AICE Environmental Management Final Exam Review

Paris Agreement 2016

195 countries legally binding global climate deal. An agreement was made between the United Nations countries to cut down on the emissions of greenhouse gases to slow down global warming. More wealthy and producing countries have to cut down more. Effective on November 4, 2016, the "Paris Climate Accords", is an international treaty on climate change mitigation, adaptation, and finance.

Clean Air Act

1970 law that established national standards for states, strict auto emissions guidelines, and regulations, which set air pollution standards for private industry. Initially enacted in 1963 and amended many times after as one of the United States' first and most influential modern environmental laws. Reduce and control air pollution nationwide.

Montreal Protocol

1987 where a group of nations met in Canada and agreed to take steps to fight against Ozone Depletion by banning CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons). International treaty to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances that cause ozone depletion. Agreed on September 16, 1987, and effective on January 1, 1989.

Kyoto Protocol 1992

1992 pledge from 192 nations to reduce CO2 emissions over the next two decades. International agreement with binding targets for industrialized countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Requires actual emissions to be monitored and recorded in logs and places a more significant burden on developed nations. US signs but does not come close to meeting the pledge.

Desert

A barren area of landscape where little precipitation occurs and, consequently, living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to denudation. About one-third of the land surface of the Earth is arid or semi-arid.

Chlorophyll

A green pigment, present in all green plants and in cyanobacteria, responsible for the absorption of light to provide energy for photosynthesis. Its molecule contains a magnesium atom held in a porphyrin ring.

Population

A group of individuals of the same species living in the same area or interbreeding and sharing genetic information.

Community

A group of populations of different species living in the same local area and interacting with one another. A community is the living portion of an ecosystem.

The Club of Rome

A group of social and natural scientists created in Rome, Italy in 1968 to examine the future predicament of humankind. The 1972 study, Limits of Growth, shaped the debate for interrelated issues of global population growth, resource depletion, and environmental degradation. Founded in 1968 as a nonprofit, informal organization whose goal is a critical discussion of pressing global issues.

Biome

A kind of ecosystem. The rainforest is an example of a biome; rainforests occur in many parts of the world but are not all connected to each other.

Climate Change

A long-term change in the average weather patterns that have come to define Earth's local, regional and global climates. Refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. These shifts may be natural, but since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels (like coal, oil, and gas) which produces heat-trapping gases.

Habitat Conservation and Creation

A management practice that seeks to conserve, protect and restore habitats and prevent species extinction, fragmentation or reduction in range. It is a priority of many groups that cannot be easily characterized in terms of any one ideology.

Estimated Biodiversity with Simpson's Index (given)

A measure of diversity that takes into account the number of species present, as well as the relative abundance of each species. -as species richness and evenness increase, diversity increases -can also be written as D = 1 - [Σn(n - 1) / N(N-1)] -Σ = sum of calculations (total) -n = number of individuals of each type present in the sample (types may be species and/or higher taxa such as genera, families, etc.) -N = total number of all individuals of all types present in the sample -formula given in question papers Simpson's Index D = 1 - [Σ(n / N)²] EXAMPLE: The diversity of the ground flora in a woodland was tested by sampling random quadrats. The number of plant species within each quadrat, as well as the number of individuals of each species is noted. Species: Number: Woodrush , 2 Holly , 8 Bramble , 1 Yorkshire Fog , 1 Sedge , 3 Total (N) , 15 D = 1 - [(2 / 15)² + (8 / 15)² + (1 / 15)² + (1 / 15)² + (3 / 15)²] D = 1 - 0.0178 + 0.284 + 0.004 + 0.004 + 0.004 D = 1 - 0.3498 = 0.65

Productivity

A measure of economic performance that compares the amount of goods and services produced (output) with the amount of inputs used to produce those goods and services.

Population Density

A measurement of the number of people per given unit of land. -round down to nearest whole number -"people over land = density" -use same unit from land area in final calculation (population / land area) x 100 = population density per unit EXAMPLE: Calculate population density from the given data. population = 523740 area = 4060 km² (523740 / 4060) x 100 = 129 people per km²

Non-Renewable Resources

A natural resource that cannot be readily replaced by natural means at a pace quick enough to keep up with consumption. Four major types of nonrenewable resources: oil, natural gas, coal, and nuclear energy. Oil, natural gas, and coal are collectively called fossil fuels. Fossil fuels were formed within the Earth from dead plants and animals over millions of years—hence the name "fossil" fuels.

Computer Modeling

A program that runs on a computer that creates a model, or simulation, of a real-world feature, phenomenon or event.

Systematic Sampling

A statistical method involving the selection of elements from an ordered sampling frame. The most common form of systematic sampling is an equiprobability method.

Basel Convention

A treaty was developed in 1989 by the UN Environment Program to restrict the international transport of hazardous waste. Allows countries to export hazardous waste only with the prior informed consent of the importing country as well as of any countries that the waste passes through in transit. Protects human health and the environment against effects from the generation, movements, and management of hazardous wastes.

Tundra

A type of biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons. A vast, flat, treeless Arctic region of Europe, Asia, and North America in which the subsoil is permanently frozen.

Resources

All the materials available in our environment which are technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally sustainable and help us to satisfy our needs and wants.

Population Size with Lincoln Index (given)

Allows conservationists to estimate population sizes of individual animal species using capture-mark-recapture. -numbers are in subscript -m2 can also be written as n3 -N = estimate of population size -n1 = number of individuals captured in first sample -n2 = number of individuals (both marked and unmarked) captured in second sample -m2 = number of marked individuals recaptured in second sample -formula given in question papers Lincoln Index N = n x (n2 / m2) EXAMPLE: A pest control technician captures and applies leg bands to 23 brown anoles, which he then releases. A week later he traps 29 brown anoles, 11 of which have leg bands. What is the estimate of the total population of brown anoles? n1 = 23 n2 = 29 m2 = 11 N = 23 x (29 / 11) = 23 x 2.63 = 60.72 N = 60 anoles

Landfill Sites

Also known as a tip, dump, rubbish dump, garbage dump, or dumping ground, is a site for the disposal of waste materials, that produces methane. Landfill is the oldest and most common form of waste disposal, although the systematic burial of the waste with daily, intermediate and final covers only began in the 1940s.

Forest

An area of land dominated by trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function.

Grassland

An area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses. However, sedge and rush can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes, like clover, and other herbs. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica and are found in most regions of the Earth.

Tables

An arrangement of information or data, typically in rows and columns, or in a more complex structure. -is a function if a single rule can consistently be applied to input to get output -table rows or columns display corresponding input and output values (x , y) EXAMPLE: Marcus ran a lemonade stand for five days. On the first day, he made $5. Every day after that he made $2 more than the previous day. How much money did Marcus make, in all, after five days? Days: , $ Made: 1 , $5 2 , $7 3 , $9 4 , $11 5 , $13 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 = $45

Ecosystem

An ecological community and its local, nonbiological community. An ecosystem is the minimum system that includes and sustains life. It must include at least an autotroph, a decomposer, a liquid medium, a source and sink of energy, and all the chemical elements required by the autotroph and the decomposer.

Climax Community

An ecological community in which populations of plants or animals remain stable and exist in balance with each other and their environment. Community is a historic term for a community of plants, animals, and fungi which, through the process of ecological succession in the development of vegetation in an area over time, have reached a steady state.

Percent Cover

An efficient means of understanding the relative abundance and contribution to the ecosystem made by different plants. -how much space a plant is taking up Percent Cover = number of quadrats where the species was present is divided by total number of samples taken then multiplied by 100 to get the frequency as a percentage EXAMPLE: Using the quadrat, what percent of the sample is covered by small, dark plant species? 0% - 5% coverage

The Antarctic Treaty 1959

An international agreement was signed by many countries to protect and manage Antarctica. The treaty includes control of military activities, waste disposal, mineral exploitation, wildlife conservation, and tourism. Founded in 1959 to demilitarize Antarctica as a zone free from nuclear tests, disposal of radioactive waste, and used for peaceful purposes only. Promotes international scientific cooperation in Antarctica to end disputes over territorial sovereignty.

Invasive Species

An introduced, nonnative organism such as disease, parasite, plant, or animal, that begins to spread or expand its range from the site of its original introduction and that has the potential to cause harm to the environment, the economy, or to human health.

Benefits and Limitations of Analysis of Big Data

Analysis 1: Describe: amount and type of data stored Benefits: -inexpensive -easy accessibility -large scalability to data Limitations: -security risks -unwanted attention -hard to migrate out Analysis 2: Describe: speed at which new data is generated Benefits: -speedy -structured -efficient Limitations: -cyber security risks -gaps in crossover -online complications Analysis 3: Describe: trustworthiness of the data being used Benefits: -efficient -flexible -scalable Limitations: -has missing pieces -insight missing -inaccuracy Analysis 4: Describe: where is that the data can be used Benefits: -improve decisions -reduced costs -enhanced customer service Limitations: -cyber security risks -talent gaps -unstructured

Strategies for Managing Impacts on Human Activity on Antarctica

Antarctic Treaty 1959: Describe: have no military and stop using radioactive chemicals for testing in Antarctica Benefits: -less people interaction Limitations: -less area for military Protected Areas: Describe: people cannot go to some areas in Antarctica Benefits: -Arctic conserved Limitations: -people can't visit some areas Fisheries Regulation: Describe: restrictions on fishing to keep the organisms in the wild Benefits: -more fish in the food chain Limitations: -no money made by selling fish Prohibited Activities such as Mineral Extraction: Describe: mineral and oil reserves are not allowed as it increases pollution Benefits: -decrease of population Limitations: -less area for them Protection from Non-Native Animals and Plants: Describe: plants and animals not native to Antarctica cannot be imported Benefits: -less competition for native species Limitations: -might be the only habitat for them Tourism Control: Describe: people have to have permits to travel to Antarctica Benefits: -less people messing with the land Limitations: -hard to travel there

Bias

Bias is a disproportionate weight in favor of or against an idea or thing, usually in a way that is closed-minded, prejudicial, or unfair. Biases can be innate or learned. People may develop biases for or against an individual, a group, or a belief. In science and engineering, a bias is a systematic error. Prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another, usually in a way considered to be unfair.

