause the blue cells to differentiate into various types of WBCs. (whatever type of stimulating factor is being released will dictate what type of blood cell it becomes)

all of the blue cells around the reticular cells, are all

right jugualar trunk, right subclavian runk, right bronchiomediastinal trunk-- merge into right lymphatic duct Then the right lympatic duct will dunk it into the right subclavian vein and then down into the superior vena cava to go into the heart to be circulated everywhere else.

all of the large trunks: (on the right side) _________ merge into

Drugs and Toxins - because if you consume these, they can help with the removal of those toxins if possible

another important funciton of Hepatocytes is metabolism and modification of

Form a hole in cell membranes. And when the cell forms a hole, it has a lot of issues maintaining homeostasis because Ions and other substances are going to leak out

as C3b goes through Cytolysis pathway. C3b will break apart into different inactive complement proteins and those will recruit a different set of complement proteins. And the purpose of recruiting all of these different complement proteins is to

pass or rupture when they're pushed through sinusoids of endothelial cells- that is how the spleen basically tests to see if they are old or relatively new and if they need to be replaced (if RBC is old it will rupture as it passes through the endothelial cell, which will stimulate the cleanup of the RBC and the need to produce more)

as RBcs are passing through sinuses (red pulp of spleen), they will either

funnel blood into the sinusoid where it is also being filtered by the hepatocytes

as chylomicrons arrive through the hepatic artery, they will

there are specialized monocytes and macrophages that will go through phagocytosis to breakdown and digest that bacteria to eliminate that.

as vessels are passing through lymph nodes, if there is bacteria found in the lymph, then

you can start mobilizing glycerol and FA which the liver can modify into ketones and glucose, turn into Acetyl-CoA, go through the citric acid cycle, and allow a lot of the coenzymes to carry a lot of H+ atoms to go through the Electron transport chain where it can generate a lot of ATP

between meals, how to you get more energy when you dont have glucose to use?

blood thymus barrier. Because if we have immature T cells in the cortex, we want to make sure that immature T cells don't make it into the blood. There is a lot of blood vessels in the medulla of the Thymus

between the cortex and the medulla in the thymus is a _______. why?

mouth; stomach

carbohydrate digesting begins in the ________ and protein digestion begins in the _________

the life cycle that the pathogen is in.

cell-mediated and antibody-mediated can differ based on

cell-mediated is intracellular Antibody-mediated(humoral) is extracellular

cell-mediated vs antibody mediated (humoral)

a chain of monosaccharides bound by a beta link- our digestive enzymes can not break that bond. (bacteria have to break down beta links)

cellulose(we can't digest) is basically

liver; circulate blood(are constantly circulating throughout the blood)

compliment system include proteins that are synthesized by the ______ and circulate _________

a pathogen activates them.

compliment system proteins circulate blood and are inactive until

that something is being transported with something else

cotransport means

C3b, microbes (coating of microbes is called opsonization)

during Phagocytosis, ______ are going to coat _______

Increasing the surface area that these pancreatic lipases have to workon.

during emulsificaiton, you are breaking down larger pieces of fat into smaller pieces. What is the purpose of breaking them down?

Pepsinogen which is an inactivated form of pepsin. Hydrochloric acid will also be released- HCL is what activates pepsin to form pepsinogen.

during protein digestion, there are specialized cells in the stomach that are going to release ________

C3 is circulating throughout the blood and will be activated when it binds to any sort of pathogen that it can bind to (bacteria or other pathogens that are present) C3b will then bind to targets, which will cause a reaction cascade, to produce more C3b

during the Alternetive pathway of the compliement system

gaps between the sinusoid and the hepatocytes (being squeesed through) and are now in the space between the sinusoid and hepatocytes, which we call the space of Disse

essentially, blood flows through the sinusoid, and blood plasma is being filtered through endothelial cells into

left thoracic trunks and the lower trunks(cisterna chyli) will all merge into a larger duct that empty into the left subclavian vein- this means that left subclavian vein is recieving Majority of the lymph from the lymphatic system, and the right side receives relatively little.

