Anatomy-Exam-4
Nervous tissue
Appearance of posterior pituitary tissue is very similar to what type of tissue? • Both nerve fibers and neuroglia (supporting cells) are present
Arcuate arteries
Arching branches off interlobar arteries lying along the bases of the pyramids.
Interlobar arteries
Arteries that run between renal lobes supplying lobes found in each kidney segment
Vaccination
Considering that viral infections are responsible for ~90% of the cases (human papilloma virus) of cervical cancer, __________ against several types of this virus reduces cervical cancer risk.
Metabolic rate
Energy expended by the body per unit time.
Submucosa nerve complex
Enteric nervous system nerve plexus • Layer that signals the glands in the mucosa to secrete and the thin layer of muscle (muscularis mucosa) to contract.
Myenteric nerve plexus
Enteric nervous system nerve plexus • Located in between the circular and longitudinal layers of the muscularis externa controlling their contractions.
Vestibular glands
Female reproductive glands that secretes mucus for lubrication. Homologous to the Bulbourethral glands in males
Clitoris
Female reproductive organ that contains sensory and autonomic nerves that stimulate arousal and sexual climax. Homologous to the glans penis in males
Estrogens
Female sex hormones 1. Made by follicle and granulosa cells in response to FSH. 2. Responsible for secondary sexual characteristics. 3. Regenerates endometrium (proliferative phase of the uterine cycle)
Villi
Finger-like projections of mucosa of the small intestines about 1 mm tall lined with a columnar epithelial made of highly absorptive cells and containing a core of capillaries and lymphatics (lacteal) to carry nutrients away.
Duodenum
First part of the small intestine. • Connected to stomach on one end and lies retroperitoneal (behind the peritoneum and against the abdominal wall). • About 1 foot long. • Neutralizes stomach acid. •Pancreas and bile duct enter its wall and dump their contents into it. • Entry of bile and pancreatic juices are controlled by sphincter-lined openings.
Follicular phase
First phase occurring from days 1-13 of an approximate 28-day ovarian cycle) • Driven by a rise in FSH, this is the period of follicle development.
Menstrual phase
First phase of Menstrual Cycle • Occurs approx. during days 1-5 of the cycle. • Marked by sloughing of the functional layer and lasts through the period of menstrual bleeding.
Filtration
First step of urine production in the kidney • Filtrate of blood leaves the kidney capillaries and enters nephron. Resembles tissue fluid.
Semen
Fluid mixture containing sperm and secretions of the male accessory reproductive glands. • Referred to as ejaculate when released during intercourse • Normally about 3-5 ml in volume • Contains 200-500 spermatozoa -If less than 75% of this number, rendered infertile • In reproductively normal men up to 20% of spermatozoa in the ejaculate are abnormal. • Factors leading to abnormal sperm production: - Radiation - Heat - Pesticides - Chemotherapy - Narcotics - Carcinogens, and - Severe allergic reactions • Contains sperm and secretions of the: - Seminal vesicles - Prostate and - Bulbourethral glands. • Since it is composed primarily of seminal fluid, a male who is very active sexually may have a reduced sperm count because there are fewer sperm to be released from the epididymis; however, the total ejaculate volume remains close to normal for that individual. -Also true for infertile men with a low sperm count—can't tell by ejaculate volume.
Fertilization
Fusion of the sperm and egg nuclei.
External respiration
Gas is exchanged between the air and blood at the alveoli
Internal respiration
Gases must be exchanged between blood and tissue cells
Stem cells
Gastric pit stomach epithelial lining cells that replace the mucous lining cells (entirely replaced every 3-7 days).
Histology
General _________ of GI tract: • Tunica mucosa • Tunica submucosa • Tunica muscularis • Tunica adventitia or serosa
Anterior pituitary
Glandular appearance. Cells actively secrete hormones and therefore these cells contain many secretory granules and have abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum and well-developed Golgi apparatus. a). Cells are arranged in clusters and surrounded by capillaries. Five major classes of glandular cell types: Somatotropic cells, Mammotropic cells, Thyrotropic cells, Corticotropic cells, and Gonadotropic cells. b) Contains the Hypothalamic portal system
Gonadotropins
Gonad-stimulating hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary: follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone.
Goblet cells
Individual mucus-secreting cells of the respiratory and digestive tracts.
Peritonitis
Infection and inflammation of the peritoneum.
Hepatitis
Inflammation of liver of viral origin. Symptoms are usually flu-like but the patients can exhibit jaundice (yellowish skin—because liver can't remove bile pigments from the blood like usual).
Pancreatitis
Inflammation of the pancreas. a). Pancreatic enzymes are activated within the pancreas rather than in the intestines causing pain and inflammation. b). Gallstones or alcohol abuse are the most common causes. c). Symptoms include severe upper abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting that gets worse when eating. Abdomen is tender to the touch. d). May be accompanied by internal bleeding.
Medulla
Inner core of ovary containing connective tissue, blood vessels and nerves.
Mucosa
Inner layer of vagina marked by transverse folds; lined with non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
Medulla
Inner portion of Adrenal gland. • Part of the autonomic nervous system. • It contains clusters of sympathetic neurons called chromaffin cells that are stimulated by the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. • One population of chromaffin cells secrete epinephrine and the other population secrete norepinephrine. Together, they work to prepare the body for an emergency or for a "fight or flight" situation.
Tunica Mucosa
Innermost layer of GI tract. • Functions: Lubrication, Absorption, and release of Digestive Enzymes • Continuous with ducts of external glands like pancreas and liver. • Comprised of epithelium, loose underlying connective tissue called lamina propria, and muscularis mucosa
Ingestion
Intake of food via mouth
Carina
Internal ridge in the trachea at site of its terminal division into bronchi. This site is sensitive to stimuli and is associated with the cough reflex
Urinary incontinence
Involuntary leakage of urine. Babies haven't yet learned to voluntarily close the external sphincter muscle and so urination is a reflex.
Neuronal stimuli
Release of hormones stimulated by nerve signals. Example: release of epinephrine from adrenal gland in response to signal from sympathetic nerve fibers.
Renal nerves
Renal plexus of autonomic nerves. Controls the diameter of the blood vessels and thereby can influence urine formation
Hypothalamic portal system
Responsible for delivery of hypothalamic trophic hormones to the anterior pituitary. i). Hypothalamic neurons secrete hormones much like they would neurotransmitters thereby acting as endocrine cells. The capillary plexus supplying the hypothalamus takes up the released hormones. ii). Venous capillaries carrying the releasing/inhibitory hormones released from the hypothalamus then drain into the hypothalamic portal veins leaving the hypothalamus. iii). Hypothalamic portal veins enter the anterior pituitary and again break up into a capillary plexus where the releasing/inhibitory trophic hormones within the blood signal the anterior pituitary cells. iv). In response, anterior pituitary cells release stimulatory or inhibitory hormones into the same surrounding capillary plexus that then drains into the pituitary veins and enters the systemic circulation for delivery to their targets.
