A & P - Unit 3 Practice Questions

a. State the effects/functions of thyroxine, including its effects in children

(1) Contains iodine. [A goiter is an enlargement of the thyroid gland. One cause of goiter is a deficiency of iodine in the diet (iodine being the mineral element needed to make thyroxine).] (2) Thyroxine is often referred to as the body's major metabolic hormone. It controls (increases) the rate at which glucose is "burned" (oxidized) and converted to chemical energy (ATP) and body heat. Thyroxine also increases the rate at which the body metabolizes carbohydrates & fats. So, it can be said that thyroxine increases the body's metabolic rate. (3) Thyroxine is also important for normal growth & development, especially in relation to the skeletal & nervous systems in children.

the effects and targets of Parasympathetic in ANS

(1) Decreases rate & force of heartbeat via the vagus nerve. (2) Stimulates activity of digestive tract, including promotion of both smooth muscle motility [peristalsis] and digestive gland secretion via the vagus nerve. (3) Promotes production of saliva by salivary glands. (4) Promotes elimination of feces (defecation) & urine (voiding). (5) Slows breathing rate. (6) Constricts bronchioles in lungs [by promoting contraction of smooth muscle in them]. (7) Lowers blood pressure [largely by reducing rate & force of heartbeat]. (8) Effects tend to be more specific/discrete than those of the sympathetic division.

Name the five components of all reflex arcs and state the role of each of those components.

(1) a sensory receptor, which responds to some type of stimulus.= the stimulation of a sensory receptor (2) a sensory/afferent neuron (within a nerve), which transmits signals toward the CNS. = the activation of a sensory neuron (3) an integration center in the CNS, which may consist of the direct synapse of a sensory neuron with a motor neuron, or may involve one or many association neurons/interneurons between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron. = information processing at an integration point in the CNS, (4) a motor/efferent neuron (within a nerve), which transmits impulses from the CNS to a muscle or gland.= the activation of a motor neuron (5) an effector (skeletal muscle or cardiac muscle or smooth muscle, or a gland). = the response of an effector (contraction of muscle or secretion by a gland) .

3 meninges (meningeal layers) in order from outermost to innermost.

(1) dura mater (2) arachnoid mater (3) pia mater

functions of the hypothalamus?

(a) Is an important autonomic nervous system center in that it helps control the activity of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). (b) Regulates body temperature, water balance, and metabolism. (c) Is the center for many drives & emotions, and as such, it is an important component of the limbic system. (d) Has centers for thirst, appetite, sex, pain, & pleasure. (Cocaine promotes dopamine stimulation of the pleasure center in the hypothalamus by blocking the reabsorption of dopamine by the axon terminals that release it. And since dopamine stimulates the hypothalamic pleasure center, its extended presence in synapses allows for its prolonged binding to "pleasure-producing" neurons, resulting in feelings of euphoria.) (e) Via its control of the pituitary gland, it regulates much of the endocrine system. The pituitary gland hangs from the floor of the hypothalamus by a slender stalk. (f) makes some hormones including: "releasing" & "inhibiting" hormones (which control the anterior pituitary gland), oxytocin (which promotes uterine contractions during delivery), and antidiuretic hormone/ADH (which promotes water conservation by kidney tubules).

Name the 6 extrinsic eye muscles, their actions & cranial nerve that supplies 4 of the 6 of them

(a) Lateral rectus -- rolls eye laterally (b) Medial rectus -- rolls eye medially; that is, toward the bridge of the nose (c) Superior rectus -- rolls eye upward (d) Inferior rectus -- rolls eye downward (e) Inferior oblique and (f) Superior oblique -- both help rotate eye oculomotor nerve (cranial nerve III)

(a) What is accommodation? (b) What specific structure contracts to provide for accommodation? (c) What specific structure bulges [thickens/becomes more curved] to provide for accommodation? (d) What eye condition is characterized by decreased capacity for accommodation?