Mean, Median, Mode, Range

Calculates the averages of data sets using different methods. -mean = average of all numbers -median = middle number when in order -mode = most common number -range = largest number minus smallest number Mean = add all numbers then divide by the amount of numbers Arithmatic Mean = A = 1/n (nΣi=1) ai -A = arithmetic mean -n = number of values -ai = data set values Median = arrange data points from smallest to largest then find middle data point -if odd number of data points, median is middle data point in the list -if even number of data points, median is average of two middle data points in the list Odd Number of Data Points = Med(X) = X[(n + 1) / 2] Even Number of Data Points = Med(X) = [X(n/2) + X(n/2 + 1)] / 2 -X = ordered list of values in data set -n = number of values in data set Mode = place all numbers lowest to highest or highest to lowest then count how many times each number appears in the set, and find the most appearing number(s) Statistics Mode = L + [h(f1 − f0) / 2(f1 − f0 - f2)] -L = lower limit of modal class -h = size of class interval -f0 = frequency of preceding class -f1 = frequency of modal class -f2 = frequency of succeeding class Range = maximum value - minimum value Range(X) = Max(X) - Min(X) EXAMPLE: On a spelling test, some children in a class score 13, 17, 12, 19, 20, 13, and 11 out of 20. Find their mean, median, mode, and range. Mean = (13 + 17 + 12 + 19 + 20 + 13 + 11) / 7 Mean = 15 Median = middle of 11, 12, 13, 13, 17, 19, 20 Median = 13 Mode = most appearing of 11, 12, 13, 13, 17, 19, 20 Mode = 13 Range = max - min of 11, 12, 13, 13, 17, 19, 20 Range = 20 - 11 Range = 9

Energy Loss

Calculating the energy loss of a moving object. -numbers are in subscript -subtract initial kinetic energy from final kinetic energy -ΔK = change in kinetic energy -M = body's mass -V = body's velocity -k² = [M^0L^0T^] dimensional formula -M = mass -L = length -T = time Final 1/2 x MV² - Initial 1/2 x MV² = ΔK ΔK = M1M2 / 2 x (M1 + M2)(V1 − V2)²(1 − k²) is direct impact kinetic energy loss ΔK = M1M2 / 2 x (M1 + M2)|→u1 − →u2|²(1 − k²) is head-on collision of two point particles kinetic energy loss EXAMPLE: A cart of mass m slides along a frictionless horizontal track with a kinetic energy Ki. It collides with a stationary cart of mass 2m, and the two carts stick together and slide with total kinetic energy. What is the ratio of Kf : Ki? mv1i + m2v21 = (m + m2)vf mv1i + 0 = (m + 2m)vf mv1i = 3mvf v1i + 3vf Pi = Pf

Captive Breeding and Release as a Method of Conserving Biodiversity

Captive Breeding: Describe: process of keeping plants and animals in a controlled environment Benefits: -prevents spread of diseases -better living conditions -creates healthy population Limitations: -physical and behavioral changes -less change in survival instincts -expensive

Captive Breeding and Release

Captive breeding is the process of breeding animals outside of their natural environment in restricted conditions in farms, zoos or other closed facilities. The choice of individual animals that are to be part of a captive breeding population, and the mating partners within that population, are controlled by humans. One of the tools available to halt or reverse the decline of some species in the wild. Such programs may be carried out by zoos, aquaria, botanical gardens, or conservation organizations.

CITES

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species: 1973 treaty was formed to control the international trade of threatened plants and animals to protect them. Effective on July 1, 1975, because of a resolution in 1963 at a meeting of the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

Reliable Data

Data is complete and accurate, and it is a crucial foundation for building data trust across the organization. Ensuring data reliability is one of the main objectives of data integrity initiatives, which are also used to maintain data security, data quality, and regulatory compliance.

Disposal at Sea

Deliberate disposal into the sea of wastes or other matter from vessels, aircraft, platforms, or other man-made structures at sea.

Acid Deposition*

EXACT DEFINITION: A mix of air pollutants that deposit from the atmosphere as acidic wet deposition (with a pH < 5.6) or acidic dry deposition.

Photochemical Smog*

EXACT DEFINITION: A mixture of air pollutants and particulates, including ground level ozone, that is formed when oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the presence of sunlight.

Ozone Hole*

EXACT DEFINITION: An area where the average concentration of ozone is below 100 Dobson Units.

Trophic Level*

EXACT DEFINITION: Feeding levels within food chains.

Greenhouse Gases*

EXACT DEFINITION: Gases in the atmosphere that absorb infrared radiation and identify some common greenhouse gases.

Water Security*

EXACT DEFINITION: The ability to access sufficient quantities of clean water to maintain adequate standards of food and manufacturing of goods, adequate sanitation and sustainable health care.

Sustainability*

EXACT DEFINITION: The ability to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Aerobic Respiration*

EXACT DEFINITION: The chemical reactions in cells that break down glucose molecules and release energy, carbon dioxide and water.

Photosynthesis*

EXACT DEFINITION: The process by which plants synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide, water and energy from sunlight.

Ecosystem Productivity*

EXACT DEFINITION: The rate of production of biomass for an ecosystem.

Energy Security*

EXACT DEFINITION: The reliable availability of energy sources at an affordable price with a consideration of the environmental impacts.

Food Security*

EXACT DEFINITION: When all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.

Geospatial Systems

Enables us to acquire data that is referenced to the earth and use it for analysis, modeling, simulations, and visualization. Geospatial technology allows us to make informed decisions based on the importance and priority of resources most of which are limited in nature.

EU CFP

European Union Common Fisheries Policies: Set of rules for managing European fishing fleets and conserving fish stocks. Sets regulations on which member states are allowed to catch, amounts of fish, and market interventions. Began in 1970 and was reformed in 2014.

EDGE

Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE): Founded in 2007 for threatened species that have few or no close relatives on the tree of life. Usually extremely distinct in the way they look, live, behave, and their genetic make-up. EDGE species are animal species that have a high EDGE score, a metric of endangered conservation status with the genetic distinctiveness of the particular unit.

Habitat Conservation and Creation as Methods of Conserving Biodiversity

Extracted Reserves: Describe: an area of land where access rights all distribute as a protected area Benefits: -limits deforestation -keeps extractive industry away -sustained use Limitations: -social conflict -costs of maintenance -low impact of natural resources Protection of Habitats: Describe: management practice of seeking to conserve, protect, and restore habitats in range Benefits: -eat a survival of plants and animals -economic benefits -maintains biodiversity Limitations: -strict regulation -less tourism -loss of jobs Nature Reserves: Describe: an area of land that is managed to preserve its flora, fauna, and physical features Benefits: -saves from deconstruction -sanctuary -protects habitats Limitations: -committed resources -difficult to focus efforts -extinction if disaster occurs Protected Areas: Describe: locations which receive protection because of their recognize natural, ecological, or cultural value Benefits: -safeguarded -fosters biodiversity -keeps healthy habitats Limitations: -poor representation of habitat -transportation risks -recreation interrupted Conservation Zones: Describe: an area of special historic interest that is desirable to preserve or enhance species Benefits: -reduce property value -suspended losses -government and people benefit Limitations: -can be perpetual -diminished restriction -maintenance costs National Parks: Describe: an area set aside by a national government for the preservation of the natural environment for the public Benefits: -protecting against natural disasters -encourage environmentalism -renewable energy Limitations: -foreign invaders -pollution problems -hard managment

Big Data

Extremely large data sets that may be analyzed computationally to reveal patterns, trends, and associations, especially relating to human behavior and interactions. Data sets that are too large or complex to be dealt with by traditional data-processing application software. Data with many entries offer greater statistical power, while data with higher complexity may lead to a higher false discovery rate.

Native Species

Found in a certain ecosystem due to natural processes such as natural distribution. No human intervention brought a native species to the area or influenced its spread to that area. Native species are also sometimes called indigenous species.

UN International Water Law

Founded in 1982 to manage water resources that pass through multiple sovereign states and territories. Majority of international water laws are developed through international custom. Customs are sometimes codified by international organizations such as the United Nations.

Pioneer Species

Hardy species that are the first to colonize barren environments or previously biodiverse steady-state ecosystems that have been disrupted, such as by wildfire. The species that first colonize new habitats created by disturbance. Although the term is usually applied to plants, microbial and invertebrate pioneer species are also sometimes recognized.

HIC

High-Income Country: A well-developed "new world" country. GNI per capita of US $12,536. Characteristics: Higher levels of gender equality. Low birth rates and population growth. High employment levels. High levels of education. Developed social security systems. Developed health systems. Access to technology. Developed legal systems.