Segmentation
Rhythmic local contractions of intestines mixing food with digestive juices and increasing absorption sufficiency
Palate
Roof of the mouth and includes both hard and soft palates. Uvula is dangling part of soft palate (functions in phonation and in preventing backflow of food and liquids into the naxopharynx).
Gallbladder
Sac inferior to the right part of the liver; it stores and concentrates bile.
Middle layer
The Cremaster muscle and fascia make up which layer of the Spermatic cord? • Composed of muscle fibers coming off the internal abdominal oblique muscle.
Duodenum
The Pancreas Lies near the C- shaped curve of the _________
Stratified squamous
The oral cavity is covered by non-keratinized __________ ________ epithelium, except the hard palate and gingival, which are lightly keratinized
Blood pressure miss-regulation
What causes lethal kidney failure in people with autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease?
Osteoclasts
What cells does PTH stimulate to resorb bone thereby releasing calcium sequestered in bone, increasing retention of calcium by the kidneys, stimulating the kidneys to convert the inactive form of vitamin D (made in the skin or taken in by diet) to calcitriol (the active form of vitamin D) that in turn increases intestinal adsorption of calcium. b). PTH is essential for life because without it or if deficient, it can lead to lethal neuromuscular disorders.
Bowman's capsule
What is found within the glomerular space?
Hymen
What is the incomplete diaphragm at the external opening of the vagina?
Inner longitudinal
What is the innermost smooth muscle layer of the ureters?
Outer circular
What is the outermost smooth muscle layer of the ureters?
Anterior lobe of pituitary
See Adenohypophysis.
Suprarenal gland
See Adrenal gland.
Testosterone
See Androgen.
Fallopian tube
See Uterine tube.
Gastrointestinal tract
See alimentary canal
Posterior lobe of pituitary
See neurohypophysis.
Fissure
(1) A groove or cleft; (2) the deepest depressions or inward folds on the brain.
Diaphragm
(1) Any partition or wall separating one area from another; (2) the muscular sheet that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity.
Corona radiata
(1) Crownlike arrangement of granulosa cells around an oocyte in an ovarian follicle after the appearance of an antrum; (2) crownlike arrangement of nerve fibers in the white matter of the cerebrum, radiating to and from every part of the cerebral cortex.
Ovum
(1) General meaning: the female germ cell, or egg; (2) specific meaning: female germ cell after a sperm has entered it but before the sperm nucleus and the egg nucleus have fused.
Alveolus
(1) One of the microscopic air sacs of the lungs; (2) a spherical sac formed by the secretory cells in a gland; also called an acinus; (3) the socket of a tooth.
Follicle
(1) Spherical structure in the ovary consisting of a developing egg cell surrounded by one or more layers of follicle cells; (2) colloid-containing structure in the thyroid gland.
Secretion
(1) The passage of material formed by a cell to its exterior; (2) cell product that is transported to the exterior of a cell.
Basophil
(1) Type of white blood cell whose cytoplasmic granules stain purple with the basic dyes in blood stains; mediates late stages of inflammation. (2) A gland cell in the anterior pituitary containing cytoplasmic granules that stain with basic dyes.
Thyroid cartilage
(ADAM'S apple)-forms the anterior wall of the larynx giving the larynx its overall triangular shape
Enteroendocrine cells
(Cells of the small intestine). Release: • Cholecystokinin, a hormone that activates the gall bladder and pancreas to secrete. & • Secretin that signals the pancreas to make more bicarbonate buffer to neutralize stomach acid if needed.
Corniculate cartilage
(Horn) at the apex of the arytenoid cartilages. Acts like a sort of hinge or pivot point for the arytenoid cartilage.
Deciduous teeth
(Like deciduous trees that lose their leaves) versus permanent teeth. a). Two sets of teeth develop and erupt during a normal lifetime. b). In an infant, 20 deciduous teeth, also called "milk teeth," erupt 6-30 months after birth. These teeth are eventually lost and replaced by 32 permanent teeth. c). The last teeth to erupt are the third molars, often called "wisdom teeth," in the late teens or early 20's. Often the jaw lacks space to accommodate these final molars, and they may either emerge only partially or grow at an angle and become impacted. Impacted teeth cannot erupt properly because of the angle of their growth.
Chief cells
(Of the parathyroid gland) Releases Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Nose
(nasal cavity)-bound by external and internal nares. Consists of external and internal portions. Functions to provide an airway that moistens and warms the entering air, filters inhaled air, serves as a resonator for speech, and houses the olfactory system
Alveoli
(terminal sacs) are the final terminations
Ovary
...
ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelial cells with goblet cells
...
Erythrocyte
1 Function of the kidneys is to regulate ______ production: - As the kidneys filter the blood, they indirectly measure the oxygen level in the blood and release erythopoietin (EPO). -Recent studies show these EPO-producing cells are fibroblast-like interstitial cells found between cortical tubules and tubules in the outer medulla. EPO is released from these cells and stimulates RBC production if oxygen level is low.
Inflammatory bowel disease
1 in 500 people. It is a non-contagious inflammation of intestinal wall causing cramping, diarrhea, weight loss, and intestinal bleeding. May be due to an abnormal immune and inflammation response. Treatment is limited to adopting special diet and administration of anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive drugs.
Peptide hormones
1. Chains of amino acids. 2. Comprises the largest class of hormones. 3. Examples are growth hormone and parathyroid hormone.
Renin-angiotensin system
1. Juxtaglomerular (granular) cells of the afferent and efferent arterioles are a mechanosensory apparatus that excrete renin in response to a fall the blood pressure within the afferent and efferent arterioles. 2. The macula densa is chemosensory and monitors salt concentration of the filtrate. If the salt concentration falls too low, the macula densa signals the juxtaglomerular endothelial cells to secrete renin. a). Renin converts angiotensinogen in the blood to angiotensin b). Angiotensin I constricts blood vessels thereby increasing blood pressure. c). Angiotensin I is also converted to Angiotensin II in the lungs by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). Angiotensin II stimulates aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex (i.e., zona glomerulosa). d). Aldosterone then stimulates sodium resorption in DCTs. e). When sodium is resorbed back into the blood (restoring salt content), water follows causing the blood volume to increase and ultimately increasing blood pressure.
Biogenic amines
1. Small molecules produced by altering the structure of a specific amino acid. 2. Examples are thyroid hormone and epinephrine both synthesized from the amino acid, tyrosine.
Steroid hormones
1. Type of lipid derived from cholesterol. 2. Examples are estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol.
Ovarian follicles
1. Within each ovary there are thousands of ovarian follicles. 2. Each follicle consists of an oocyte surrounded by follicle cells that support the oocyte. 3. After puberty, each ovary contains several different kinds of ovarian follicles, each representing a different stage of development: • Primordial follicle • Primary follicle • Secondary follicle • Vesicular (Graaffian) follicle
Target cell
A cell that is capable of responding to a hormone because it bears receptors to which the hormone can bind.
Cortisol
A glucocorticoid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex.
Macula densa
A chemosensory in the juxtaglomerular apparatus that monitors salt concentration of the filtrate. - If the salt concentration falls too low, it signals the juxtaglomerular endothelial cells to secrete renin.