- ability of the lens to focus specifically for close objects - ciliary muscle in the ciliary body contracts - lens - presbyopia (type of farsightedness - holds a page of written info relatively far from the eyes in order to be able to read it)

Describe the location & function of the cerebellum

- location - posterior to the pons & medulla oblongata and inferior to the occipital lobe of the cerebral hemisphere - function - provides the precise timing for skeletal muscle activity associated with balance, equilibrium, & coordination. If the cerebellum is damaged, movements become clumsy & a person may appear to be drunk because of the loss of muscle coordination & an inability to maintain balance.

b. Lipid-derived hormones include ________ hormones. c. Name general & specific examples of steroid hormones. All steroid hormones are derived from __________(what specific steroid lipid?).

- steroid - all the sex hormones [such as testosterone & estrogen] and all the hormones made by the adrenal cortex (corticosteroids) - cholesterol

-Name the source of growth hormone and -state its effects/functions. -What's the cause of acromegaly and what are characteristics of this condition?

-Anterior Pituitary/Adenohypophysis - growth hormone - primarily promotes the growth of long bones & skeletal muscles. Hyposecretion of growth hormone during childhood leads to pituitary dwarfism, whereas hypersecretion of it during childhood results in gigantism. - If hypersecretion of growth hormone occurs after long-bone growth has ceased, the result is ACROMEGALY -- this condition is characterized by significant enlargement of bones in the face, hands, & feet. [Most cases of hypersecretion by endocrine glands are due to tumors in the affected gland.]

What's the common (non-technical) name for myopia and what are causes of this condition?

-Nearsightedness/Myopia - results from an eyeball that's too long, a lens that's too strong, or a cornea that's too curved -occurs when the light rays from distant objects fail to focus on the retina and instead are focused at a point in front of the retina. distant objects appear blurry (Since the ability of the cornea & lens to bend light rays to a single focal point is dependent on their smoothly curved surfaces, if either of them is not smoothly curved, light is not refracted properly and blurred vision results -- such is the case of astigmatism.)

What is the conjunctiva and what's the non-technical name for its inflammation?

-delicate membrane that lines the inner surface of the eyelids/palpebrae and covers part of the anterior surface of the eyeball -Inflammation of the conjunctiva (conjunctivitis) results in reddened, irritated eyes, so it's often called "PINKEYE".

Clusters of cells called pancreatic ______ / ______ of __________ produce & secrete pancreatic hormones What specific cells secrete insulin? What specific effect does insulin have on the blood?

-pancreatic islets/islets of Langerhans -Beta cells -regulate blood sugar (glucose) levels

-Which root of a spinal nerve is entirely motor in nature? -Which root of a spinal nerve is entirely sensory in nature? -State both the names & Roman numeral designations for the two different cranial nerves that are entirely sensory in nature

-ventral roots -dorsal roots -Olfactory nerve (I) Optic nerve (II)

Name the 2 endocrine glands that have "follicles" of one type or another. See pp. 20 & 21. Which one of the two glands referred to above also has lobes & an isthmus as structural features?

1) Anterior Pituitary/Adenohypophysis 2) thyroid gland thyroid gland - has 2 lateral lobes that are joined by a central bridge of tissue called the isthmus

Besides estrogens & progesterone, name two other hormones produced by the placenta.

1) human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) 2) relaxin

Nuclei Ganglia Tract Nerve

1. Nuclei (singular is nucleus) = Clusters of neuron cell bodies located in the CNS (specifically, in the brain). Are gray colored because not much myelin is present. 2. Ganglia (singular is ganglion) = Clusters of neuron cell bodies in the PNS. 3. Tract = Bundle of nerve fibers/axons in the CNS. Nerve fibers in tracts tend to be myelinated, therefore tracts are white colored. 4. Nerve = Bundle of nerve fibers/axons in the PNS. Axons in nerves tend to be myelinated, therefore nerves are whitish colored.

State the effects of prostaglandins. Name medications that inhibit prostaglandins.