every lymphatic fluid component of the abdominal region are going to basically go into

Dendritic cells, macrophages, B cells

examples of APCs (antigen-presenting cells) are

Poison ivy, pet dander, penicillin (these all MUST bind to a host molecule to trigger an immune response)

examples of Haptens are

projections in the small inestine- and within each villus, brush boarder cells are surrounding each villus and extendinng upwards into the villus are capillary networks that eventrually transition into venules. the monosaccharides that are leaving that basal surface, of these brush boarder cells will be absorbed into the capillaries and leave through the venules and will go through the hepatic portal system to the liver. so the first target of absorption is the liver.

explain drawing:

c3a (inflammation) 1) splinter enters and is full of bacteria 2) will sitmulate basophils to create an inflammatory chemicals- and those chemicals will activate and attract 3) chemicals such as neutrophils and macrophages which will help come in and help break down that bacteria that is present.

explain picture

The Neutrophil rapidly absorbs oxygen and reduces its Os-, which reacts with H+ to form Hydrogen Peroxide (H2o2)

explain the respiratory burs

1) viral particles will be presented on the surface of the cell 2) Tc will respond to that MHC complex (if it were a specific antigen cell like a macrophage, dendtritic cell, or B cell, then it would respond to MHC-II which will then activate helper T-cells)

explain what happens in a viral infeciton

broad (protects us against a wide range of pathogens)

fever is a _______ spectrum defense

the blood capillaries; hydrostatic pressure (static is out)

fluid is filtered from _______, due to ______

Liver Left subclavian vein

food like AA, and monosaccharides will first be delivered to ______ by chylomicrons will first be delivered to _________

dietary fiber

food particles that we can not digest/undigested food going through digestive tract is

hormone receptors that are on the surface of the fat cells (called hormone sensitive receptors because they are detecting a difference in hormones)

hours after a meal, the decreaes in glucose causes the insulin to decreaes, which is going to stimulate

hormone sensitive lipase (green packman)(that is the type of lipase that is inside of the fat cells)

hours after a meal, the decreaes in glucose causes the insulin to decreaes, which is going to stimulate hormone sensitive receptors, which are going to activate

the lipase (green packman) is going to break down TG into FAs + glycerol

hours after a meal, the decreaes in glucose causes the insulin to decreaes, which is going to stimulate hormone sensitive receptors, which are going to activate hormone sensitive lipase. Once Hormone Sensitive Lipase is activated, then

leave that fat cell and can then be transported through the blood to other tissues that might need it for an energy source. very hydrophobic, so they will rely on transport proteins.

hours after a meal, when glucose and insulin drops, hormone sensiive receptors will activate hormone sensitive lipase. Once activated, lipase will break down TG into FAs and glycerol, which will then

hydrophobic, so they rely on transport proteins like Albumin to go to other tissues including the liver (because FA are a good source of energy)

hours after a meal, when glucose and insulin drops, hormone sensiive receptors will activate hormone sensitive lipase. Once activated, lipase will break down TG into FAs and glycerol, which will then leave the fat cell and be transported thorugh the blood to other tissues that might need it for an energy source. They are very ______ so they will rely on________, like

the are closed at one end (they do not connect or make a capillary bed like arterioles and venules) have dead ends that are going to be intertwined with the net-like capillary bed. remember, the capillary bed is where fluid is getting pushed out due to hydrostatic pressure and into the lymph capillaries. therefore, the dead ends of the lymph capillaries is where we have absorption of the fluid that does not go into the capillary bed (15% of fluid that does not get reabsorbed into capillaries) .

how are the lymphatic capillaries appeared?

antibodies will bind to a pathogenic cell and clump together. -by the clumping of enemy cells -Immobilizes microbes- prevents spread; slows down the spread -Phagocytosis from macrophages and neutrophils (or respiratory burst) brining the pathogenic cells to one dense areas so that the other WBCs are more efficient at breaking them down.

how do antibodies "agglutinate" a pathogen?

it dumps into the subclavian vein

how doe the lymphatic system merge with out circulatory system?