Cirrhosis
A chronic disease, particularly of the liver, characterized by an overgrowth of connective tissue, or fibrosis.
Umbilical cord
A cord that attaches to the navel before birth and connects the fetus to the placenta; contains the umbilical arteries and vein.
Tunica
A covering or coat; a layer or membrane of tissue.
Calyx
A cup-like tributary of the pelvis of the kidney.
Plica
A fold
Pyloric region
A funnel-shaped region of the stomach, just proximal to the pylorus.
Pharynx
A funnel-shaped tube starting at the level of the internal nares that is divided into three regions. Functions include: • Serving as a passageway for air and food • Pharyngeal muscular contraction for swallowing • Vocalization, as a resonating chamber for speech, and • Providing a protective immunological role (tonsils) Consists of: -Nasopharynx, Oropharynx, and Laryngopharynx
Luteinizing hormone
A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary; in females, it aids maturation of follicles in the ovary and a surge of it triggers ovulation by stimulating conversion of the remaining follicle cells into a corpus luteum and the production of progesterone and estrogen; in males, it signals the interstitial cells of the testis to secrete testosterone. (LH)
Tropic hormone
A hormone that regulates the function of another endocrine organ; tropic hormones signal endocrine glands to secrete their own hormones.
Pituitary gland
A hormone-secreting, golf club-shaped structure that hangs inferiorly from the brain and performs a variety of endocrine functions, such as regulating the gonads, thyroid gland, adrenal cortex, lactation, and water balance. Also called the hypophysis. Made up of anterior and posterior lobes
Epiglottis
A leaf-shaped piece of elastic cartilage that extends from the posterior surface of the tongue to the larynx; covers the opening of the larynx during swallowing.
Androgen
A male sex hormone primarily secreted by the zona reticularis of the adrenal cortex, the main example of which is testosterone.
Creatine phosphate
A molecule found in muscle that helps store and supply energy in muscle. Gets broken down into creatine
Rete
A network, often composed of nerve fibers or blood vessels.
Diverticulum
A pouch or a sac in the walls of a hollow organ or structure.
Epithelium
A primary tissue that covers body surfaces and lines body cavities; its cells are arranged in sheets; also forms glands.
Meiosis
A process of nuclear division that occurs during the production of the sex cells and reduces the chromosome number by half; results in the formation of haploid (n) cells.
Enzyme
A protein that acts as a biological catalyst to speed up chemical reactions.
Bolus
A rounded mass of food prepared by the mouth for swallowing.
Hilum
A slit on the surface of an organ through which the vessels and nerves enter and leave; the spleen, lungs, kidneys, lymph nodes, and ovaries have prominent hilums.
Fructose
A sugar secreted by the seminal vesicles that nourishes the sperm as they travel through the female reproductive tract.
Portal system
A system of vessels in which two capillary beds, rather than one, lie between the incoming artery and the outgoing vein of a body region; a portal vein lies between the two capillary beds. Examples are the hepatic portal system and the hypophyseal portal system.
Allantois
A tubular extension of the embryonic hindgut and cloaca; becomes the urachus, a fibrous cord attached to the adult bladder.
Esophagus
A) Muscular tube connecting pharynx with stomach. Passes through thorax and pieces diaphragm to enter abdominal cavity where it joins the stomach. B) Lined with non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium with mucus glands opening to the surface. Outer wall has muscle with the upper 1/3 being skeletal muscle, the middle 1/3 a mixture of skeletal and smooth muscle and the lower 1/3 being smooth muscle. C) Walls contain lots of mucous glands that open up into lumen and lubricate.
Male reproductive system
A. Male gonads are the testes. B. Accessory sex organs include: 1. Ducts leading from the testes to the glans penis. a). Epididymis b). Vas (ductus) deferens c). Ejaculatory ducts d). Urethra 2. Accessory reproductive glands include: a). Seminal vesicles b). Prostate gland c). Bulbourethral glands C. The penis is the organ of copulation.
Male external genitalia
A. Scrotum—sac of skin and underlying superficial fascia that hangs inferiorly and external to the abdominal cavity at the root of the penis. Has a septum separating it into 2 compartments with each compartment containing a testis. B. Penis—male organ of sexual intercourse that delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract. 1. Consists of root, shaft (or body) and glans penis. 2. Covered by a loose skin that extends over glans (forms a cuff called the prepuce or foreskin). 3. Internally contains erectile tissue and penile urethra. a). Corpus spongiosum—midline erectile body containing penile urethra. Proximal end beneath the urogenital diaphragm is larger and called the bulb of the penis while the distal end forms the main component of the glans penis. Prevents closure of the urethra during erection. b). Corpus cavernosa—paired dorsal erectile bodies that make up most of the penile mass. Proximal ends (crus) are anchored to the pubic arches. It is primarily responsible for erection of the penis. c). Main vessels and nerves run along dorsal penile surface. 4. Erection results because of engorgement of blood into erectile tissues due to parasympathetic innervation of blood vessels supplying this tissue. 5. Ejaculation is driven by the sympathetic stimulation of smooth muscle tunics surrounding male ducts (e.g., the vas deferens) and glands and contraction of the muscles surrounding proximal portions of erectile tissues.
Enterocytes
Absorptive cells of the small intestines that absorb nutrients and lipids. Lipids are combined with proteins to make lipoprotein complexes called chylomicrons that eventually enter the lacteals
Expiration
Act of expelling air from the lungs; exhalation.
14
After how many days in the ovarian cycle does ovulation occur? It's the release of the secondary oocyte from a vesicular follicle triggered by a surge in LH and a rise in FSH
Peyer's patches
Aggregates of immune cells underlying epithelium in the small intestines. Part of the MALT system.
Broad ligament
Also called mesentery folds. A wide fold of peritoneum that connects the sides of the uterus to the walls and floor of the pelvis
Prostate-specific antigen
An enzyme secreted by a the prostate that helps liquefy semen during ejaculation (PSA)
Mons pubis
An expanse of skin and subcutaneous connective tissue with an underlying fat pad immediately anterior to the pubic symphysis.
Prepuce
An external fold of the labia minora that forms a hood-like covering over the clitoris
Thyroglobulin
An iodine-containing storage form of the thyroid hormone that can be T3 or T4 and when released, can control basal metabolism of many cells in the body, body temperature, oxygen usage, etc.
Uterine cancer
Another name for Endometrial cancer
Urogenital triangle
Anterior triangle of the perineum that contains urogenital membrane and the urethral and vaginal orifaces in females and serves as the base of the penis and scrotum in males.
Bronchus
Any of the air tubes of the respiratory tree between the trachea and bronchioles; bronchi enter and branch within the lungs.
Pseudostratified columnar
As it approaches the exterior, what type of epithelium is the urethra converted into? (may find a short stretch of stratified columnar at the this level)
Stretch receptors
As the bladder fills, what receptors in the bladder signal the need to void?