Strategies for Managing the Changing Population

Improved Ability of Contraception: Describe: the use of reversible methods of contraception like medications and implants to prevent women pregnancy Benefits: -no interruption less -population growth -highly effective Limitations: -needs trained professionals -can have defects -irregular systems of body Improved Education of Contraception: Describe: education and teaching women and others the methods of contraception Benefits: -increased knowledge -more informed decisions -more opportunity for education Limitations: -may not listen -wrong idea to the wrong person -less population growth if followed through Improved Education and Opportunity for Women: Describe: giving education to all women on ways to site development priorities for themselves Benefits: -strategic development -makes own decision -marry later and less children Limitations: -barrier of education -too young or too old -broken relations Improved Healthcare: Describe: the quality care that is safe, timely, efficient, and human centered Benefits: -healthier people -reduced hospital readmissions -more coordination Limitations: -expensive -reduced to access more workload Local, National, Global Policies: Describe: uniformly rules, restrictions, and regulations on local or foreign owned institutions to improve human population Benefits: -expands range of customer -diversity -more knowledge Limitations: -challenges for foreign culture -financial risks -business innovation risks

Random Sampling

In statistics, quality assurance, and survey methodology, sampling is the selection of a subset of individuals from within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. Statisticians attempt to collect samples that are representative of the population in question. A type of probability sampling in which the researcher randomly selects a subset of participants from a population. Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Data is then collected from as large a percentage as possible of this random subset.

Strategies for Managing Energy Security

Increasing Energy Efficiency: Describe: use less energy to get the same amount of work done Benefits: -less energy used Limitations: -jobs may not allow for less energy Increase Energy Production: Describe: use less amount of things to get more energy Benefits: -more energy produced Limitations: -more pollution with non-renewable resources Reducing Reliance on Fossil Fuels: Describe: make sure you do not need fossil fuels for the energy Benefits: -less pollution Limitations: -weather could affect quality Investing Renewable Resources and Carbon Neutral Fuels: Describe: put money to make more resources that are better for the environment Benefits: -better energy Limitations: -people using money Development of Alternative Energy Technologies: Describe: make energy so they can have less pollution Benefits: -better for environment Limitations: -hard to develop Investment in Local Energy Products: Describe: money put into projects which is trying to make better energy Benefits: -less pollution Limitations: -people using money Rationing: Describe: giving only a certain amount of energy Benefits: -saves energy Limitations: -some people require more

Satellite Sensors

Instruments that collect data about Earth processes or atmospheric components. Along with being carried aboard satellites or aircraft, sensors also can be installed on the ground (in situ). There are two types of sensors: active and passive. Collect information about the Earth's atmosphere and surface by measuring reflected energy. Passive sensors leverage solar energy and measure the electromagnetic radiation after it has been reflected off the Earth.

ITTO

International Tropical Timber Organization: An intergovernmental organization that promotes the conservation of tropical forest resources and their sustainable management, use, and trade. Founded in 1986 for the diversification of international trade in tropical timber from sustainably managed and legally harvested forests.

IUCN Red List

International Union for Conservation of Nature's list of worldwide threatened species: The conservation status of species based on population size, degree of specialization, distribution, reproductive potential, geographic distribution and fragmentation, habitat quality, trophic level, and probability of extinction. Founded in 1964 for the world's information on the global conservation status of animal, fungi, and plant species.

IWC

International Whaling Commission: Regulate the whaling industry by setting annual quotas to prevent over-harvesting and commercial extinction. Established under the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. Founded on December 2, 1946, to conserve whale stocks and order in the whaling industry.

Strategies for Managing Impacts of Human Activity on Tropical Rainforests

Legislation and International Agreements: Describe: laws to help keep down impacts Benefits: -people will stop messing with a given area Limitations: -hard to regulate Sustainable Harvesting: Describe: who sang a small amount of a plant population for harvesting Benefits: -not much is used Limitations: -limited land use Debt for Nature Swaps: Describe: some of government money used for conservation efforts Benefits: -money for good use Limitations: -money is being used Creation of Protected Areas: Describe: creating protected areas so there is no danger to habitats Benefits: -better environment Limitations: -less land area

How historical data have developed

Limited amount of historical data: Historical data, in a broad context, is data collected about past events and circumstances pertaining to a particular subject. By definition, historical data includes most data generated either manually or automatically within an enterprise. development of scientific theory: Scientific theories are created through the process of the scientific method. Observation and research lead to a hypothesis, which is then tested. If the hypothesis is not disproven, it will be reviewed and tested over and over again. advances in technology: Technological advancement occurs when technologies or applied sciences become more precise, accurate, efficient, or more powerful or capable. Scientific and technological advancements have made many important changes throughout history, some better than others.

LIC

Low-Income Country: A developing country is a sovereign state with a lesser developed industrial base and a lower Human Development Index relative to other countries. GNI per capita of $1,045 or less. Characteristics: Inadequate technology & capital. Low saving rates. Dual economy. Varying dependence on international trade. Rapid population growth (1.6% to DCs' 0.1% yearly) Low literacy & school enrollment rates. Unskilled labor force. Poorly developed institutions.

Tertiary Consumer

Make up the fourth trophic level. Those that eats the secondary consumers like large predators. Can be called apex predators.

Primary Consumer

Make up the second trophic level. They are also called herbivores. They eat primary producers—plants or algae—and nothing else.

Secondary Consumer

Make up the third trophic level. Largely carnivores that feed on the primary consumers or herbivores. They are heterotrophs, specifically carnivores and omnivores. Carnivores only eat other animals. Omnivores eat a combination of plants and animals.

Perimeter

Measures the length of the boundary of the shape. -sum of all sides of a shape -one-dimensional -expressed in linear units -"add all the sides" Rectangle = 2(Length + Width) Square = 4a -a = length of side Triangle = a + b + c -a, b, c = side lengths Trapezoid = a + b + c + d -a, b, c, d = sides Parallelogram = 2(Base + Height) Kite = 2a + 2b -a = length of first pair of equal sides -b = length of second pair of equal sides Rhombus = 4a -a = length of side Hexagon = 6a -a = length of side EXAMPLE: The length of a rectangular-shaped vegetable garden is 12 inches and the width of the garden is 8 inches. Find the perimeter of the vegetable garden. 12 in + 12 in + 8 in + 8 in = 40 in

MIC

Middle-Income Country: A diverse group by size, population, and income level. Lower middle-income economies' GNI per capita of $1,046 - $4,045. Upper middle-income economies' GNI per capita of $4,046 - $12,535.

Crowd Sourcing

Obtain (information or input into a particular task or project) by enlisting the services of a large number of people, either paid or unpaid, typically via the internet. The act of collecting services, ideas or content through the contributions of a large group of people.

Benefits and Limitations of Sampling Techniques

Open Frame Quadrat: Describe: the simplest way to collect data by using a square frame to outline a sample area, and allow you to collect percent frequency of each species in the area Benefits: -easy to use -inexpensive -minimal equipment Limitations: -error is easy -requires long work -only for slow animals Grid and Point: Describe: collects one or multiple samples of a georeferenced point within a grid or at a grid intersection Benefits: -easy to use -speedy -little equipment Limitations: -incorrect estimations of percent cover -presentation of identification online is difficult -inaccuracy Pitfall Traps: Describe: simple device used to catch small insects or animals that are on the ground. The simplest form is a container in the ground with its top being level with the ground Benefits: -simple -inexpensive -safe -no harm to species Limitations: -time consuming -random sampling -labor needed Sweep Nets: Describe: done by sweeping the net back-and-forth through the grass rapidly. Calculates the number of insects per sweep Benefits: -speedy -simple -easy to focus on one area Limitations: -fast movement -needs tall vegetation Beating Trays: Describe: trays are held under a tree or shrub and the foliage is shaken or beaten with a stick. Insects fall and land on a cloth that are collected for data Benefits: -large samples -easy collection -good estimation Limitations: -may not be random -requires labour -difficult to see small species Kick Sampling: Describe: technique used to sample animals in a stream, where a net is held underwater in the area around is kicked to collect data Benefits: -easy -not much material -gathers a lot Limitations: -streams could be unavailable -shallow waters -requires labour Light Traps: Describe: used to attract small insects during night to fly into the light and fall into the trap Benefits: -simple -inexpensive -attractive to eyes Limitations: -less effective if bright -less effective if cold -only at night -harmful to species Capture-Mark-Recapture: Describe: used to estimate the population size by capturing small amounts of species, marking them, releasing to capture again and see how many are marked the second time Benefits: -less harmful -simple -direct Limitations: -inaccuracy -hard to manage -variables can change -overestimation

Decomposer

Organisms that break down dead or decaying organisms; they carry out decomposition, a process possible by only certain kingdoms, such as fungi.

Producer

Photosynthesizing organisms. Producers are any kind of green plant. Green plants make their food by taking sunlight and using the energy to make sugar. The plant uses this sugar, also called glucose to make many things, such as wood, leaves, roots, and bark. A person, company, or country that makes, grows, or supplies goods or commodities for sale.

Abiotic

Physical rather than biological and not derived from living organisms. Non-living chemical and physical parts of the environment that affect living organisms and the functioning of ecosystems.