1. Promote pain, inflammation, & fever. 2. Stimulate the smooth muscle of the uterus, thus promote labor. inhibited by aspirin, ibuprofen, acetaminophen, and glucocorticoids (cortisone, etc.); thus aspirin, acetaminophen, & ibuprofen reduce pain, inflammation & fever

Describe the effects (a) ADH and (b) oxytocin. - be thorough

ADH - Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) -- promotes retention of water by the kidneys. That is, in the kidneys, ADH stimulates the movement (reabsorption) of water from urine in kidney tubules into the bloodstream -- this movement of water decreases the volume of urine output & increases blood volume & blood pressure. Drinking alcoholic beverages inhibits ADH secretion & results in output of large amounts of urine (& thus the loss of a lot of water from the body). The intense thirst experienced during a "hangover" reflects this dehydrating effect of alcohol. Drugs known as diuretics counteract the effects of ADH, causing water to be flushed from the body via increased urine output. Because diuretics reduce the amount of water in the body in general, they are used to help treat the edema that occurs in association with congestive heart failure. And because diuretics decrease the amount of water in the blood in particular, they reduce blood volume & blood pressure -- thus, diuretics are often prescribed to help manage hypertension (high blood pressure). Oxytocin -- stimulates powerful contractions of smooth muscle in the uterus during labor; also promotes milk ejection (the milk letdown reflex) in a nursing woman.

What are target cells & target organs relative to the endocrine system? What are "receptors" relative to the target cells of hormones, and in which two major parts of a cell may these receptors be located?

Any given hormone affects only certain cells or organs, referred to as its target cells or target organs. For a given hormone to have an influence on a cell, that cell must bear a specific protein receptor to which the hormone can bind. The receptor may be on the plasma membrane or in the nucleus of a cell, but a cell cannot be affected by a given hormone unless it has a specific receptor to which that hormone can attach.

What mineral element is needed to make thyroxine? --is it Iron, Calcium, Sodium, Potassium or Iodine?

Calcium Calcitonin (also known as thyrocalcitonin) -- decreases blood calcium levels by causing calcium to be deposited in bones. Calcitonin acts antagonistically (oppositely) to parathyroid hormone from the parathyroid glands.

a. According to structural classification, name the 2 main subdivisions of the nervous system. What are the major structural components of each of these two main subdivisions?

Central nervous system (CNS) and Peripheral nervous system (PNS) CNS consists of the brain & spinal cord; PNS consists of cranial nerves (which convey impulses to & from the brain), spinal nerves (which convey impulses to & from the spinal cord), and ganglia (which are clusters of cell bodies of neurons.)

4 main regions/subdivisions of the brain?

Cerebrum Diencephalon Brain stem Cerebellum

Distinguish between chemoreceptors and baroreceptors.

Chemoreceptors → detect chemicals; include gustatory (taste) receptors on the tongue and olfactory (smell) receptors in the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity. There are also chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata and in certain arteries that that respond to changes in blood chemistry and cerebrospinal fluid chemistry -- more specifically, these receptors respond to changes in pH and carbon dioxide (CO2) in the blood and CSF. Baroreceptors → detect changes in pressure in internal organs; include receptors located in certain arteries that respond to changes in blood pressure.

At what level of the vertebral column does the spinal cord end? --see p.8

Extends from the medulla oblongata at the level of the foramen magnum of the skull to the level of the 1st or 2nd lumbar vertebra.

Name the source and describe the effects/functions of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)

Gonadotropic hormones FSH - stimulates the development of follicles in the ovaries until one [usually only one] follicle achieves full maturity as a Graafian follicle. [As the ovarian follicles mature, they produce estrogen.] LH - triggers ovulation [release of an egg from a ruptured mature ovarian follicle / Graafian follicle. The ruptured follicle becomes a corpus luteum, which produces progesterone.]

In terms of changes in ion location and changes in charges, what characterizes depolarization of a neuron's plasma membrane?

If a neuron is adequately stimulated by a neurotransmitter, "sodium gates" in its plasma membrane open. This allows a rapid influx of sodium ions into the neuron, which changes the polarity of the plasma membrane -- the inside is now relatively positive, and the outside is now relatively negative. This event is called depolarization and it initiates an action potential/nerve impulse. Depolarization of the first patch of plasma membrane causes sodium gates to be opened in an adjacent portion of the membrane, thus the action potential propagates rapidly along the entire length of the plasma membrane of a neuron's axon. A nerve impulse (like the contraction of muscle cell) is an all-or-none response -- it occurs to the full extent possible, or it does not occur at all.

What are some problems associated with the hyposecretion and hypersecretion of thyroxine?