Colon
Ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon and has right and left colic flexures
Enteric nervous system
Autonomic nervous system of the gut. • Independent nervous system with both sensory and motor reflexes that control movement and digestive activity of the gut. • Comprised of two nerve plexes consisting of parasympathetics and sympathetic fibers: 1. Myenteric nerve plexus is located in between the circular and longitudinal layers of the muscularis externa controlling their contractions. 2. Submucosa nerve complex--layer that signals the glands in the mucosa to secrete and the thin layer of muscle (muscularis mucosa) to contract. 3. Parasympathetics stimulate gut activity while the sympathetics inhibit it.
Male urethra
Averages about 8'' in length from bladder to exterior. Consists of: 1. Prostatic urethra—in males only. A reproductive gland called the prostate lies beneath the bladder and superior to the urogenital diaphragm. As it leaves the bladder, the male urethra passes through the prostate gland and enters the urogenital diaphragm. 2. Membranous urethra—portion of the urethra passing through the urogenital diaphragm. It is the same as that found in the female. 3. Penile urethra—in males only. The urethra passes through the length of the penis; longest portion of the urethra; encased in cylindrical erectile tissue to reach the external urethral orifice.
Paneth cells
Cells in the small intestine that secrete molecules that destroy certain kinds of bacteria.
Fundus
Base of uterus, supported by broad ligament and site of implantation
Renal veins
Basically the reverse of renal arteries. Two large renal veins exit the hilus to empty into inferior vena cava.
Overflow incontinence
Bladder overfills and begins dribbling.
Vermiform appendix
Blind tube opening into posteromedial wall of cecum. Has a large amount of lymphoid tissue in the wall. Probably functions like tonsils in mediating immunity.
Intestinal obstruction
Blockage usually of mechanical origin (twists or hernias pinching the intestines, tumors, adhesions, etc.) or non-mechanical origin (gut paralysis).
Shaft
Body of penis
Endocrine system
Body system consisting of glands that secrete hormones.
Hard palate
Bony anterior roof of mouth that forms a rigid surface against which the tongue forces food during chewing
Nasal conchae
Bony shelves: Project mucous membranes into nasal cavity. • 3-paired sets called the superior, middle and inferior concha. • Cause turbulence that mixes the air around and past the mucous membranes thus warming and moisturizing the air • Mucous secreted from cells in the conchal epithelium provides moisture to the inspired air and also traps dust particles
Pancreas
Both an exocrine and endocrine organ. • Exocrine function is to produce enzymes needed for digestion and its major • Endocrine function is to produce hormones regulating blood sugar levels. • Shaped like tadpole with head and tail. • Lies near the C- shaped curve of the duodenum. It is located retroperitoneal (behind the parietal peritoneum) on the posterior abdominal wall. Main duct of gland empties into duodenum along with the bile duct.
Segmented arteries
Branch off renal artery and go to the segments of the kidney.
Chemical digestion
Breakdown of food via enzymes
Ventilation
Breathing; consists of inspiration and expiration
Afferent arteriole
Brings blood to the glomerulus (feeder of the glomerulus). • It is a branch off the cortical radiate arteries. • Afferent arteriole vessels are narrow vessels so blood pressure in glomerulus is quite high.
Peritubular capillaries
Capillaries in the kidney that surround the proximal and distal convoluted tubules and arise from the efferent arterioles; Active in resorption.
Larynx
Cartilaginous organ located between the pharynx and trachea; contains the vocal cords; the voice box.
Nasal vestibule
Cavity located between the external nares and the beginning of bony nose. Contains coarse hairs to filter out and trap large particles
Corticotropic cells
Cells of Anterior pituitary that: Secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and melanocytes-stimulating hormone (MSH). ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete hormones for coping with stress and mediating metabolism while MSH stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin.
Gonadotropic cells
Cells of Anterior pituitary that: Secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) that act on the gonads thereby stimulating maturation of sex cells and inducing the release of sex hormones.
Mammotropic cells
Cells of Anterior pituitary that: Secrete prolactin that stimulates milk production.
Thyrotropic cells
Cells of Anterior pituitary that: Secrete thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) prompting thyroid gland secretion.
Somatotropic cells
Cells of Anterior pituitary that: • Secrete growth hormone (GH, also known as somatotropin hormone). Stimulates growth of the body including mediating growth plate development in long bones. Muscle mass and fat utilization.
Oxyphil cells
Cells of the parathyroid glands that stain with acid dyes. Function is still unknown. They appear at puberty and increase in numbers with aging.
Digestion
Chemical and mechanical process of breaking down foodstuffs into molecules that can be absorbed.
Mastication
Chewing
Areola
Circular, pigmented area of skin surrounding the nipple. -Special sebaceous glands that secrete oily substance that helps protect area from chapping and cracking due to frequent nursing.
Mucin
Clear and viscous, this is a secretory product of the bulbourethral glands that as a component of seminal fluid, helps protect the urethra and serves as a lubricant during sexual intercourse
Neurons
Clusters of ______ (nuclei) within the hypothalamus synthesize the hormones and transport them via their axons to the posterior pituitary where they are released and taken up by the surrounding capillaries. Note these hypothalamic neurons are acting as endocrine cells.
Ileum
Coiled terminal part of the small intestine, located between the jejunum and the cecum of the large intestine. Hangs by mesentery within the abdominal cavity. About 12 feet long.
Seminiferous tubules
Coiled tubes & site of spermatogenesis; ~500 tubules/testis each being 1-2.5 ft. long (~2000 feet per person). • Beginning at puberty, it is comprised of: - Gametes (spermatogonia, primary and secondary spermatocytes, spermatids, spermatozoa). - Sertoli (sustentocytes) cells—somatic cells that "nurse" the developing gametes. FSH stimulates these cells to produce androgen-binding protein (ABP) necessary for proper gamete development.
Urinary tract infections
Common. • Symptoms include: - Burning sensation upon urination - Feeling or urge to urinate - Fever • More common in females. • Treated with antibiotics.
Chemicals
Communication in the nervous system involves membrane depolarization and transmission of this signal from cell-to-cell at specialized areas of contact called synapses, whereas communication in the endocrine system involves ________ called hormones that are distributed throughout the body by the cardiovascular and lymphatic system and act by binding to specific receptors on "target cells."
Acrosome
Component of spermatozoa that contains enzymes to assist penetration into the egg
Acinar cells
Comprise most of the pancreas gland and together with the ducts, have the exocrine function. The cells store and release at least 22 kinds of degrading enzymes that are inactive until they reach the inside of the duodenum.
Cryptorchidism
Condition in which males have undescended testicles. Leads to infertility and 25-50% develop testicular cancer by the age of 50 if the condition is not remedied
Erectile tissue
Consists of corpus spongiosum and corpus cavernosa
Lower respiratory tract
Consists of the Larynx, trachea and bronchia tree
Upper respiratory tract
Consists of the Nose, nasal cavities, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx
Negative feedback
Control of T3 & T4 release is via hypothalamic-anterior pituitary ______ ______ loop a). A stimulus like low body temperature causes the hypothalamus to secrete thyrotrophic-releasing hormone (TRH). This acts on the anterior pituitary gland. b). Thyrotropic cells in the anterior pituitary release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). c). TSH stimulates thyroid follicle cells to release T3 and T4. d). T3 and T4 stimulate target cells to increase metabolism and increase basal body temperature. e). Increased body temperature is detected by hypothalamus and hence, inhibits further secretion of TRH. Elevated thyroid hormones also block TSH signaling of the anterior pituitary.