C3a will stimulate Basophils and trigger inflammatory chemicals (3 looks like a B)

how does C3a cause inflammation?

enhancing Defensins on the skin (created by keratinocytes)

how does Vitamin D help with immunity?

It is being secreted by the acinar cells of the pancreae. Pancreatic amylase will travel through the pancreatic duct and will be sent into the duodenum and pancreatic amylase is just another amylase enzyme that will continue breaking down carbohydrates that have now reached to duodenum.

how does pancreatic amylase start?

breaking the bond between the glycerol backbone and each fatty acid. -you can break all three of those bonds so that you create one glycerole molecules and three FA chains OR -you can break 2/3 so you get is 2 separate FA chains and 1 monoglyceride.

how does pancreatic lipase breakdown triglycerides? what are the possible results?

Cortex= positive selection Medulla= negative selection

how is testing done different from the cortex of the Thymus from the medula of the Thymus?

10 billion- 1 trillion (unique variable regions)

how many different unique antibodies are there?

often times, the respiratory burst is excecuted when there are a lot of pathogens outside the neutrophil (usually phagocytosis is only when there are a few pathogens outside the neutrophil) and the Lysosomes empty their contents/enzymes into the Extra cellular fluid

how to neutrophils eliminate pathogens through repiratory burst?

Phagocytosis and digestion, Repspiratory burst, and Recruit more neutrophils and macrophages

how to neutrophils eliminate pathogens?

a combination of: Somatic recombination(DNA can recombine to form different combinations) or High mutation rate (so if the are of DNA that is coding for antibodies is under a high rate of mutation, it will change rapidly to allow for different variable regions to be produced)

how to we make so many antibody proteins (10 billion- 1 trillion) if we do not have that much DNA?

antibodies

humoral immunity will mostly involve

WBCs that include: macrophages, antimicrobial proteins, Leukocytes, killer cells as well as fever and inflammation (these are all specifically for pathogens that get through that first line of defense)

if a pathogen is able to get through the epithelial barrier, our second line of defense is

Endocytosis; receptor- mediated endocytosis (** not just simple phagocytosis- is a little bit more specific) (Dendritic/ Endocytosis)

if dendritic cells do find some particulates that will be a pathogen, or anything else like that, it can go through

Adaptive immunity

if pathogens get through epithelial barrier, and WBCs, our THIRD defense is

no immunity is developed

if the thymus is removed in newborns, then

C3b. taking antigens and clearing them out of the area/ physically remove them

immune clearance is done through ____, which is

Delay between SA and AV nodes

in a typical ECG the PR segment corresponds to

1. Antigen Presentation; the antigen has to be presented on the surface of the cell.

in cell-mediated immunity, the first step of recognition is

macrophages(1) (going through phagocytosis of any large particulates such as bacterial cells that might be in the lymph) and reticular fibers(2) (hairlike structures) (provide a framework for the structure of the lymphatic vessel; they can also present antigens of foreign objects to our immune system, mostly to the T cells found in the nodules)

in the lighter blue region/ matrix of the lymph nodes, we have

glycerol; FA

in the liver _______, are converted to clusoe and _______are converted into ketone bodies, both of which can enter the citric aid cycle as Acetyl-CoA

be transformed into macrophages which can then attack pathogens and repair tissues

in white pulp in the spleen, there are lymphocytes that include monocytes for emergencies, which will

a lifetime of medicine to boost their immune system and help prevent any type of infections because their immune systems are permanently damaged.

individuals who lose their spleen typically have to be on

Memory cells (which serves as a source of memory, so next time you are infected with a pathogen, you have a much faster response)

instead of plasma cell, the OTHER type of developed B cell are

collecting vessels, then the collecting vessels merge into lymphatic trunks, and when we have multiple vessels merging, we have collecting ducts.