Pronatalist/Antinatalist

Pronatalist: Relating to the policy or practice of encouraging people to have children. Examples are tax advantages, better welfare benefits for women who have more than one child, and family-friendly employment conditions are encouraged to have more children. Antinatalist: The philosophical position views the birth and procreation of sentient beings (including non-human animals) as morally wrong. An example is China's One-Child policy.

Map Scale

Proportion between a distance on a map and a corresponding distance on the ground. -m and g in subscript -proportion expressed as "representative fraction" wheremap distance (Dm) is reduced to 1 -Dm = map distance -Dg = ground distance (Dm / Dg) EXAMPLE: The scale of a map is 1 : 50000. A town is represented by an area of 12 cm². Find the actual area of the town in km². 1 cm = 50000 cm 1 cm : 50000 km / (100 cm x 1000 m) 1 cm : 0.5 km Area = 2 x 1.5 Area = 3 km²

Strategies to Reduce the Impacts of Waste Disposal

Reduce, Reuse, Recycle: Describe: make the waste able to use again for other situations Benefits: -reusable waste Limitations: -increases cost Biodegradable Plastics: Describe: plastics decomposed out of living organisms Benefits: -renewable Limitations: -difficult Food Waste for Animal Feed: Describe: using waste from food to feed animals Benefits: -refusing food Limitations: -not good for the animals Composting: Describe: converting organic materials into nutrient-rich soil Benefits: -reusing materials LimitationS: -dangerous pathogens Fermentation: Describe: chemical changes in organic substances using enzymes Benefits: -improves immune system Limitations: -vulnerable to contamination Use of Waste to Generate Energy: Describe: the leftover waste is used to make energy Benefits: -using left overs for waste Limitations: -may be dirty Education: Describe: teach people how to properly dispose of waste for the best environment Benefits: -people learn correctly Limitations: -hard to teach everyone Financial Incentives in Legislation: Describe: giving money for doing the right thing and punishments for the wrong thing Benefits: -people have a reason to do good Limitations: -hard to enforce legislation

Strategies for Managing Climate Change

Reduction of Global and Individual Carbon Footprint: Describe: people using less carbon in order to reduce emissions Benefits: -carbon reduces Limitations: -everyone has to do their part Switching to Low-Carbon Fuels: Describe: people instead of using normal fuels start to switch to low carbon ones Benefits: -less carbon Limitations: -still fossil fuels Reducing the Use of Fossil Fuels: Describe: using less fossil fuels in daily life Benefits: -there are less emissions Limitations: -mostly available Using Alternative Forms of Energy: Describe: use renewable resources such as solar energy Benefits: -always be there Limitations: -expensive Transport Policies: Describe: people cannot travel a whole lot if their car doesn't have catalytic converters Benefits: -encourages people to get catalytic converters Limitations: -hard to enforce Use of Carbon Capture and Storage: Describe: in the air, capture the carbon and storage it so it isn't emitted Benefits: -other pollutants removed Limitations: - not the best solution Reducing Deforestation, Increasing Reforestation, and Afforestation: Describe: instead of reducing trees add more in the environment Benefits: -trees contain carbon Limitations: -in a developing country it is hard Energy Efficient Building and Infrastructure: Describe: use buildings that are energy efficient Benefits: -the materials are renewable Limitations: -expensive Adaptation to Climate Change: Describe: people need to deal with climate change Benefits: -might have to be this way Limitations: -shouldn't have to do it National and International Agreements: Describe: the nations have laws that allow them to help with climate change Benefits: -laws that are able to help Limitations: -people may not listen to them

Biotic

Relating to or resulting from living things, especially in their ecological relations. Living things and/or species.

Importance of experimental evidence to support hypothesis

Rowland-Molina suggested the ozone destruction hypothesis: A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation. initially the main hypothesis was not accepted: There is a definite, consequential relationship between the two phenomena or the test has not identified a consequential relationship between the two phenomena. some of the auxiliary hypothesis were not backed up by experimental evidence: Hypotheses must be testable, and once tested, they can be supported by evidence. If a statement is made that cannot be tested and disproved, then it is not a hypothesis. the hypothesis lead to further research and data collection by other scientists, which confirm that CFCs are ozone depleting: Peer Reviewed Publishing results of research projects in peer-reviewed journals enables the scientific and medical community to evaluate the findings themselves. It also provides instructions so that other researchers can repeat the experiment or build on it to verify and confirm the results. Gaseous CFCs can deplete the ozone layer when they slowly rise into the stratosphere, are broken down by strong ultraviolet radiation, release chlorine atoms, and then react with ozone molecules.

Theory

Scientific models that offer broad, fundamental explanations of related phenomena and are supported by consistent and extensive evidence. A supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one based on general principles independent of the thing to be explained.

Correlations

Statistical method used to assess a possible linear association between two continuous variables. -determining covariance of variables and dividing that number by the product of those variables' standard deviations ρ(X , Y) = cov(X , Y) / σXσY EXAMPLE: Ranks of 8 trainees at the beginning (x) and at the end (y) are given. Calculate Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. Trainees: , x: , y: A , 1 , 2 B, 2, 4 C, 4, 3 D, 5, 7 E, 6, 8 F, 8, 1 G, 3, 5 H, 7, 6 n = 8 , Σd² = 68 Rs = 1 - [6Σd² / n(n² - 1)] Rs = 1 - [(6 x 68) / (8 x 63)] Rs = 1 - (17 / 21) Rs = (21 - 17) / 21 Rs = 4 /21 Rs = 0.19

Strategies for Managing Food Security

Subsistence Agriculture: Describe: crops and livestock for farming are used to provide for a farmers family Benefits: -helps the family Limitations: -complicated with drought Increase Food Production by Intensification and Extensification: Describe: using the area possible by either adding land for crops and livestock or adding crops and livestock for land Benefits: -more to go around Limitations: -long expensive process Improve Agricultural Techniques and Efficiency: Describe: using aquacultural or selective breeding for the best animals Benefits: -easier ways to produce Limitations: -not accessible for LIC's Reduction in Livestock an Increase in Growing Crops: Describe: farmers growing more crops than raising livestock Benefits: -easier to grow crops Limitations: -livestock would be useless Reduce Food Waste: Describe: instead of throwing food away people eat it later Benefits: food isn't wasted Limitations: food may spoil quickly Large Scale Food Stockpiling: Describe: buy lots food at the same time to save money for later Benefits: -prepared Limitations: -expensive when you buy food Improve Transportation of Food: Describe: allow food to be imported that allows countries to have more Benefits: -more food Limitations: -pollen contamination Protecting Pollinating Insects: Describe: insects that do pollination are protected so they can carry out the functions Benefits: -insects continue to do the job Limitations: -pollinators may be invasive The World Food Program and Food Aid: Describe: people are helped with food and get money for food Benefits: -people get food for free Limitations: -people may lie about needing food Rationing: Describe: letting a person have a fixed amount of food Benefits: -knowing there is enough Limitations: -people are hungry

Strategies for Managing Water Security

Sustainable Water Extraction and Improved Supply: Describe: water that is able to be extracted safely for consumption and a good amount Benefits: -this is good for all humans to have Limitations: -it is hard to find places Reduction in Water Usage: Describe: reducing amount of water that is used Benefits: -more water available for use Limitations: -some people need lots of water Education on Sustainable Water Use: Describe: people learn on how to use water correctly Benefits: -people can now use it good Limitations: -not everyone will be able to learn that Poverty Reduction: Describe: more people with money means better water Benefits: -the water is better Limitations: -it is hard to get poverty reduced Internal Agreement and Water Related Aid: Describe: people get help in getting aid from water and the government is in on it Benefits: -people less fortunate are helped Limitations: -not all governments will do this Rationing: Describe: only give a certain amount of water for people to use Benefits: -lots of water available Limitations: -some require more water

Niche

The "profession," or role, of an organism or species. All the environmental conditions under which the individual or species can persist. The fundamental niche is all the conditions under which a species can persist in the absence of competition; the realized niche is the set of conditions as they occur in the real world with competitors.

Storage

The action or method of storing something for future use. Computer data storage is a technology consisting of computer components and recording media that are used to retain digital data.

Net Primary Productivity

The amount of biomass or carbon produced by primary producers per unit area and time, obtained by subtracting plant respiratory costs from gross primary productivity or total photosynthesis.

Primary Succession

The beginning step of ecological succession after an extreme disturbance, which usually occurs in an environment devoid of vegetation and other organisms. These environments are typically lacking in soil, as disturbances like lava flow or retreating glaciers shred the environment of nutrients. When a new patch of land is created or exposed for the first time. This can happen, for example, when lava cools and creates new rocks, or when a glacier retreats and exposes rocks without any soil. During primary succession, organisms must start from scratch.

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. A variable (often denoted by x ) whose variation does not depend on that of another.

World Food Program

The food assistance branch of the United Nations and the world's largest humanitarian organization addressing hunger and promoting food security. An international organization within the United Nations that provides food assistance worldwide as the leading provider of school meals. Founded in 1961, the program is headquartered in Rome and has offices in 80 countries.

Dry Deposition

The free fall to Earth directly from the atmosphere of atmospheric trace gases and particulate matter. Dry deposition is another form of acid deposition, and this is when gases and dust particles become acidic.

Natural Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth's surface. When the Sun's energy reaches the Earth's atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and some is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases. The way in which heat is trapped close to Earth's surface by "greenhouse gases." These heat-trapping gases can be thought of as a blanket wrapped around Earth, keeping the planet toastier than it would be without them.