Release
Controlling the ______ and amounts of hormones in the blood: • Humoral stimuli • Neuronal stimuli • Hormonal stimuli • Feedback loops
Hypothalamus
Controls endocrine function along with the CNS. Part of brain located below the thalamus, it's behind optic chiasma, and it surrounds the third ventricle of the brain
Gallstones
Crystallized cholesterol due to either overabundance of cholesterol or an insufficient amount of bile salts that normally function to dissolve cholesterol, which is usually excreted from the body via bile. They can plug the cystic duct causing agonizing pain and inflammation (cholecystitis). Treatment: drugs may dissolve stones or a cholecystectomy (surgical removal of gallbladder) may be performed.
Human chorionic gonadotropin
Detection in urine and is the basis of home pregnancy tests. 1. Made by embryo. 2. Maintains corpus luteum and production of estrogen and progesterone until the placenta can take over.
Surfactant
Detergent-like fluid secreted by type II alveolar cells lining the respiratory alveoli in the lungs; reduces the surface tension of water molecules, thus preventing collapse of the alveoli after each breath.
Perineum
Diamond-shaped Region of the trunk superficial to the pelvic diaphragm and bounded by the: • Pubic symphysis anteriorly, coccyx posteriorly, and ischial tuberosities laterally. Contains the anus, vulva (females), and scrotum (males). • Subdivided into 2 triangles by an imaginary horizontal line running b/w the ischial tuberosities: 1. Urogenital triangle (anterior triangle)—contains urogenital membrane and the urethral and vaginal orifaces in females and serves as the base of the penis and scrotum in males. 2. Anal triangle (posterior triangle)—contains the anus in both sexes. C. Blood and nerves supply in the perineum are primarily supplied by the branches of the internal pudendal artery (branch off the internal iliac artery) and nerves.
Oogonia
Diploid cells formed by primordial germ cells in the ovary before birth that contain 23 pairs of chromosomes and are the stem cells for female gametes. They become primary oocytes after they divide and start to begin meiosis I division and get stopped early on.
Diabetes mellitus
Disease caused by deficient release of, or deficient use of, insulin; characterized by an inability of the body cells to use sugars at a normal rate and by high blood sugar levels. Affects 7% of US population. If not controlled, it accelerates cardiovascular and neurological diseases.
Diabetes insipidus
Disease characterized by passage of a large quantity of dilute urine plus intense thirst and dehydration; caused by inadequate release of antidiuretic hormone.
Pancreatic cancer
Disease that a). Usually begins in the ducts of the exocrine portion. b). Symptoms may include jaundice, weight loss and loss of appetite, and abdominal pain. c). 4th most common cause of cancer death globally. d). Poor prognosis.
Ventricular folds
Do not have underlying ligaments (false vocal cords) are • Brought together when holding one's breath against pressure in the thoracic cavity, aiding in evacuation of the rectum or lifting something heavy. • Responsible for purring in cats
Contract
Do the dartos muscle of the scrotal wall and the cremaster muscle of the spermatic cord relax or contract in response to colder temperatures? This muscle movement results in the elevation of the testes, bringing them closer to the body
Longer
Does the effect of an endocrine signal generally last longer or shorter than a neural signal?
Mesenteries
Double layer of peritoneal membrane extending between the viscera and dorsal and ventral body wall. Supports viscera but allows movement; fat storage, pathway for blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics. Some are called ligaments-not same as fibrous ligaments.
Glomerular capsule
Double-walled cup forming the initial portion of the nephron in the kidney; also called Bowman's capsule.
Efferent arterioles
Drains blood from the glomerulus.
Inspiration
Drawing of air into the lungs; inhalation.
Temperature
Effect of ___________ on spermatogenesis. A. Although normal body temperature is 38°C, the optimal temperature for spermatogenesis is approximately 35°C. B. Pampiniform plexus of veins helps cool arterial blood going to the testes. C. The male testes and the first portion of the duct system are located outside the body proper within a skin-covered sac called the scrotum. D. When the testes are exposed to elevated temperatures, the skin of the scrotal sac becomes thin as a result of relaxation of the dartos muscle (smooth muscle) in the scrotal wall. E. At the same time, another muscle (the cremaster muscle, a skeletal muscle in the spermatic cord) relaxes, allowing the testes to move inferiorly away from the body. As a consequence, the testes temperature is lowered. F. The opposite occurs (contraction of the dartos and cremaster muscles causing elevation of the testes) if the testes are exposed to the cold. G. In the fetus, the testis are initially located within the abdomen but descent into the scrotum near term. Males with undescended testicles (cryptorchidism) are infertile and 25-30% develop testicular cancer by age 50 if the condition is not remedied.
Ovulation
Ejection of an secondary oocyte from a vesicular follicle, occurs on day 14 in response to a surge in LH and a rise in FSH. a). Usually only a single ovum is ovulated each month. Lifespan is 12-24 hr if it is not fertilized. • In women's lifetime only about 400-500 ova get released.
Rugae
Elevations or ridges, as in the mucosa of the stomach.
Islet cells
Endocrine cells in clusters called islets of Langerhans. Secrete insulin, glucagon, and other hormones into the blood stream.
Mucosa
Epithelial type found in the conducting portion • Epithelium plus underlying connective tissue known as lamina propria - Consists of ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium intermingled with goblet mucus cells. - At the bronchiole level, the epithelium eventually transitions to a non-ciliated simple columnar epithelium (no goblet cells) and then to a simple non-ciliated cuboidal epithelium in the terminal bronchioles • Note: the external nasal cavity, oral cavity, oropharynx, laryngeal pharynx, and the larynx are lined with non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
Stratified squamous
Epithelium of anal canal goes from simple columnar to__________ ________ as it meets the outer skin.
Small intestines
Epithelium of the _____ ________ Absorptive surface of epithelial have several modifications including: a). Circular folds (plica circulares)—permanent ridges of the mucosa and submucosa b). Villi—finger-like projections of mucosa about 1 mm tall lined with a columnar epithelial made of highly absorptive cells and containing a core of capillaries and lymphatics (lacteal) to carry nutrients away. c). Microvilli—microscopic projections on epithelial cells that increase absorptive capacity and also hold secreted enzymes needed to break down nutrients just before absorption. d). Intestinal crypts—tubular glands found between villi that secrete a watery liquid that mixes with chyme (semi-liquid, partially digested food).
Ulcer
Erosion of the surface of an organ or tissue, such as a peptic ulcer in the wall of the stomach or small intestine.
Laparoscopy
Examination of the peritoneal cavity and the associated organs with a laparoscope, a viewing device (endoscope) at the end of a thin tube that is inserted through the abdominal wall. ("observing the flank")
Gigantism
Excess production of growth hormone (GH) due to a tumor. If it occurs before the bone growth plates are closed, the individual can grow as tall as 8 feet (very rare as there are less than 100 cases reported). If it occurs after, it leads to enlargement of the extremities (acromegaly), which is much more common (3-4 million cases).