lymph capillaries merge into

endothelial cells(red) (as expected) but there are reticular cells (purple)

lining the sinusoids are

food that we digest is absorbed by those simple columnar cells, and will leave the base of the cell/ basal surface and is now in the extracellular space, below the simple columnar cells and are around blood capillaries/ and green lacteal (remember, amino acids and monosaccharides can be directly absorbed in blood capillaries and can be directly absorbed in the liver through the hepatic portal system- remember the products of fat digestion are chylomicrons( which are too large to go into the blood capillaries but the leacteals do have enough space for them to pass); therefore, the products of fat digestion have to enter the lymphatic system before it can enter the circulatory system)

lipid absorption is another function of the lymphatic system. how?

hormone (that get pushed out of the blood), bacteria, cancer cells, etc.

lymph can also include things like

clear (for example, lymph that is close the to small intestine, will be cloudy/yellow due to all of the chylomicrons from all of the triglycerides)

lymph can change appearance depending on place and time, but usually it is

will pick up foreign cells and chemicals and transported throughout the lymphatic system. As it is being transported throughout the lymphatic system, it will pass through a series of multiple lymph nodes on their way back to the blood circulation , and every time that fluid passes through the lymph nodes, the lymph nodes are filled with immune cells that are detecting and monitoring that fluid that is flowing through and are ready to act on anything that acts like a pathogen or something that needs to be destroyed that may be harmful in the fluid.

lymphatic system is associated with the immune system. How?

breakdown their nuclei (remember, RBCs don't have nucleus and they also don't have most of their organelles such as mitochondria; the breakdown is aided by macrophages that are in the bone marrow. So they are important in the maturation of RBCs as well)

macrophages break down irregular RBCs as well as help the RBCs do what?

stomach

mechanical digestion can break down proteins, but there is no chemical digestion of proteins until it reaches the

Ketone Bodies

metween meals, FA and glycerol are traveling through the blood bound to transport proteins such as Albumin will enter the liver through hepatocytes. Hepatocytes will conver FA into

triglycerides surrounded by phospholipids and bile salts

micelles are

connective tissue

most neutrophils are going to be present in

lysozome

neutrophils eliminate pathogens through phagocytosis and digestion through the aid of

get recombined into triglycerides in the endoplasmic reticulum and will get send to the Golgi apparatus

once FA and MG diffuse into brush border cell, they will

diffuse through endothelial cells and enter into tissues that might need FA as a source of energy or to be stored

once Lipoprotein Lipase will begin breaking down some of those Triglycerides in the Chylomicrons into smaller FA, they wiill

Epithelial barriers: our skin and mucus membranes

our first line of defense to pathogens is

bacteria, viruses, Fungi, other microbes, Toxins, Allergens

our immune system can be activated to exposure to:

hydrolysis (with the help of water)

pancreatic lipase breaks down triglycerides through

Chylomicrons (products of fat digestion enter the lymphatic system)

products of fat digestion- have a lot of triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids. Can't pass through blood capillaries because they are too large but CAN pass through lacteals.

chemotaxis

the process by which neutrophils and other WBCs are attracted to an inflammatory site is called

colony-stimulating factors (CSF); and the CSF will stimulate the formation of various leukocytes

reticular cells can secrete _______, which causes

right subclavian vein

right lymphatic duct will empty into

"hallways of the blood vessel"; they're very wide and have larger gaps between the endothelial cells than other types of capillary systems.

sinusoids are basically large

Chylomicron remnants AND if we have an abundance of glucose (lipogenesis)

so we get TG in the liver from

The liver through the hepatic arteries because they are coming from the heart instead of direcly from the digestive system.

so what is left after Liposprotein Lipase activity is Chylomicron reminants. So they are still going through systemic circulation and will eventually be sent to

Apha links

starch (can digest) is

t-cells travel to the corex of the thymus. Must be positively selected showing that it is immunocompetent. if they are then they travel to the meculla of the cortex. they are negative selected to make sure that they dont react with their own antigens causing an autoimmune attack.

steps of the t-cells passing the tests through the Thymus

Brush border cells with microvilli (where monosaccharides and AA will diffuse in and leave the capillaries and FA will go through the lacteals)

surrounding each villus (SI) is

lactic and fatty acids

sweat glands and sebaceous glands also secretes _________ to lower the pH of the skin- which makes it difficult for microbial growth to occur.