Dependent Variable

The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested. A variable (often denoted by y ) whose value depends on that of another.

Exporting Waste

The practice that occurs when countries transport their waste that they deem recyclable abroad, and it is typically transported from developed countries to developing countries.

Carbon Stores

The process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide. It is one method of reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere with the goal of reducing global climate change. A carbon sink is anything, natural or otherwise, that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period and thereby removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. These sinks form an important part of the natural carbon cycle.

Recycling

The process of converting waste materials into new materials and objects. This concept often includes the recovery of energy from waste materials. The recyclability of a material depends on its ability to reacquire the properties it had in its original state.

Magnification

The process of enlarging the apparent size, not physical size, of something. -if number is less than one, refers to a reduction in size, called de-magnification image size / actual size = magnification m = di / da EXAMPLE: A ball is placed 3.0 cm in front of a lens. If the image of the ball appears to be 21.0 com behind the lens, calculate the magnification index of the lens. m = 21.0 cm / -3.0 cm m = -7.0 cm real image is larger (de-magnified)

Wet Deposition

The process whereby atmospheric gases mix with suspended water in the atmosphere and are then washed out through rain, snow or fog. Any substance that will solubilize in water will deposit as wet deposition.

Dependency Ratio

The ratio of young and old people who are not in work and dependent on working-age taxpayers to pay for public services. -[(0-14) + (65+)] x 100 / (15-64) -"children + aged x 100 over working" -use alternate forms of dependency ratio to find the child and aged dependency ratios -percentage in final calculation -lower % good because there are enough people to pay -higher % bad because there are not enough people to pay [young population (0 to 14) + old population (65+)] x 100 / population aged 15 to 64 = dependency ratio percentage [young population (0 to 14) / working age (15 to 64)] x 100 = child dependency ratio [old population (65+) / working age (15 to 64)] x 100 = aged dependency ratio EXAMPLE: Calculate the dependency ratio of Fiji. 65+ = 50418 15 to 64 = 583425 0 to 14 = 262601 (262601 + 50418 / 583425) x 100 = 53.7%

Secondary Succession

The secondary ecological succession of a plant's life. As opposed to the first, primary succession, secondary succession is a process started by an event that reduces an already established ecosystem to a smaller population of species, and as such secondary succession occurs on preexisting soil whereas primary succession usually occurs in a place lacking soil. When a climax community or intermediate community is impacted by a disturbance. This restarts the cycle of succession, but not back to the beginning—soil and nutrients are still present.

Gross Primary Productivity

The total amount of carbon compounds produced by photosynthesis of plants in an ecosystem in a given period of time.

Renewable Resources

Those resources that continue to exist despite being consumed or can replenish themselves over a period of time even as they are used. They include the sun, wind, water, geothermal, and biomass. The disadvantage of renewable resources is that they may not be available for use when needed.

Percentages

To calculate the percent of a number. -divide number by whole and multiply by 100 -cross multiply -percentage means a part per hundred -cross multiply -(part / whole) is also written as (is / of) (part / whole) = (% / 100) EXAMPLE: A poll was conducted by a local newspaper asking if the governor was doing a good job. 6000 people were polled. If 2400 people said they approved of the job the governor was doing, what percent of the people polled disapproved? 3600 / 6000 = x / 100 (3600 x 100) / 6000 = 60 60% disapproved

Frequency

To compare plant communities and to detect changes in vegetation composition over time to assess vegetation trend. -quantifies and describes the distribution of a species in a community -vegetation attribute that describes the probability of finding a species within a particular area -probability is based on occurrence of that species in a series of sample units -also the important parameter used in science and engineering to specify the rate of oscillatory and vibratory phenomena Frequency = count and record number of individuals of each species in a each plot then calculate frequency of each plant, so total number of plots in which a plant occurred EXAMPLE: Using the quadrat, what is the frequency of the flower? frequency of 12 or 12%

Area

To define the amount of space taken up by a 2D shape or surface. -measure area in square units -"length x width" Rectangle = l × w - l = length -w = width Square = a² -a = sides of square Triangle = 1/2 b × h -b = base -h = height Circle = πr² -r = radius of circle Trapezoid = 1/2 (a + b)h -a =base 1 -b = base 2 -h = vertical height Ellipse = πab -a = radius of major axis -b = radius of minor axis EXAMPLE: What is the area of a square with sides of 9 cm? A = 9 cm² A = 9 cm x 9 cm A = 81 cm²

Charts

To display data and invite further exploration of a topic in situations where a simple table won't adequately demonstrate important relationships or patterns between data points. -condense large amounts of information into easy-to-understand formats that clearly and effectively communicate important points (x , y) EXAMPLE: The number of weekly customer complaints are monitored in a large hotel using a c-chart. Develop three sigma control limits using the data table below. Week: , Number of Complaints: 1 , 3 2 , 2 3 , 3 4 , 1 5 , 3 6 , 3 7 , 2 8 , 1 9 , 3 10 , 1 Total , 22 CL = #complaints / #samples = 22 / 10 = 2.2 UCL = 2.2 + 3√2.2 = 6.65 LCL = 2.2 - 3√2.2 = -2.25 = 0

Histograms

To summarize discrete or continuous data that are measured on an interval scale. -checks shape of data distribution -x and y-values -represented with bars -usually has an average line (x , y) EXAMPLE: Movie theaters require people 15 and under to have an supervising adult during the movie. Using the histogram, how many people do not need a supervising adult? 8 + 3 + 1 or 25 - 6 - 4 -3 = 12 12 people do not need an additional adult

UN Agenda 21

United Nation's Agenda 21: A plan of action to be taken globally, nationally, and locally by organizations of the United Nations System, Governments, and Major Groups in every area in which human impacts the environment. Originally held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, June 3-14, 1992. Published 300 pages on April 23, 1992.

Abundance using ACFOR

Used by biologists to estimate abundance (less quantitative method). -Relative species abundance = dividing number of species from one group by total number of species from all groups -quadrats are useful for studying both the distribution and behavior for a species within a sample area ACFOR = Abundant, Common, Frequent, Occasional, Rare -N = none -"kite" Species Abundance = SUM('Fauna Observations'[Number of Observations]) EXAMPLE: In the kite diagram, which species are most abundant in large, shallow rockpools? F. serratus due to it being the largest and widest kite in large shallow rockpool

Radio Tracking

Uses the transmission of radio signals to locate a transmitter attached to the animal of interest. It is often used to obtain location data on the animal's preferred habitat, home range, and to understand population dynamics.

Graphs

Visually illustrates relationships in the data to present data that are too numerous or complicated to be described adequately in the text and in less space. Linear Function y = mx + b -straight line -y = y value (distance along y-axis or vertical axis) -x = x value (distance along x-axis or horizontal axis) -m = slope found using rise/run or ∆x/∆y -b = y-intercept (y-value where line crosses the y-axis when x = 0) Quadratic Function y = ax² + bx + c -a, b, c = constants Cubic Function y = ax3 + bx² + cx + d Exponential Function f(x) = ax -x occurs as an exponent -exponential curve depends on exponential function and value of x -a > 0 and not equal to 1 -x is any real number EXAMPLE: The distance you walk every morning can be modeled by the equation d = 4h, where d is the distance waled in miles and h is the number of hours you've walked. Graph this function and see how far you've walked after two hours. (x , y): (0 , 0) (1 , 4) (2 , 8) 8 miles after 2 hours

Incineration

Waste treatment process that involves the combustion of substances contained in waste materials. Industrial plants for waste incineration are commonly referred to as waste-to-energy facilities. Incineration and other high-temperature waste treatment systems are described as "thermal treatment".

Biotic Interactions

When organisms living in the same community directly or indirectly influence one another. Predation (an animal eating another animal). Parasitism (an organism infecting a host). Grazing (an animal eating a plant). Competition (two or more species eating the same species).

Habitat

Where an individual, population, or species exists or can exist. For example, the habitat of the Joshua tree is the Mojave Desert of North America.

WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines

World Health Organization's updated guidelines offer health-based air quality guideline levels, expressed as long-term or short-term concentrations for six key air pollutants including PM2.5, PM10, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide. Founded in 2006 to help reduce human exposure to air pollution and its impacts.

Limiting factors in the rate of photosynthesis

availability of water: The deficiency of water causes stomata to open very little or stay closed. So, CO2 cannot enter into the leaves. concentration of carbon dioxide: Increasing carbon dioxide concentration causes a rapid rise in the rate of photosynthesis and decreasing cause and rapid decline. availability of light: At a very high intensity of light, the rate of photosynthesis would drop quickly as the light starts to damage the plant.

Impacts of invasive species on biodiversity

causing extinctions of native plants and animals: Preying on native species, outcompeting native species for food or other resources, causing or carrying disease, and preventing native species from reproducing or killing a native species young. reducing biodiversity: They are better competitors because they emerge earlier in the spring, grow rapidly, and are impacted by few, if any, natural predators. competing with native organisms for limited resources: Invasive species often gain an advantage over their native competitors under high resource supply, but stressful conditions can reverse the hierarchy, leading to a competitive advantage of natives. altering habitats: By destroying or replacing native food sources. The invasive species may provide little to no food value for wildlife. Invasive species can also alter the abundance or diversity of species that are important habitat for native wildlife. disruption of ecosystems: Can displace native plants, prevent native plant growth, and create monocultures.