Internal respiration
Exchange of gases between blood and tissue fluid and between tissue fluid and cells.
Serous cell
Exocrine gland cell that secretes a watery product containing digestive enzymes.
Dilation
Expansion or widening of a vessel, organ, or opening. (See Constriction.)
Trophoblast
External layer of cells in the blastocyst (early embryo); forms the embryo's contribution to the placenta.
Spermatids
Formed from secondary spermatocytes undergoing meiosis II -Must undergo spermiogenesis to become spermatozoa
Internal urethral sphincter
Found in females at bladder/urethra border. • Consists of involuntary smooth muscle that prevents urine passage between voiding.
Ischemic phase
Fourth and last phase of Menstrual Cycle • Occurs between days 27-28 • Clamping of blood vessels to the functional layer leading to necrosis of that layer and eventually to menstruation.
Corpus luteum
Functional remnant of follicle after ovulation a). Secretes progesterone and estrogen and prepares the uterine endometrium for implantation of the embryo. b). Has a life span of the corpus luteum is about 10-13 days if the ovum is not fertilized. i). In the absence of fertilization, the corpus luteum regresses and becomes a corpus albicans (scar). ii). The demise of the corpus luteum results in a decline in progesterone and estrogen. This causes the uterine lining to be shed—menstruation. c). If fertilization and implantation occur, the corpus luteum continues to produce estrogen and progesterone throughout most of the pregnancy and is known as a corpus luteum of pregnancy.
Liver
Functions of the _____: 1. For digestion, it makes bile, a green alkaline liquid that helps neutralize stomach acid. Bile also helps break down fats, facilitates uptake of fat soluble vitamins like vitamins A, D, E and K, and bile salts keep cholesterol soluble so it can be excreted. Bile is stored in the gallbadder and released into the duodenum. 2. Detoxifies poison and drugs. 3. Metabolic functions of the liver include uptake of nutrients from blood returning from the GI tract. Stores carbohydrates as glycogen. 4. Processes amino acids and stores vitamins. 5. Makes blood proteins that help transport nutrients to other parts of the body and most of the blood clotting proteins. 6. Helps recycle components of aged and damage erythrocytes.
Bile
Greenish fluid secreted by the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and released into the small intestine; helps emulsify fats.
Steroids
Group of lipid molecules containing cholesterol and some hormones.
Secondary spermatocytes
Haploid spermatocytes with 23 chromosomes that: - Rapidly undergo meiosis II to become spermatids. - There still is no complete cytoplasmic separation.
Vocal folds
Have underlying elastic ligaments, while ventricular folds do NOT have underlying ligaments. • Produce speech by vibrating when air passes b/w them: the force of air determines the volume while tension controls the pitch
Renin
Hormone released by the juxtaglomerular epithelial cells of the kidneys in response to a fall in blood pressure within the the afferent and efferent arterioles or a fall in salt concentration that gets detected by the macula densa, which in turn signals this hormones production. • Involved with raising blood pressure, blood volume, and the sodium concentration in blood. • Converts angiotensinogen in the blood to angiotensin: -Angiotensin I constricts blood vessels thereby increasing blood pressure and is also converted to Angiotensin II in the lungs by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). - Angiotensin II stimulates aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex (i.e., zona glomerulosa). -Aldosterone then stimulates sodium resorption in DCTs. -When sodium is resorbed back into the blood (restoring salt content), water follows causing the blood volume to increase and ultimately increasing blood pressure. -Renin-angiotensin system (RAS) also acts on CNS to trigger thirst.
Calcitonin
Hormone released by the thyroid gland that promotes a decrease in calcium levels in the blood.
Direct hernia
Herniating at the level of the superficial inguinal ring.
Indirect hernia
Herniating into the deep inguinal ring, passing through the inguinal canal and out the superficial inguinal ring.
Large intestines
Histology of ______ ______ 1. Very similar to the small intestines. Very short villi at the upper end but most of the large intestines lack villi. 2. Epithelium is simple columnar cells like small intestines (absorptive cells) but with more and more goblet cells in order to provide mucus to lubricate fecal material as water is reabsorbed. Stems cells replace epithelium. No Paneth cells here. 3. Tends to have more lymphocytes in the submucosa and more Peyer's patches than elsewhere in the GI tract.
Liver
Histology of the ____: • Greater than a million liver lobules, each with a six-sided shape and that are about the size of a sesame seed. Each lobule consists of plates of hepatocytes radiating from a central vein. At each corner is a portal triad (contains a portal arteriole, portal venule, and bile duct). Between plates are liver sinusoids (large porous capillaries that receive blood from both portal arterioles and venules). The sinuoids are lined with fenestrated endothelium. Blood in sinusoids eventually drain into a central vein that then joins other central veins to form the hepatic veins that eventually empty into the inferior vena cava.
Uterus
Hollow, thick-walled pelvic organ that receives the developing embryo; site where embryo/fetus develops; the womb. • Both broad and ovarian ligaments (folds of peritoneum) support the uterus, uterine tubes and ovaries. 1. Parts of the uterus. a). Body (main part). b). Isthmus—narrow region inferior to the body. c). Cervix—lower neck leading to the vagina.
Posterior pituitary
Hormonal release from this lobe is controlled by the hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract. a). Clusters of neurons (nuclei) within the hypothalamus synthesize the hormones and transports them via their axons to the posterior pituitary where they are released and taken up by the surrounding capillaries. Note these hypothalamic neurons are acting as endocrine cells. b). Microscopic appearance—appearance is very typical of nervous tissue. Both nerve fibers and neuroglia (support cells) are present. c). Hormones released by posterior pituitary are: ADH and oxytocin
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Hormone from the anterior pituitary that influences the activity of the adrenal cortex. (ACTH)
Gastrin
Hormone produced by Enteroendocrine stomach cells that regulates HCl production
Antidiuretic hormone
Hormone produced by the hypothalamus and released by the posterior part of the pituitary gland (pars nervosa); stimulates the kidney to resorb more water, so they can transport it into surrounding BVs (ADH) by increasing the permeability of collecting tubules • Alcohol inhibits its release, resulting in increased water loss
Oxytocin
Hormone produced by the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary; it stimulates contraction of the uterus during partuition (childbirth) and the muscle-like myoepithelial cells for lactation (ejection of milk) during nursing. May be involved in sexual arousal and pair bonding.
Cholecystokinin
Hormone released by Enteroendocrine cells in the small intestine that activates the gall bladder and pancreas to secrete
Secretin
Hormone released by Enteroendocrine cells in the small intestine that signals the pancreas to make more bicarbonate buffer to neutralize stomach acid if needed.
Glucagon
Hormone secreted by alpha cells of the pancreatic islets; raises the glucose level of blood.
Insulin
Hormone secreted by beta cells in pancreatic islets; it decreases blood glucose levels.