Blood rushing into closed valves

the "lubb" and "dubb" sounds of the heart beat are due to ______

grabbing cholesterol, carrier proteins, and other phospholipids that are found within the cell, and combining them all together to form Chylomicrons

the Golgi apparatus will take the Triglycerides and

Extracellular fluid

the ______ provides most calcium needed for myocardial contraction

C3b; immune clearance and opsonization

the alternative and lectin pahtways generate larger quantities of _______, which can stimulate __________

cleanse the lymph and activate any immune cells if they need to

the purpose of lymph nodes are

dump/drain things into major regions or portions into the body (ex: jugular, subclavian, intercostal, intestinal, and lumbar trunks) (anytime you see the word trunk in regard to the lymphatic system, it just means that there have been a lot of collecting vessels in a particular part of the body that have merged together into a larger vessel called the trunk.

the purpose of trunks are to

dump the contents into a lymph node and then on the other side of the lymph nodes, there is another collecting vessel that will leave and transport the lymph away from the node, usually to another lymph node because there are hundreds of lymph nodes that are all collected by these collecting vessels. the ultimate destination is to return the contents into the bloodstream through the subclavian veins.

the contents that enter the collecting vessels are going to flow through the collecting vessels and the collecting vessels will

the antigen receptors; any sort of autoimmune potential response (if T cell past both of those tests, then they can leave the thymus through the blood after it has matured in the medulla for about 3 weeks.

the cortex of the Thymus is testing _______, and the medulla of the thymus is testing

through the lymphatic system towards the heart

the flow of lymph is

Trabeculae; Lymphatic nodules where we have cells nearby

the green branches of the lymph node are.... the purple are....

the thoracic lymphatic duct -which makes it a larger duct because at some point, all of the lymphatic vessels that are draining the abdominal region, those are going to basically merge into a very large trunk that is going to drain the abdomen

the left subclavian vein is receiving lymph from

collecting vessel and the collecting vessels will relay the fluid through multiple lymph nodes

the lymphatic capillaries collect the lymph(at the dead end pieces) until it reaches the

Endothelial cells of the lacteals(green) have large enough gaps for chylomicrons to pass through.

the lyphatic system collects a lot of fluid that has been filtered out through the capillaries. typicall, the pressure that is in the capillaries causes fluid to be released, but usually the venules pick back up about 85% of that and the the lacteals are responsible for picking back up the 15% , the rest of the fluid that has not been picked back up. the Chylomicrons are too large to leave through the capillaires of the villus. so they have to leave through

they are recognizing different structures on the bacterial or pathogenic surface Alternative is recongizing targets on pathogens/microbes Lectin is binding to sugars on microbial cells but both are ultametly producing more C3b (think lectins/ beans are carbs/sugars)

the major thing that differentiates the Lectin pathway from the alternative pathway is

complex an antigen is, the more unique it is, and the less self-attacks

the more complex an antigen is, the more

everywhere else. like more of the thoracic region as well as the left side of that upper left quadrant. it also receives everything from below the diaphragm too.

the right lyph duct recieves lymph from that upper right quandrant, and the Left lymph duct recieves lymph from

Antimicrobial chemicals

the skin also creates and secretes ______ to combat pathogens

dry and nutrient poor

the skin is too ______ and _________ for microbial growth; therefore there is little microbial growth

Recognition and attack

the steps of immunity

Alternative pathway and Lectin pathway

the two innate(born with) pathways of the compliment system include:

immune cells for emergencies (is a reserve because these are groups of immune cells that are basically on guard- waiting for any type of emergencies)

the white pulp of the spleen has a large reserve of

limit your carbohydrate intake, and if you don't have carbohydrates such as glucose to metabolise for energy, the next think that your body wil use is fat storage. So if you breakdown fat, one of the first products is going to be Ketone bodies. However, ketones are acidic, so if you have an abundance of ketones in your body, your blood can enter a state of acidosis- known as keto acidosis