If untreated hyposecretion of thyroxine occurs in infants, the result is cretinism, which is characterized by mental retardation and dwarfism. Hyposecretion occurring in adults results in mental & physical sluggishness, but not mental retardation since the nervous system is already developed. Hyposecretion of thyroxine in adults may also involve weight gain and greater sensitivity to cold environments (both of these because the metabolic rate is too low). On the other hand, hypersecretion of thyroxine results in a high metabolic rate, weight loss, nervousness & agitation, and intolerance to heat.

Distinguish between the specific locations of the basilar membrane & the tectorial membrane.

Located within the cochlear duct/scala media of the cochlea is the spiral organ of Corti - contains the receptors for hearing, the hair cells of the spiral organ of Corti basilar membrane - hair cells of the organ of Corti are on top of it tectorial membrane - located above the "hairs" of the hair cells

The _________(what main part of the brain stem?) contains nuclei called the __________ ______, which help regulate the basal nuclei by releasing the neurotransmitter named dopamine.

Midbrain substantia nigra

What's the most numerous structural type of neuron? How many axons does each such neuron have?

Multipolar neurons - have many dendrites, but only ONE axon

The two special senses that are chemical senses and involve chemoreceptors are smell /____________ and taste /____________

Olfaction Gustation

Know the info given about the Olfactory, Optic, Oculomotor, Trigeminal, & Facial nerves

Olfactory nerve (I) -- its fibers arise from olfactory receptors in the nasal mucosa and pass through foramina in the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. Its function is purely sensory -- it only carries impulses associated with the sense of smell. Optic nerve (II) -- its fibers arise from the retina of the eye; the two optic nerves form the optic chiasma by partial crossover of fibers; the fibers continue from the chiasma as the optic tracts; from these tracts, signals travel through the thalamus and then to the visual cortex of the occipital lobe of a cerebral hemisphere for processing. The optic nerve is entirely sensory. Oculomotor nerve (III) -- its motor fibers extend from the midbrain to four of the six extrinsic eye muscles. Trigeminal nerve (V) -- its sensory fibers conduct impulses from the skin of the face and from the upper teeth (via its maxillary division) & lower teeth (via its mandibular division). Facial nerve (VII) -- its motor fibers supply the muscles of facial expression; damage to it can cause Bell's palsy (paralysis of facial muscles).

Describe visceral sensations and referred pain

People suffering from visceral pain often perceive this pain to be somatic in origin -- that is, as if the pain originated at or near the surface of the body. This event is called referred pain. For example, heart attacks can produce referred pain at the surfaces of the thoracic wall and the medial aspect of the left arm. The cause of referred pain is not fully understood, but it is known that both the affected internal (visceral) organ and the region of the skin or body cavity wall to which the pain is referred are innervated by the same segments of the spinal cord. Ex: both the heart and the skin area to which heart pain projects are innervated by sensory neurons from the thoracic segments of the spinal cord.

State the source of melatonin and its effects.

Pineal Gland establishes the body's day-night cycle >> its level in the brain peaks at night, and this tends to make us drowsy. Melatonin may also influence mood >> increased levels of it seem to be associated with depression

What are the two main subdivisions of the PNS? (Note both names for each of these subdivisions.)

Sensory/Afferent division & Motor/Efferent division.

two subdivisions of the motor/efferent division of the PNS? (Note the alternate names for each of these subdivisions.)

Somatic motor/Voluntary nervous system and ((2)) Autonomic/Involuntary nervous system.

What's the name & Roman numeral designation of the cranial nerve that extends into the thoracic & abdominal cavities? How does this nerve affect digestive activity? How does it affect the heart?

Vagus nerve (number X) it's motor fibers promote digestive activity, yet slow the heartbeat rate

-What very specific kind of tissue cells compose both the ciliary muscle and the iris? --see p. 15 -The ciliary muscle regulates the shape of the ________. -The iris regulates the diameter of the ________.

Vascular tunic lens pupil

Concerning the nature of signals transmitted, what's the difference between the vestibular and cochlear divisions of the vestibulocochlear nerve?

Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) -- vestibular - transmits signals associated with equilibrium (sense of balance) and arises from the vestibule & semicircular canals of the inner ear; cochlear - conveys impulses associated with hearing and arises from the cochlea of the inner ear.

Describe what happens when an impulse/action potential arrives at axon terminals.