Aldosterone
Hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex that stimulates resorption of sodium ions and water from the kidney. • Re-uptake in the DCTs is dependent upon this
Follicle-stimulating hormone
Hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that stimulates the maturation of ovarian follicles in females by targeting the granulosa cells to produce estrogen and progesterone and the production of sperm in males. (FSH)
Parathyroid hormone
Hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands; it increases blood levels of calcium when the levels of calcium drop too low (opposite the function of calcitonin). • PTH does this by stimulating osteoclasts to resorb bone thereby releasing calcium sequestered in bone, increasing retention of calcium by the kidneys, stimulating the kidneys to convert the inactive form of vitamin D (made in the skin or taken in by diet) to calcitriol (the active form of vitamin D) that in turn increases intestinal adsorption of calcium. b). PTH is essential for life because without it or if deficient, it can lead to lethal neuromuscular disorders.
Progesterone
Hormone that prepares the uterus for implantation (secretory phase of uterine cycle). • Inhibits ovulation • Made by corpus luteum
Growth hormone
Hormone that stimulates growth of the body; secreted by the anterior pituitary; also called somatotropin and somatotropic hormone (SH).
Enteroendocrine cells
Hormone-producing cells of the gastric pits of the epithelial stomach lining. • 17 known types of these cells scattered throughout stomach and intestines. • In the stomach, one hormone secreted is gastrin that regulates HCl production, but there are many other types of hormones released by these cells.
Prostaglandins
Hormones secreted by the seminal vesicles that promote the widening and slight dilation of the external os (opening) of the cervix.
Trophic hormones
Hormones that regulate the secretions and release of other hormones. TSH, ACTH, FSH and LH are examples of "trophic" hormones. For example: the release of thyroid hormone is stimulated by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secreted from the pituitary.
64 days
How long does spermatogenesis take?
35
How many degrees Celsius is the optimal temperature for spermatogenesis?
32
How many teeth do normal adults have?
Pituitary dwarfs
Hyposecretion (i.e., too low) of GH. Normal body proportion but rarely exceed 4 feet tall. If given GH, they may reach nearly normal stature. There are many different types of dwarfism but panhypopituitarism has an incidence of ~1:10,000.
Oocyte
Immature egg undergoing the process of meiosis.
Ectopic pregnancies
Implantation outside of uterus • (incidence 1:80-1:250). • Eventually the patient will experience abdominal pain usually by 2-4 months if the embryo does not abort. 90% of them are tubal pregnancies. • Life-threatening. Maybe confused with appendicitis if the embryo implants in the right side. More common in women with a history of re-occurring pelvic inflammatory disease as scarring blocks the uterine tube thereby greatly increasing the risk of tubal pregnancies.
Systemic circulation
In response to tropic hormones being carried by the hypothalamic portal veins arriving at the capillary plexus, the anterior pituitary cells release stimulatory or inhibitory hormones into the same surrounding capillary plexus that then drains into the pituitary veins and enters the _______ __________ for delivery to their targets.
Accessory reproductive glands
In the male reproductive system, these include the: • Seminal vesicles • Prostrate gland • Bulbourethral glands
Epididymis
In what male reproductive organ does Capacitation begin?
Lungs
In what organ does Angiotensin I get converted into Angiotensin II?
Cortex
In what region of the ovary are ovarian follicles located?
Slower
Is the method of endocrine communication slower or faster than neuronal communication?
Central tendon
Knob of connective tissue that serves as a tendon for muscles of the pelvic floor (present in both sexes)
Hepatic sinusoids
Large capillaries situated in between the plates of hepatocytes in the liver located near the portal triads that receive blood from both the portal arteriole and venule and carry this blood inward to reach the central vein. From there, the central veins form tributaries (interlobular veins) that ultimately lead to the hepatic veins and then to the inferior vena cava outside the liver. They are lined with fenestrated endothelium.
Unpaired cartilages
Larger cartilages found in layrnx • Thyroid cartilage (ADAM'S apple)-forms the anterior wall of the larynx giving the larynx its overall triangular shape • Cricoid cartilage-a ring of cartilage forming the inferior wall of the larynx. Ligaments attach it inferiorly to the first C-shaped cartilage ring of the trachea while it is attached superiorly to the thyroid cartilage and by ligaments and muscles. Serves as a landmark for making an emergency tracheotomy (tracheostomy) where an incision is made below this cartilage to avoid the thyroid gland and laryngeal nerves • Epiglottis-large leaf-shaped elastin cartilage • Stem of the epiglottis is attached to anterior rim of the thyroid cartilage-causing the epiglottis to act as a hinged gate • During swallowing the epiglottis swings down over the glottis (vocal folds and the space between them). In this way, the epiglottis prevents food and liquid from passing into the larynx and air passages below
Liver
Largest gland in the body. Does over 500 functions. It is located below diaphragm on the right side and protected by the lower ribcage. It has major two lobes, right and left lobes.
Malignant
Life-threatening; pertains to neoplasms such as cancer that spread and lead to death.
Renal cortex
Lighter in colored layer of kidney with a granular appearance.
Labium
Lip.
Hepatocytes
Liver cells that: • Detoxify, process and package nutrients, and re-release them back into the blood. • Generate bile but this is released into tiny intervening spaces between hepatocytes called canaliculi. • Canaliculi empty into the bile ducts of the triad and these then join others to make the large hepatic bile duct leaving liver at the hepatic portal. • Have a great capacity to regenerate (from 25% of a remaining liver to full functional capacity in 4-5 weeks).
Portal triad
Located at each corner of the hepatocyte plates, it contains a portal arteriole, portal venule, and bile duct
Rectum
Located in pelvis and connects sigmoid colon with anal canal. It has a rather a well-developed and complete outer longitudinal smooth muscle layer so it can generate strong contractions for defecation.
Renal columns
Located in the medulla layer of the kidney, these structures • Separate the renal pyramids and run from the base of the cortex to the middle of the calyx.
Olfactory area
Located in the roof of the nasal cavity above the superior nasal conchae
Uterine tubes
Located w/in the lower abdomen, also called oviducts, fallopian tubes, or ovarian tubes: A. The distal end is called the infundibulum—the wider funnel-like part helps sweep the ovum into uterine tube. The proximal ends open into the uterine lumen B. Lined with ciliated simple columnar epithelium surrounded by smooth muscle. • Cilia of the epithelium along with the muscularis externa (smooth muscle in the wall) help propel the ovum down toward the uterus. • Fertilization usually occurs in distal 1/3 of the tube and it usually takes 5-6 days for the fertilized egg to reach the lumen of the uterus.
Tongue
Located within Oral Cavity • Intrinsic voluntary muscles covered by stratified squamous epithelium change its shape. • Extrinsic muscles change its position. - Functions: Eating, vocalization, taste
Below
Location of the hypothalamus—part of the brain located _____ the thalamus, behind the optic chiasma, and surrounding the third ventricle of the brain.
Behind
Location of the hypothalamus—part of the brain located below the thalamus, ______ the optic chiasma, and surrounding the third ventricle of the brain.
Surrounding
Location of the hypothalamus—part of the brain located below the thalamus, behind the optic chiasma, and __________ the third ventricle of the brain.
Lacteal
Lymphatic capillaries in the small intestine that take up lipids.