the whole part of the Ketone diet is to

it is testing the T cells to makes sure that they have specific receptors so that they can detect the androgens properly AND they're being tested to makes sure that specific T cells are not going to attack our own body cells (making sure there is no auto immune response) (if you had immature T cells that got into the blood, if they weren't tested yet, a lot of the T cells aren't going to have functioning receptors that are adequate and a lot of those T cells are are going to attack the cells of our own bodies, triggering autoimmune attack)

the whole purpose of the thymus is that

small arteries, veins, and nerves can enter and exit the bone tissue. and will ultimately enter the marrow cavities of the bone, which are basically filled with sinusoids (34:54)

there are little smalle perforation(cut) canals in the surface of the bones for the purpose of

monitor and initiate and immune response if it detects any other types of pathogens

there are other lymphocytes/ immune cells that are found inside of the lymph nodes that are going to ______ fluid contents

Mechanical (physical process of chewing/mastication) Chemical (breakdown of components through active enzymes) -These are NOT mutually exclusive in location; in the mouth you will start chewing but you also have amylase in the mouth that starts to breakdown Carbs as well.

there are to major types of digestion:

Red pulp and white pulp

there are two different regions of the spleen:

local(will typically attack point of invasion/spot on skin), nonspecific, Lacks memory

things that characterize innate immunity

widespread network of vessels

think of the Lymphatic system as large,

Osmotic pressure (back to OZ)

typically, after fluid is filtered out of the capillaries, it is reabsorbed (85%) by the

2%

what % of t-cells make it past the test of the Thymus?

Cytotoxic T cells (Tc) Helpter T cells (Th) Regulatory T cells Memory T cells

what T-cells are present during adaptive, cell-mediated immunity?

Basophils

what WBC secretes Heparin?

Hydrochloric acid

what activates pepsin to form pepsinogen in the stomach?

Neutralization, complement fixation, agglutination, and precipitation

what are 4 ways that antibodies can attack on forign invadors?

lymphocytes (T-cells) (1) and venules (where immune cells can enter and transport blood away from the tissues) (2)

what are found in the lymph nodules?

fluid recovery, Immunity, Lipid Absorption

what are some functions of the lymphatic system?

(Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas) Neutrophils, Leukocytes, Monocytes, Eosinophils, Basophils

what are the Leukocytes?

Natural killer (NK cells), T lymphocytes (T cells), B lymphocytes(B cells), macrophages, dendritic cells(APCs), reticular cells (NTBMDR- Not Today But Maybe During reading)

what are the lymphatic cells?

cell-mediated and Antibody-mediated (humoral)

what are the two main forms of Adaptive immunity?

bacteria going through anarobic fermentaiton to breakdown products such as cellulose. Typicall cellulose- a lot of plant material, we can't digest.

what causes gas?

Pressure gradients

what controls the opening and closing of the AV valves?

carry out an attack of the infected or foreign cell

what do Cytotoxic T cells (tc) do?

Promote/enhance activity of Tc cells (Help callie) also humoral immunity(helpter Tc cells are the only T cells found in humoral immunity)

what do Hepter T cells (Th) do?

4 polypeptides (2 long/heavy chains, 2 short/light chains)

what do antibodies consist of?

Down-regulate an attack after it has gone through its pathway. Inhibits cytokine (interferon, interleukin secreted by certain cells of immune system) amplification. Reduces response after attack(prevents an autoimmune response by doing this as well) (Dr Ice Cream Rocky Road)

what do regulatory T cells do?

Lipogenesis (creating of fat)(glucose can be converted into TG)

what explains why you can gain weight from eating a lot of carbs but are not eating fat?

glucose in blood decreases and insulin decreases

what happens between meals: hours after meals,

is part of the lower trunks-basically a resovoir of the lymphatic system where we have all of the lymphatic vessels from the intestinal region merging together. the term chyli also comes from the work chylomicrons that have been absorbed into the lymphatic system after consuming and digesting fats; those will all be funneled through all of the collecting vessels and be merged into the cisterna chyli and will have a larger vessel that leaves that to go upwards towards the heart

what is cisterna chyli?