When an impulse/action potential reaches the axon terminals, the terminals are stimulated to release a neurotransmitter chemical. The neurotransmitter (NT) diffuses across a synaptic cleft and binds to receptors on the plasma membrane of the next (postsynaptic) neuron. If the postsynaptic neuron is adequately stimulated by the NT, it will initiate its own action potential. The effects of a NT on a postsynaptic neuron are very brief because the NT is quickly removed from the synapse via either re-uptake into axon terminals or by enzymatic breakdown.

3 important centers in the medulla oblongata and state what each center controls

[1] a cardiac center (which controls heart rate); [2] a vasomotor center (which controls vasoconstriction & vasodilation of blood vessels, & thereby regulates blood pressure); and [3] a major respiratory center (which helps control breathing).

Name the four nerve plexuses AND state the name of a specific nerve that each plexus gives rise to, while noting any given role mentioned about specific nerves

a. Cervical plexus -- gives rise to the phrenic nerve, which innervates the diaphragm. b. Brachial plexus -- serves the sensory & motor needs of the upper limb; gives rise to the radial, median, & ulnar nerves. c. Lumbar plexus -- serves the sensory & motor needs of the anterior aspect of the lower limb; gives rise to the femoral nerve, which supplies the anterior thigh (including the quadriceps femoris muscle group). d. Sacral plexus - serves the sensory & motor needs of the posterior aspect of the lower limb; gives rise to the sciatic nerve, which supplies the posterior thigh (including the hamstring muscle group). Near the popliteal region, the sciatic nerve splits into the tibial nerve and peroneal/fibular nerve. The tibial nerve courses directly behind the tibia, while the peroneal/fibular nerve passes into & through the lateral leg.

a. List the three types of neurons according to functional classification (including their alternate names) and state the function of each.

a. Sensory/Afferent neurons -- convey signals from sensory receptors to the CNS. b. Motor/Efferent neurons -- transmit impulses from the CNS to effectors (skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, & glands). c. Association neurons/Interneurons -- neurons in the CNS that link sensory and motor neurons in neural pathways. Immensely complex linkages formed between the billions of interneurons are largely responsible for the astonishing complexity of the nervous system, especially that of the human brain. Functionally, over 99% of neurons are association neurons/interneurons, which by structural classification, are multipolar.

Name the neurotransmitter (NT) somatic motor neurons use to activate skeletal muscles

acetylcholine

a. The postganglionic fibers/axons of the sympathetic division of the ANS (autonomic nervous system) are called ___________ fibers because they release the NT _____________ (a.k.a. _____________).

adrenergic norepinephrine (a.k.a. noradrenaline

Name a specific mineralocorticoid & State the target and describe the functions/effects

aldosterone regulates the levels of these mineral electrolytes in the blood: sodium ions (Na+) and potassium ions (K+). Aldosterone targets the kidney tubules, where it promotes the movement (reabsorption) of sodium ions from the kidney tubules into the blood, yet promotes the movement (excretion) of potassium ions from the blood into the kidney tubules. Substances that are reabsorbed from the kidney tubules into the blood are conserved in the body, whereas substances that are excreted from the blood into the kidney tubules become a component of urine and are thereby eliminated from the body. Thus, aldosterone increases the concentration of sodium ions in the body (and in the blood, in particular), while it decreases the concentration of potassium ions in the body (and in the blood, in particular). When sodium is reabsorbed into the blood, water follows it via osmosis. Thus, aldosterone indirectly promotes an increase in the amount of water in the blood, and thereby increases blood volume & blood pressure.

_______ acid-derived hormones include peptide/________ hormones, one such hormone = insulin.

amino protein

The male sex (masculinizing) hormones are collectively known as __________, and specifically include testosterone. Factoid: Interstitial cells of the testes AND certain cells of the adrenal cortex produce androgens.

androgens

Name the two hormones MADE by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus, yet stored (doesn't make it) in the posterior lobe/neurohypophysis of the pituitary gland.

antidiuretic hormone (ADH) & oxytocin

aqueous humor

aqueous humor - glaucoma fluid is in the anterior cavity of the eye, and disorder caused by it

a. What are the three names for the tube that courses from the middle ear to the throat? b. What is otitis media and why is it a fairly common result of a sore throat in children?

auditory/Eustachian/pharyngotympanic tube otitis media - inflammation of the middle ear, is a fairly common result of a sore throat in children because their auditory/Eustachian/pharyngotympanic tubes are shorter & more nearly horizontal. Otitis media often involves bulging & reddening of the eardrum

2 fluids located in the inner ear/labyrinth

bony labyrinth fluid - perilymph, membranous labyrinth fluid - endolymph.