Changes that affect population size and composition

changes in birth rates: If the birth rate is larger than the death rate, then the population grows. changes in death rates: If the death rate is larger than the birth rate, the population size will decrease. If the birth and death rates are equal, then the population size will not change. changes in migration rates: More immigration and less emigration leads to a larger population.

How ozone depletion occurs

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) from aerosols and refrigerant are unreactive compounds and are not broken down in the troposphere: CFCs can only be destroyed by extremely energetic ultraviolet radiation, such as is found above most of the ozone layer. CFCs are broken down by UV photolysis, but the process takes a long time since it takes decades to cycle all of the air in the troposphere through the upper stratosphere. 3d. CFCs move into the stratosphere and break down in the presence of ultraviolet light to release a chlorine atom: Once in the atmosphere, CFCs drift slowly upward to the stratosphere, where they are broken up by ultraviolet radiation, releasing chlorine atoms, which are able to destroy ozone molecules. The seasons have an impact on the Antarctic ozone hole. rapid reactions between chlorine atoms and ozone breaks down ozone (O3) to oxygen (O2) causing ozone depletion: The so-called "lifetime" of an existing ozone molecule residing at some level is determined by how long it takes a UV photon to penetrate into the atmosphere to that level and to break apart the molecule in a process known as photolysis.

Causes of water insecurity

climate change, including changes in rainfall: On average, total annual precipitation has increased over land areas in the United States and worldwide (see Figures 1 and 2). Since 1901, global precipitation has increased at an average rate of 0.04 inches per decade, while precipitation in the contiguous 48 states has increased at a rate of 0.20 inches per decade. natural disasters, including drought and flooding pollution events: To this day, the Donora Smog crisis is considered the worst air pollution incident to occur in the United States and one of the worst in the world. inadequate sanitation: Poor sanitation is linked to transmission of diarrhoeal diseases such as cholera and dysentery, as well as typhoid, intestinal worm infections and polio. It exacerbates stunting and contributes to the spread of antimicrobial resistance. population growth, changes in land usage including deforestation and urbanization: Habitat loss is the greatest threat to biodiversity. Urbanization not only destroys and fragments habitats but also alters the environment itself. For example, deforestation and fragmentation of forest lands lead to the degradation and loss of forest interior habitat as well as creating forest edge habitat. competing demands from agricultural, industrial, energy and domestic sectors: According to some estimates, industrialized farming-which produces greenhouse gas emission, pollutes air and water, and destroys wildlife-costs the environment the equivalent of about US$3 trillion every year. mismanagement of irrigation, including salinization: international competition over water sources: International competition over water can arise when one country starts drawing more water from a shared water source. This is often the most efficient route to getting needed water, but in the long term can cause conflict if water is overdrafted. inequality of availability between water-rich and water-poor regions: differing access to safe drinking water in urban and rural areas: Global urban and rural drinking water coverage 2020, by water source. In 2020, 86 percent of the world's urban population had access to safely managed drinking water services. In comparison, just 60 percent of the rural population had access to safely managed drinking water.

Impacts of human activity on Antarctica

climate change: Global warming, ozone depletion and global contamination have planet-wide impacts. These affect Antarctica at the largest scale. Fishing and hunting have more localised impacts, but still have the potential to cause region-wide effects ozone depletion: The polar ozone holes are areas of lower concentration of stratospheric ozone that form over the Antarctic and the Arctic due to human activities. tourism: Cause enormous greenhouse gas emissions. The visitors to the snow-covered landmass are endangering not just the Antarctic region by their actions, but also the rest of the world. overfishing: Since the 18th century, when humans first began commercial hunting in the Antarctic's Southern Ocean, many species have been hunted and fished to near extinction due to commercial activities. future mineral and oil extraction: Manganese nodules, water (as ice), geothermal energy, coal, petroleum, and natural gas are potential resources that could perhaps be exploited in the future. scientific research: Research is done in Antarctica only when it cannot be performed in a more accessible location.

Sources of greenhouse gas emissions from human activities

combustion of fossil fuels (carbon dioxide and water vapor): During combustion or burning, carbon from fossil fuels combine with oxygen in the air to form carbon dioxide and water vapor. These natural hydrocarbon fuels come from once-living organisms and are made from carbon and hydrogen, which release carbon dioxide and water when they burn. rice fields and livestock (methane): landfill sites (methane): Methane Emissions from Landfills Municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills are the third-largest source of human-related methane emissions in the United States, accounting for approximately 14.3 percent of these emissions in 2021.

Impacts of waste disposal methods and treatment

contamination of soil leading to leaching and contamination of ground water: Materials from the land's surface can move through the soil and end up in the groundwater. For example, pesticides and fertilizers can find their way into groundwater supplies over time. Road salt, toxic substances from mining sites, and used motor oil also may seep into groundwater. build-up and release of the greenhouse gas methane (CH4) with a danger of explosions visual and noise pollution and unpleasant odor: The brain is always monitoring sounds for signs of danger, even during sleep. As a result, frequent or loud noise can trigger anxiety or stress. With continued exposure to noise pollution, a person's sensitivity to stress increases . People living with noise pollution may feel irritable, on edge, frustrated, or angry. risk of spread of disease: Environmental factors influencing the spread of communicable diseases. Water, sanitation, food and air quality are vital elements in the transmission of communicable diseases and in the spread of diseases prone to cause epidemics. release of toxic substances: Releases: A "release" refers to different ways that toxic chemicals from industrial facilities enter the air, water, and land. Releases include spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying, discharging, injecting, escaping, leaching, dumping, or disposing into the environment. bioaccumulation and biomagnification plastics and microplastics in oceans: Most plastics in the ocean break up into very small particles. These small plastic bits are called "microplastics." Other plastics are intentionally designed to be small. They're called microbeads and are used in many health and beauty products. They pass unchanged through waterways into the ocean.

Impacts of human activity on tropical rainforests

deforestation leading to fragmentation: Subsistence activities, oil extraction, logging, mining, fires, war, commercial agriculture, cattle ranching, hydroelectric projects, pollution, hunting and poaching, the collection of fuel wood and building material, and road construction. fuel wood and timber collection: Many types of wood used for furniture, flooring, and construction are harvested. agricultural expansion: Removing trees and plants, plowing fields, and overgrazing by livestock disrupts roots that stabilize sediment and decrease soil quality. These human activities can increase erosion rates 10 to 100 times. In turn, increasing erosion decreases water quality by increasing sediment and pollutants in rivers and streams. mineral extraction: Changes the distribution and occurrence of minerals. Naturally occurring diamonds and other precious gemstones will over time become extremely rare, hoarded by humans in their cities or replaced by synthetic diamonds. hydroelectric and reservoir projects: Falling water produces hydroelectric power. Water flowing through the dams spin turbine blades (made from metal instead of leaves) which are connected to generators. Power is produced and is sent to homes and businesses. Hydropower is the most important and widely-used renewable source of energy. climate change: Causing changes in Earth's atmosphere in the amounts of greenhouse gases, aerosols (small particles), and cloudiness. The largest known contribution comes from the burning of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide gas to the atmosphere. exploitation of individual species: A species used as a food source. When a species is harvested, or taken at a rate faster than the population can compensate for, the population is listed as overexploited, or over-harvested.

Differences between population structures of HIC and LIC

differences in birth rates: The higher the degree of education and GDP per capita of a human population, subpopulation or social stratum, the fewer children are born in any developed country. differences in death rates: People living in a low-income country are far more likely to die of a communicable disease than a noncommunicable disease. differences in migration rates: A major reason why people migrate is income differences between origin and destination countries. Richer countries attract more immigrants, especially from countries with younger populations. differences in mortality rates (life expectancy): Severe poverty is the root cause of the high mortality rates in the developing world. differences in initial age profile of population (whether it is relatively old or relatively young to begin with): The age structure in developed countries is evenly distributed, while the age structure of developing countries is skewed towards younger age categories due to high fertility rates and low survivorship.

Impacts of energy insecurity

disrupted electricity supply to homes and industry: Raise energy prices, imposing an increased burden on U.S. households and businesses. Disruptions can also reduce the nation's economic output and thus people's income. increasing prices for energy resources: The inflationary surge of electricity is directly linked to rising oil and gas prices since gas makes up 22% of electricity production. increasing costs for industry: Energy price shocks have caused rising global inflation and tighter monetary conditions, slowing global growth. job losses and economic recession: Job losses would be most pronounced in communities that are heavily dependent on fossil energy production, especially coal. increased levels of poverty and low standards of living: Hindering the development of some developing countries and by disproportionately affecting people from lower-income backgrounds. reliance on imported sources of energy: By reducing overall energy demand, efficiency can reduce reliance on imports of oil, gas and coal. civil disruption and conflict: Individuals and social groups engage in conflict over energy issues when they perceive that their way of life is imperiled, or they have been dealt with unjustly, or as part of a larger constellation of grievances about the political and socioeconomic conditions within which they live.

Factors influencing population density and distribution

environmental: Climate, landforms, topography, soil, energy and mineral resources, accessibility like distance from sea coast, natural harbors, navigable rivers or canals. economic: Educational institutions, employment opportunities, manufacturing industries, luxurious amenities, trade and commerce, other facilities. social: Family, entertainment, friends, amount of people, health care. political: War, political disturbance, conflict, weak administration, political views. historical: Past population distributions, the duration of settlements, culture.