Destroy bacteria, react with transplant tissues(almost every indieivual that goes through a transplant has to take antirejection medicaitons), and can also attack infected host cells- straight up attack and kill the pathogens

what is the function of NK cells? (natural killer)

Lymph nodes, spleen, Thymus, Tonsils, Red bone marrow

what tissues and organs are pat of the lymphatic system?

Perforins(cutting). cause hole in cell membrane of the target cell, but instead of just leaving it as a hole in the external environment, the NK cell will inject it and release proteases into target cells (remember, proteases are enzymes that break down proteins- so it will start breaking down proteins in the actual cell, ultamently causing cell death of that tareted infected cell)

when NK cell binds to antigen (signifying that there is some sort of infection), It will release ________, which is going to cause

Happens as T cells are responding to a pathogen arise from Tc cells Remain long term after infection (hence the name memory)

when do memory T cells do occur? what do they arise from?

The gastric pits of the stomach will release gastric lipase, which will start breaking down fat in the stomach. The stomach releases hydrochloric acid which is a strong enough acid to activate lingual lipase; therefore, once in the stomach gastric lipase and lingual lipase will both work together to start breaking down fat in the stomach.

when does ligual lipase get activated?

bind to receptors and trigger second messenger systems. One of the major things that second messenger can trigger is causing target cells to produce antiviral proteins; proteins that will help eliminate the virus and viral proteins (interferons/ interfering to aler for virus)

when interferons communicate/travel with different nearby cells, they will

-Neutrophils are absorbing oxygen in this region; and the enzymes are converting O2 into free radicals . and the free radicals convert them into H+ and then into H2O2(hydrogen peroxide) -in addition, we have an enzyme that is formin Hypochlorite (H2O2 and Hypochlorite can both work on killing pathogens in the extracellular fluid; OUTSIDE of the neutrophil)

when neutrophils go through respiratory burst, they are emptying their contents/ enzymes into the ECF. and what happens is, is enzymes are catalyzing reactions to kill pathogens. How?

they are being absored through capillary networks

when something is being absored through facilitated diffusion, it means that

-Interferon activity is promoted/ more interferons are active -Inhibits reproduction of bacteria and viruses -Increases metabolism -> tissue repair

when the body temperature rises, that is beneficial for a number of reasons

killing itself (it is a suicide mission for the greater good)

when the neutrophil goes through respiratory burst, it will end up

adaptive

when you think of antibodies, you should think of _____ immune system

you will have local attacks/inflammation of point of invasion/tissue due to a variety of chemical released by white blood cells -when splenter enters, it is coated in bacteria. will trigger C3 which will be broken down into C3a and C3b.

whenever you get a splinter...

stop releasing fever proteins (so Neutrophils and Macrophages will stop releasing these proteins)

whenever you have a temperature, the temp wil keep rising until the viruse is gone. It will stop with the high fever by

immunity

white pulp of the spleen has to do with

T-cells require to recognize an antigen before they can actually function.

why are APCs important?

because insulin is telling the cells of your body to pull glucose out of your blood. remember, insulin is on a feedback loop- as the blood decreases, the insulin level is then also going to go down

why does glucose in blood decreaes hours after a meal?

Salivary amylase (as you are chewing, the saliva contains salivary amylase- enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates through Hydrolysis reaciton)

why is 50% of the starch that you eat digested before it gets to the Duodenum?

WBCs

wide gaps in the endothelial cells of Red Bone marrow allow ___ to enter

it requires a much lower pH to be active (therefore, we do not have much fat being broken down in the mouth)

with Fat digestion, we have lingual lipase to help with fat digestion. BUT, ligual lipase does not do much, because

monoglycerides and fatty acids

with fat digestion, we are taking Triglycerides and breaking them down into

variable regions- regions that are different between different antibodies that can detect different antigens.

yellow regions are

the growth of microbes - meaning the closer you get to the stomach, the less microbes you are expected to find.

your stomach acid/ gastric acid inhibits