The postganglionic axons/fibers of the parasympathetic division of the ANS are called __________ fibers because they release _____________ to regulate visceral effectors.

cholinergic acetylcholine

What major subdivision of the bony labyrinth of the inner ear contains the receptors for hearing? What major subdivision of the inner ear contains the receptors for static equilibrium? What major subdivision of the inner ear bears the receptors for dynamic equilibrium?

cochlea - provides for hearing vestibule - static equilibrium semicircular canals - dynamic equilibrium

14. a. Describe the composition, location, & function of the basal nuclei. --see p. 6 b. Name the disease & neurotransmitter discussed in association with the basal nuclei problems.

composition - "islands" of gray matter location - buried deep within the cerebral hemispheres function - help regulate skeletal muscle activity at the subconscious level by modifying instructions sent to the muscles by the primary motor cortex Parkinson's disease - deficit of DOPAMINE

2 specific glucocorticoids. Describe the effects/functions of glucocorticoid hormones.

cortisone hydrocortisone cortisol help the body cope with long-term physical & emotional stress, mainly by increasing blood glucose levels. Glucocorticoids also suppress inflammation, decrease edema, and reduce pain because they counteract prostaglandins. Due to their anti-inflammatory properties, glucocorticoid steroids are often prescribed as drugs for patients with inflammatory problems, such as rheumatoid arthritis or tendonitis.

Describe some problems associated with diabetes mellitus.

dehydration In the absence of insulin, glucose cannot be adequately transported into cells, and if it cannot get inside cells, it cannot be used as a fuel. This forces body cells to use fat more extensively as a fuel; and even proteins are degraded as a fuel. As a result, body weight may decline, and the loss of proteins leads to decreased ability to fight infections. When large amounts of fats (instead of glucose) are broken down as a fuel, excessive quantities of ketones build up in the blood and make it acidic. This acidosis of the blood can lead to coma & death.]

Name & describe the two types of processes (extensions) that extend from the cell body of neurons and note the function of each.

dendrite - receive input from other neurons and conduct electrical signals toward the cell body axon - transmits impulses away from the cell body of the neuron to which it belongs, and toward the dendrites or cell body of another neuron, or toward a muscle cell or a gland cell

a. List the two hormones (including their alternate names) that are secreted by the adrenal medulla. b. Describe the effects of these hormones.

epinephrine (also called adrenaline) & norepinephrine (also called noradrenaline) When you are physically or emotionally stressed, the sympathetic nervous system promotes the "fight-or-flight" response to help you cope with the situation. One of the organs it stimulates is the adrenal medulla, which secretes its hormones into the blood, thus generalizing & prolonging the effects of the sympathetic nervous system. Like the neurotransmitters of the same name, epinephrine & norepinephrine, as hormones, increase the heart rate, increase blood pressure, increase blood glucose levels, dilate the bronchial passageways in the lungs, and promote dilation of blood vessels that supply skeletal muscles & the heart (yet promote constriction of most blood vessels). All of these events result in more oxygen & glucose in the blood and faster & increased circulation of blood to the skeletal muscles & heart, thus enabling the body to better cope with short-term stress. (But, as already described, glucocorticoid steroids from the adrenal cortex help the body deal with long-term physical or emotional stress, such as coping with the aftermath of a major operation or the death of a loved-one.)