Impacts of photochemical smog

eye and respiratory irritation: The major undesirable components of photochemical smog are nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), PAN (peroxyacetylnitrate), and chemical compounds that contain the -CHO group (aldehydes). PAN and aldehydes can cause eye irritation and plant damage if their concentrations are sufficiently high. decreased crop yield: These gases can directly damage crop cells and indirectly affect them through their role as precursors to formation of ozone, an airborne toxin known to reduce crop yields, and particulate matter aerosols that can absorb and scatter sunlight away from crops. Deterioration of plastics and rubber: The excessive cracking of rubber products was one of the earliest indicators of the presence of atmospheric photochemical oxidants. It has been demonstrated that this excessive cracking of rubber is caused by atmospheric ozone formed in the photochemical smog formation process.

Causes of energy insecurity

fossil fuel depletion: Fossil fuels and uranium are limited resources and will run out at some point. As fossil fuel supplies dwindle, for example, their prices will rise. inequality in global energy resources: Energy consumption is essential for human wellbeing, but there is enormous inequality in energy use worldwide. The top 10% of global energy consumers use roughly 30 times more energy than the bottom 10%. Our energy use also drives climate change. population growth: Growing populations consume more energy. Availability of energy allows populations to grow. Energy consumption exerts demands on energy resources making them scarcer. differing energy needs of countries in different income groups: When there is an energy deficit, where the amount of energy consumed is greater than the amount of energy produced. Energy insecurity is caused by geography, lack of wealth, dependence on other countries and poor management. climate change: Directly affects fuel supply, energy production as well as the physical resilience of current and future energy infrastructure. Heatwaves and droughts are already putting existing energy generation under stress, making it even more important to reduce fossil fuel emissions. supply disruption: -natural disasters -piracy -terrorism If energy supply is low and demand is high, energy becomes more valuable. With the current skyrocketing price of energy, more people can't afford to use it, plummeting them into a state of energy insecurity.

Formation of acid deposition

fossil fuels contain sulfur compounds: Sulfur dioxide, SO2, is a colorless gas or liquid with a strong, choking odor. It is produced from the burning of fossil fuels (coal and oil) and the smelting of mineral ores (aluminum, copper, zinc, lead, and iron) that contain sulfur. Sulfur dioxide dissolves easily in water to form sulfuric acid. combustion of fossil fuels releases sulfur dioxide gas: Sulfur dioxide, SO2, is a colorless gas or liquid with a strong, choking odor. It is produced from the burning of fossil fuels (coal and oil) and the smelting of mineral ores (aluminum, copper, zinc, lead, and iron) that contain sulfur. sulfur dioxide gas reacts with water and oxygen in the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid: Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere and transported by wind and air currents. The SO2 and NOXreact with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These then mix with water and other materials before falling to the ground. nitrogen from the atmosphere reacts with oxygen in the high temperatures of vehicle engines to form nitrogen monoxide gas: Nitrogen monoxide, NO, is a pollutant formed by the reaction of nitrogen gas, N2, and oxygen gas, O2, at high temperatures in automobile engines and other high-temperature combustion processes. Most of the waste NO from automotive engines is converted back to nitrogen gas, N2 and O2 by the catalytic converter. nitrogen monoxide gas is released into the atmosphere in vehicle emissions: These nitrogen oxides contribute to the problem of air pollution, playing roles in the formation of both smog and acid rain. They are released into Earth's atmosphere by both natural and human-generated sources. nitrogen monoxide gas reacts with oxygen and water in the atmosphere to form nitric acid: Oxygen reacts with the nitrogen monoxide to form brown nitrogen dioxide. The nitrogen dioxide reacts with water to form nitric acid increasing the acidity of the solution.

Impacts of ozone depletion

human health (cataracts, skin cancer): Featured snippet from the web The depletion of the ozone layer has multiple effects on your health, primarily negative. Since exposure to sunlight causes damage to human tissue, less ozone layer leads to a higher incidence of skin and eye conditions, including skin cancer and eye lesions such as cataracts. decreased crop yields: Impacts of ozone depletion Ozone layer depletion causes increased UV radiation levels at the Earth's surface, which is damaging to human health. Negative effects include increases in certain types of skin cancers, eye cataracts and immune deficiency disorders. biodiversity of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems: Health and environmental effects of ozone layer depletion Ozone layer depletion increases the amount of UVB that reaches the Earth's surface. Laboratory and epidemiological studies demonstrate that UVB causes non-melanoma skin cancer and plays a major role in malignant melanoma development. degradation of materials used in clothing and construction: The ozone layer acts as a natural filter, absorbing most of the sun's burning ultraviolet ( UV ) rays. Stratospheric ozone depletion leads to an increase in UV -B that reach the earth's surface, where it can disrupt biological processes and damage a number of materials.

Impacts associated with use of some alternative to ozone depleting substances

hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs): Compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, chlorine and fluorine. fluorinated gases (F-gases): Man-made gases used in a range of industrial applications.

Impacts of climate change on human populations

increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events leading to flooding and loss of land, drought and wildfires: Increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events leading to flooding and loss of land, drought and wildfires. damage to property and loss of life during extreme weather events: The effects of extreme weather includes, but not limited to: Too much rain (heavy downpours), causing floods and landslides. Too much heat and no rain (heatwave) causing droughts and wildfires. Strong winds, such as hurricanes and tornadoes, causing damage to man made structures and animal habitats. forced migration: A person subject to a migratory movement in which an element of coercion exists, including threats to life and livelihood, whether arising from natural or man-made causes (e.g. movements of refugees and internally displaced persons as well as people displaced by natural or environmental disasters, chemical or nuclear impacts on crop yields and increased pest outbreaks: Pest outbreaks can be caused by a number of factors, including changes in the environment, natural disasters, and changes in agricultural practices. Climate change can cause increases in temperatures and rainfall, both of which can create conditions that are more hospitable to certain types of pests. impacts of food, energy and water security: Water is key to food security. Crops and livestock need water to grow. Agriculture requires large quantities of water for irrigation and of good quality for various production processes.

Causes of enhanced greenhouse effect

leads to global warming: Burning fossil fuels, cutting down forests and farming livestock are increasingly influencing the climate and the earth's temperature. This adds enormous amounts of greenhouse gases to those naturally occurring in the atmosphere, increasing the greenhouse effect and global warming.

How unreliable data has led to false reporting of scientific conclusions

limited amount of data: Given the realities of bias, low statistical power, and a small number of true hypotheses, Ioannidis concludes that the majority of studies in a variety of scientific fields are likely to report results that are false. lack of public and media knowledge: Science seeks to build reliable knowledge and provide scientific explanations that people can use to better understand the world around them and inform their decision-making. uncertainty in climate models: While the global climate models integrate many different physical parameters, they don't have everything. One important missing variable is aerosol composition. The reflective properties of aerosols in the atmosphere can change the Earth's climate sensitivity, and consequently ocean temperatures.

Difficulties of monitoring and predicting climate change

limited historical data used to reconstruct past climate conditions (ice cores, tree rings, historical accounts): Other sources of proxy data for climate include lake and ocean sediments, layers of ice (cored from ice sheets), corals, fossils, and historical records from ship logs and early weather observers. future climate predictions are made using computer climate models which use different variables: To predict future climate, scientists use computer programs called climate models to understand how our planet is changing. Climate models work like a laboratory in a computer. They allow scientists to study how different factors interact to influence a region's climate. climate feedback mechanisms are not fully understood: Feedbacks due to clouds and surface albedo (associated with snow and ice changes) are also positive in all models, but cloud feedbacks are the largest source of uncertainty in current predictions of climate sensitivity. time delay between cause and effect: Latency, from a general point of view, is a time delay between the cause and the effect of some physical change in the system being observed. uncertainty over the use of some data and try and conclusions has resulted in differences in scientific and political opinion: In many respects, uncertainty is critical for science because it spurs scientists to engage in further investigation and research. It is important to understand that scientific uncertainty does not mean the science is flawed. Rather it means an absence of certainty and in science, it's okay to have uncertainty.

Impacts of water insecurity

livestock death: LIP provides benefits to livestock producers for livestock deaths in excess of normal mortality caused by adverse weather or by attacks by animals food shortages, malnutrition and famine: A famine is defined as the most severe kind of hunger crisis. It is very rare, but when it does occur, it means that there is an extreme shortage of food and several children and adults within a certain area are dying of hunger on a daily basis. illnesses caused by contaminated drinking water, limited to diarrhea and gloria: Diarrhoea, typhoid and malaria fever are water-borne disease. They are caused by drinking contaminated water.

How bias has led to the misuse of scientific data

misuse: Bias can damage research, if the researcher chooses to allow his bias to distort the measurements and observations or their interpretation. climate change: There is a bias in terms of which weather hazards.

Causes of food insecurity and threats to food security

population growth: Pressure on limited land resources, driven in part by population growth, can mean expansion of cropland. This often involves destruction of vital forest resources or overexploitation of arable land. unsustainable production, increase in homogeneity in global food supply: Leaves the land barren, and unfriendly for the growth and development of new organisms and ecosystems. price setting: Push the most vulnerable households further into poverty and weaken their ability to access adequate food. land degradation: Reducing agricultural productivity, but also by decreasing the ability of poor people to afford food. agricultural disease: Significant losses in food crop production that lead not only to lower yields but also to loss of species diversity, mitigation costs due to control measures, and downstream impacts on human heath. diverting crops for biofuels: More land area devoted to agriculture, increased use of polluting inputs, and higher food prices. climate change: Disrupt food availability, reduce access to food, and affect food quality. water shortages: Water is an indispensable ingredient to agricultural production and without water, farmers would not be able to grow their crops and feed their animals. poverty: A household being unable to afford sufficient, quality food correlates with experiences of unemployment and poverty. Participation in programs designed to address hunger, such as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, or food stamps), rises in response to food insecurity.