The adrenal cortex (like the anterior pituitary and most other endocrine glands) consists of glandular ___________(what major category of tissue?), whereas the adrenal medulla consists of modified neurons of the ____________ division of the ANS (Autonomic Nervous System)

epithelium sympathetic

fovea & macula

fovea is a tiny pit in the center of a small patch of the retina called the macula -- the fovea contains only cones, while the macula contains mostly cones. Consequently, these specific areas of the retina, especially the fovea, provide the greatest visual acuity (sharpest vision), and objects we wish to see in detail are focused on them, especially the fovea. *Since cones provide for color vision, a deficit of them in the retina is associated with color blindness.

vitreous humor

gel-like (jelly-like) substance is located in the posterior cavity of the eye

which of the particular components in limbic system undergoes structural changes in association with Alzheimer's disease?

hippocampus (also cerebral cortex but its not in limbic system)

proprioceptors location & function?

in skeletal muscles, tendons, and joint capsules - detect stretch (changes in tension) in these joint-related structures, thus providing the CNS with information related to body position & movement.

corpus callosum

large tract that connects the two cerebral hemispheres, thus allowing them to communicate with one another

The ________ system of the brain is associated with olfaction, emotions, & memories. --see p. 18 b. Name some specific structural components of this system.

limbic system structural components - - cerebrum (amygdala/amygdaloid bodies & hippocampus) & - diencephalon's hypothalamus. amygdala and hypothalamus - emotions hippocampus - memory

Providing the alternate names of each, list the auditory ossicles and specify which is attached to the eardrum, which is the middle ossicle, and which one covers the oval window. --see p. 17

malleus/hammer - attached to eardrum anvil/incus - middle tapes/stirrup - covers the oval window, an opening to the inner ear

3 main parts of the brain stem?

midbrain pons medulla oblongata.

3 groups of hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex.

mineralocorticoids glucocorticoids sex hormones

The ________ ________ is a fatty, white wrapping around many axons/nerve fibers that insulates the fibers & increases the rate of nerve impulse conduction. This wrapping is formed by ________ cells in the PNS and by _____________ in the CNS. These fatty wrappings undergo gradual destruction in the autoimmune disease named __________ __________, which may be characterized by sensory or skeletal muscle control problems.

myelin sheath Schwann Oligodendrocytes Multiple sclerosis

What specific kind of cell does parathyroid hormone (PTH) stimulate? PTH increases the level (concentration) of ________ (what mineral element?) in the blood.

osteoclasts - bone eroding cells Calcium

What are the targets of tropic hormones? Name specific tropic hormones AND the specific endocrine structure that SECRETES them

other endocrine glands Anterior lobe of pituitary gland/Adenohypophysis secretes tropic hormones (& growth hormone & prolactin) -1) thyroid-stimulating hormone -2) adrenocorticotropic hormone - targets the adrenal cortex 2 gonadotropic hormones that target ovaries & testes: -3) follicle-stimulating hormone -4) luteinizing hormone

Name the organ that produces & secretes most estrogens & progesterone, name the two different kinds of specific structures in this organ that produce these two different kinds of hormones.

ovaries estrogen - mature (Graafian) follicles progesterone - corpus luteum of ovary

examples of general/somatic senses?

pain pressure touch vibration temperature stretch. (Can you name the particular lobe & specific gyrus of the cerebral cortex that processes general/somatic sensory input?parietal, postcentral)

example of a mixed gland. Describe what makes it both an endocrine gland & an exocrine gland.

pancreas - both endocrine & exocrine in nature endocrine glands are ductless glands that secrete hormones into the blood exocrine glands have ducts through which they release their non-hormone products onto an external or internal body surface pancreas is endocrine cuz it secretes the hormones insulin & glucagon into the blood, and it's exocrine cuz it releases a variety of digestive enzymes into a duct that opens into the small intestine

Taste buds are located on the sides of small peg-like projections on the tongue called ________.

papillae

What are the two subdivisions of the autonomic/involuntary nervous system?

parasympathetic & sympathetic divisions

8. a. In terms of locations of types of charges and locations of types of ions, describe the nature of a polarized plasma membrane of a neuron.

plasma membrane of a resting/inactive neuron (a neuron that is not transmitting an impulse) is said to be polarized -- this is because the outer face (surface) of the plasma membrane is relatively positive, and the inner face (surface) of the plasma membrane is relatively negative. In a "resting" neuron, sodium ions (Na+) are concentrated outside the cell, while potassium ions (K+) are concentrated on the inside of the cell. (It's mainly the high concentration of Na+ on the outside of a resting neuron that makes its outer face relatively positive.) As long as the inside of the neuron remains relatively negative (and sodium ions remain concentrated on the outside of the cell), the neuron remains at rest/inactive.