Strategies for managing air pollution

reduced use of fossil fuels: When fossil fuels are burned, they release nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere, which contribute to the formation of smog and acid rain. reducing emissions of: -sulfur dioxide by flue gas desulfurisation and fuel desulfurisation -oxides of nitrogen by catalytic converters -particulates using electrostatic precipitators -volatile organic compounds (VOCs) *safe usage, storage and disposal of household products -restricting vehicle use in urban areas -legislation -local, national and international legislation (detailed knowledge of specific legislation and agreements is not required) -polluter pays principle Emissions are reduced to manage the amount chemicals in the air, therefore, reducing air pollution and smog.

Strategies for managing climate change through the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions

reduction of global an individual carbon footprint (fewer children per woman, eating a plant based diet, adopt an energy efficient lifestyle): In brief, to reduce your carbon footprint, you'll want to do things like reduce the amount of energy you use, eat fewer animal products, shop locally, travel smart, and reduce your waste. switching to low carbon fuels: Fuel switching replaces inefficient fuels with cleaner and economical alternatives, such as substituting coal or kerosene for natural gas. Complimented by modern equipment upgrades, fuel switching is a simple approach to reducing energy consumption and costs for end-users, while also curbing carbon emissions. reducing the use of fossil fuels: Turning off lights, computers, televisions, video games and other electrical equipment when you're not using them. Buying equipment that uses less electricity, including lights, air conditioners, heaters, refrigerators and washing machines. ... Limiting the use of air conditioning. using alternative forms of energy: Alternative energy here includes hydroelectric energy, solar energy, geothermal energy, wind energy, nuclear energy, and biomass energy. The data come from the World Bank. transport policies: "Transport policy deals with the development of a set of constructs and propositions that are established to achieve particular objectives relating to social, economic and environmental development, and the functioning and performance of the transport system." use of carbon capture and storage: Carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) refers to a suite of technologies that can play a diverse role in meeting global energy and climate goals. CCUS involves the capture of CO2 from large point sources, such as power generation or industrial facilities that use either fossil fuels or biomass as fuel. reducing deforestation, increasing reforestation and afforestation: By planting trees in areas that have been degraded or deforested, reforestation helps the environment by guaranteeing, or accelerating the re-establishment of healthy forest structure by regrowing the forest canopy and preserving biodiversity within the ecosystem. energy efficient buildings and infrastructure: Lower emissions and overall environmental impact: energy efficient buildings have lower greenhouse gas emissions due to their reduced reliance on fossil fuels. Buildings that use primarily clean energy such as hydroelectricity have the lowest emissions. adaption to climate change: Adaptation - adapting to life in a changing climate - involves adjusting to actual or expected future climate. The goal is to reduce our risks from the harmful effects of climate change (like sea-level rise, more intense extreme weather events, or food insecurity). national and international agreements such as Kyoto Protocol 1992, Paris Agreement 2016:

Impacts of food insecurity

regional food scarcity: A shortage of food may happen when not enough food is produced, such as when crops fail due to drought, pests, or too much moisture. nutritional deficiency and malnutrition: Stunting in children, micronutrient deficiencies or obesity in adults. People experiencing severe food insecurity have run out of food and, at the most extreme, have gone days without eating. poverty: A household being unable to afford sufficient, quality food correlates with experiences of unemployment and poverty. forced migration: Lost wages mean they're unable to provide for their most basic needs, including food. If the situation is bad enough, and if a person is lucky enough to get out, they will flee to safety. conflict: Food insecurity, especially when caused by higher food prices, heightens the risk of democratic breakdown, civil conflict, protest, rioting, and communal conflict. famine: Famine is basically the extreme, darkest form of food insecurity. While food insecurity is relatively common — experienced by about 795 million people around the world — famine is rare. death: Poor nutrition and hunger is responsible for the death of 3.1 million children a year. That's nearly half of all deaths in children under the age of 5. The children die because their bodies lack basic nutrients.

Benefits of conserving biodiversity

resources of potential medicines: It provides a range of resources that are vital to our health and well-being. Biodiversity provides a variety of food sources which are important for health, nutrition and economic stability. Biodiversity also provides us with a range of medicinal plants, herbs, and animals with medicinal properties. food, wood, fibers, oils, and fuels: Ensures the continuing existence of a wide-range of crops that may be able to withstand disease, and potentially useful biochemicals such as those used in healthcare. diversity in genes: Genetic diversity is directly related to biodiversity, the variability in the traits of organisms that make up an ecosystem, because diversity in DNA will inform the characteristics of the organisms that make up a population. ecological services: Provides us with drinking water, oxygen to breathe, food, medicine, decomposition of waste, and helps our planet withstand natural disasters. cultural and recreational value: An invaluable source of intangible cultural heritage, intercultural exchange, creativity and innovation. It strongly influences cultural value systems and underlie many cultural practices and cultural traditions.

How energy is lost in food chains

respiration: Lost as heat during respiration, due to incomplete digestion, and through excretion of the waste products of metabolism. waste products: In the form of waste and dead matter that go to the decomposers. Eventually, the decomposers metabolize the waste and dead matter, releasing their energy as heat also.

Factors influencing the suitability of sample strategies for different studies

size: As the sample size increases, the variability of sampling distribution decreases. ease of access: It is called convenient sampling as the researcher selects the sample elements according to their convenient accessibility and proximity. knowledge of the environment: It is imperative that the samples collected represent the environment as accurately as possible.

Geo-engineering strategies to counteract climate change

solar radiation management (SRM): -albedo enhancement, space reflectors, stratospheric aerosols Has the potential to offset some human-induced warming by reflecting solar energy back into space before that energy becomes the long-wave infrared radiation that can be captured by greenhouse gases. Reducing the levels of atmospheric greenhouse gases through large-scale manipulations, exerting a cooling influence on Earth by reflecting sunlight, other large-scale manipulations designed to diminish climate change or its impacts.

Transfer of energy between organisms in a food chain

starting with producer: Energy transfers from producers to consumers. The energy is used by organisms to carry out complex tasks. The vast majority of energy that exists in food webs originates from the sun and is converted (transformed) into chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis in plants.

Impacts of climate change on the environment

temperature and precipitation: Temperature and precipitation data are collected from weather stations, weather radar, satellites, and computer models. Warmer air temperatures increase evapotranspiration—which is the combination of evaporation from the soil and bodies of water and transpiration from plants—and lower soil moisture. sea level: Sea level is the base level for measuring elevation and depth on Earth. Because the ocean is one continuous body of water, its surface tends to seek the same level throughout the world. However, winds, currents, river discharges, and variations in gravity and temperature prevent the sea surface from being truly level. ocean and wind circulation: Ocean currents can be caused by wind, density differences in water masses caused by temperature and salinity variations, gravity, and events such as earthquakes or storms. Currents are cohesive streams of seawater that circulate through the ocean. melting of sea ice, ice sheets, glaciers and permafrost: As these ice sheets and glaciers melt, the water eventually runs into the ocean, causing sea level to rise. Icebergs and frozen seawater also melt in warm temperatures but are not significant contributors to sea level rise. species distribution and biodiversity: Species Distribution is a biodiversity theme focused on geographical distribution of occurrence of biological organisms aggregated by grid, region, or any administrative or analytical unit.

Why ozone depletion has been greatest over Antarctica

temperature: This damage occurs due to the presence of chlorine and bromine from ozone depleting substances in the stratosphere and the specific meteorological conditions over the Antarctic. The Antarctic is much colder than the rest of the planet and experiences consistent strong winds. polar vortex: The Antarctic is much colder than the rest of the planet and experiences consistent strong winds. The Antarctic ozone hole develops in August and dissipates in late November when warmer weather and ozone rich air from outside the polar vortex disrupts the chemical reactions causing ozone depletion polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs):The severe depletion of the Antarctic ozone layer known as the "ozone hole" occurs because of the special atmospheric and chemical conditions that exist there and nowhere else on the globe. The very low winter temperatures in the Antarctic stratosphere cause polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) to form.

Impacts of acid deposition

the effects on fish gills and fish populations: -aquatic environments At pH 5, most fish eggs cannot hatch. At lower pH levels, some adult fish die. Some acidic lakes have no fish. Even if a species of fish or animal can tolerate moderately acidic water, the animals or plants it eats might not. defoliation and reduced crop yields: -vegetation and crops Dead or dying trees are a common sight in areas effected by acid rain. Acid rain leaches aluminum from the soil. That aluminum may be harmful to plants as well as animals. Acid rain also removes minerals and nutrients from the soil that trees need to grow. enhanced chemical weathering: -stone and brick buildings Acid rain slowly dissolves rocks due to chemical reactions between the acid and the minerals in the rock. Differential Weathering: Softer, less resistant rocks wear away at a faster rate than more weather resistant rocks. More exposure to acid rain results in more rapid weathering.