The somatic/general sensory cortex is located on the _________ _______(what specific ridge?) of the ________ lobe of the cerebral hemisphere.

postcentral gyrus parietal

The primary motor cortex is located on the ________ _______(what specific ridge?) of the ________ lobe of the cerebral hemisphere.

precentral gyrus frontal

Distinguish between the functions of rods & cones

rods - allow us to see in dim light, and they provide for peripheral vision. Problems with rod functioning hinders our ability to see at night, a condition called night blindness (vitamin A deficiency) cones - provide for detailed (sharp) vision and color vision. Cones are most numerous in the central portion of the retina.

The major/general overlapping functions of the nervous system are that it (a) receives ________ input by way of the receptors that monitor changes occurring inside & outside the body, (b) ____________ via the processing & interpretation of the above input, and (c) sends out ________ output by sending impulses to ________ & ________, which are effectors.

sensory integration motor muscles glands

optic disk (disc)

site where rods & cones are distributed over the entire retina, except where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball if the light from an object is focused on this spot, the object cannot be seen (there are no rods or cones in the blind spot/ optic disk to be stimulated by light).

What are the somatic effectors regulated by the somatic motor nervous system? --see p. 2

skeletal muscles

The visceral effectors regulated by the autonomic nervous system are _________ _________, _________ _________, and _________.

smooth muscle cardiac muscle glands

Name the source, target, & effects of erythropoietin.

source - kidney target - red bone marrow, where it stimulates the production of erythrocytes (red blood cells) effects - reducing hypoxia because with more erythrocytes in the bloodstream, the blood can carry more oxygen

Name the space that surrounds the entire CNS and contains CSF.

subarachnoid space

Effects and targets of the Sympathetic of the ANS

sympathetic (1) Increases rate & force of heartbeat [by stimulating cardiac muscle]. (2) Promotes rapid, deep breathing. (3) Dilates bronchioles in lungs [by promoting relaxation of smooth muscle in those airways] -- this provides more oxygen to a stressed body. (4) Stimulates sweat glands. (5) Stimulates dilator smooth muscle in iris of eye, thus dilating pupils. (6) Increases blood pressure [largely by promoting: (a) an increase in rate & force of heartbeat and (b) vasoconstriction of blood vessels in most parts of body]. (7) Increases blood sugar (glucose) levels by stimulating liver to release glucose. (8) Dilates blood vessels in skeletal muscles and heart, thus increasing blood flow to them. (9) Constricts most blood vessels including those in the skin and digestive tract, thus decreasing blood flow to them [vasoconstriction involves contraction of smooth muscle in the walls of blood vessels]. (10) Stimulates adrenal medulla (inner portion of adrenal gland) to secrete epinephrine (adrenaline) into the blood -- thus, the effects of the sympathetic division tend to be more widespread than those of the parasympathetic division. (11) Decreases activity of digestive tract [largely by reducing both smooth muscle motility and glandular secretion associated with the digestive tract]. (12) Inhibits salivary gland secretion, resulting in dry mouth. (13) Increases metabolic rate [cellular metabolism].

3 main parts of the diencephalon?

thalamus hypothalamus pineal gland

Name the brain's ventricles and state the location in the brain for each of them.

two lateral ventricles (in the cerebral hemispheres) through an opening called the interventricular foramen and into the third ventricle (in the diencephalon). From the 3rd ventricle, CSF passes through the cerebral aqueduct (in the middle of the midbrain) and into the fourth ventricle (which is posterior to the pons & medulla oblongata and anterior to the cerebellum). From the 4th ventricle, CSF passes through some openings and into the subarachnoid space (around the entire CNS) and into the central canal (a narrow passage in the center of the spinal cord). The CSF returns to the blood when it leaves the subarachnoid space to empty into the dural sinuses around the brain (mainly, the superior sagittal sinus).

Describe the location of the thymus gland and state its function during childhood.

upper thorax, posterior to the sternum and superior to the heart childhood - thymus gland acts as an "incubator" for the maturation & programming of T cells / T lymphocytes, which are white blood cells that are especially important in the immune response. Thus, the thymus gland helps provide for immunity early in life

Special Senses

vision hearing equilibrium (in association with the inner ear) smell taste