Urinary system
Main features of this organ system include: A. Organs: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. B. Distributed between the: - Abdominal region (kidneys and part of ureters) - True pelvis (part of ureters and bladder), and - Perineum (urethra) C. Kidneys filter metabolic waste products and toxins from the bloodstream and convert it into urine. D. The ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra are collectively known as the urinary tract because they store and transport the urine out of the body. • Functions: A. Removing waste products from the bloodstream--done by the kidneys. B. Storage of urine---the bladder is an expandable, muscular sac stores urine. C. Excretion of urine. D. Control interstitial fluid and blood volumes under the direction of certain hormones. E. Regulation of erythrocyte production. - As the kidneys filter the blood, they indirectly measure the oxygen level in the blood and release erythopoietin (EPO). -Recent studies show these EPO-producing cells are fibroblast-like interstitial cells found between cortical tubules and tubules in the outer medulla. EPO is released from these cells and stimulates RBC production if oxygen level is low.
Body
Main part of uterus. Site of implantation. Supported by broad ligament and site of implantation
Endocrine organs
Major ones include: • Pineal gland, • Hypothalamus • Pituitary • Thyroid • Parathyroids • Adrenal • Pancreas • Gonads (ovaries and testes). Some are clustered within organs while others are sprinkled throughout other organs and tissues.
Creatine
Major waste product of kidney from breakdown of creatine phosphate, a molecule found in muscle that helps store and supply energy in muscle.
Uric acid
Major waste product of kidney from breakdown of nuclei acids.
Duct cells
Make up tubes in the pancreas that carry the enzymes to the main exiting duct.
Testes
Male primary sex organ that produces sperm; male gonad in the scrotum. • Composed of Seminiferous tubules -Gametes -Sertoli (sustentocytes) cells • Interstitial compartment - Leydig cells - Androgen (testosterone) production stimulated by LH - Secondary sex characteristics • Tunica albuginea-CT capsule • Epididymis-store spermatozoa
Bulbourethral glands
Male reproductive glands that secretes mucus for lubrication. Homologous to the Vestibular glands in females
Glans penis
Male reproductive organ contains sensory and autonomic nerves that stimulate arousal and sexual climax. Homologous to the clitoris in females
Serous epithelial glands
Mammary glands that generate and secrete milk. • These glands increase in number during pregnancy. • Milk production starts after childbirth. Hormone stimulating milk release is prolactin.
Ova
Mature haploid female gametes
Spermatozoa
Mature haploid male gametes: Spermatids that have undergone spermiogenesis.
Vesicular follicle
Mature ovarian follicle; formerly called Graafian follicle. Characterized by an oocyte intimately surrounded by granulosa cells (the corona radiata), multiple layers of granulosa cells in the wall of the follicle, and a single large pool of follicular fluid called the antrum. Just before release (ovulation), the oocyte completes meiosis I to become a secondary oocyte and it begins meiosis II but it gets stuck again. It remains as a secondary oocyte until it is fertilization
Menstruation
Menstrual phase of the uterine cycle; the periodic, cyclic discharge of blood and tissue from the lining of the female uterus in the absence of pregnancy. Signaled by a decline in progesterone and estrogen
Hormones
Messenger molecules that are released by endocrine glands and travel in the blood to regulate specific body functions.
Microvilli
Microscopic projections on epithelial cells that increase absorptive capacity and also hold secreted enzymes needed to break down nutrients just before absorption.
Germinal epithelium covering
Misnomer. Outer covering of the ovary consisting of a simple cuboidal epithelium. Where ovarian cysts form and site of ovarian cancer.
Ovarian cycle
Monthly cycle of follicle development in the ovaries, ovulation, and formation of the corpus luteum; the menstrual cycle as it involves the ovaries.
Endometrium
Mucous membrane lining the uterus. • Epithelium is simple columnar epithelium with scattered ciliated and secretory columnar epithelial cells. It also has numerous tubular secretory glands (uterine glands) important for nourishing the implanting embryo. Has a very thick lamina propria. a). Functional layer—shed. Embryo/fetal support. b). Basal layer—not shed. Serves as the base for the regeneration of a new functional layer.
Exocrine glands
Mucus and serous secretions released into ducts that then drain onto an epithelial surface.
Stomach
Muscle layers of the _______: • Inner circular and outer longitudinal ---(churn and pummels food) • Extra inner layer [the oblique layer] ---(jack-knifes food).
Lips and cheeks
Muscles of the oral cavity that include the orbicularis oris and buccinators muscles.
Gall bladder
Muscular sac that serves as storage place for bile. Contracts when fatty food enters duodenum and releases bile into the cystic duct.
Pharynx
Muscular tube extending from the region posterior to the nasal cavity to the esophagus; the "throat" part of the digestive tube. Made up of the Nasopharynx (lined with respiratory epithelium) and the Oropharynx and Laryngopharynx (lined with non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium)
Isthmus
Narrow region of uterus inferior to the body. • Maintains and nourishes the fetus
Benign
Not malignant; not life-threatening.
Pregnancy
Occurs if fertilization and implantation occurs and the corpus luteum continues producing progesterone and estrogen throughout this period
Podocytes
Octopus-shaped epithelial cells that surround the glomerular capillaries; they help produce and maintain the basement membrane (a filtration membrane in the kidney).
Outside
One method of controlling temperature for spermatogenesis is keeping the testes and the first part of the duct system _______ of the body in the scrotum
Villus
One of many fingerlike projections of the internal surface of the small intestine that together increase the surface area for nutrient absorption.
Storage
One of the functions of the urinary system. The bladder is an expandable, muscular sac that performs this function
Female urethra
Only about 1.5'' in length from bladder to exterior 1. Membranous urethra—portion from the bladder that passes through the urogenital diaphragm. a). Internal urethral sphincter—at bladder/urethra border. It consists of involuntary smooth muscle that prevents urine passage between voiding. b). External urethral sphincter—surrounds the urethra within the urogenital diaphragm. This is skeletal muscle and hence is voluntary. 2. Short external urethra that opens at the external urethral orifice into the vestibule.
Receptors
Only cells with specific _________ for a hormone respond to that hormone. This is why only particular cells and organs are affected by hormones.
Thymus
Organ of the immune system that is essential for the production of T cells (T lymphocytes); located in the anterior thorax.
Respiratory system
Organ system that carries out gas exchange; includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
Amino acid
Organic compound containing nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; building block of proteins.
Accessory digestive organs
Organs that contribute to the digestive process but are not part of the alimentary canal, including the tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.
Endocrine
Organs that have _________ functions: • HEART-atria of the heart release atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), a hormone altering kidney function to help lower blood volume, increase excretion of salt, and lower blood pressure. • GI TRACT-many cells in the epithelium release regulatory peptides that control digestion, blood chemistry and local blood flow. • PLACENTA-generates several hormones that influence pregnancy including estrogen, progesterone, and human chorionic gonadotropin. • KIDNEY-secretes renin that indirectly signals the adrenal cortex (via angiotensin) to release aldosterone • SKIN-generates the precursor of vitamin D, a steroidal hormone essential for calcium metabolism.
Cortex
Outer layer of ovary containing follicles with oocytes in various stages of development and corpus luteum in reproductive-aged women.
Cortex
Outer part of Adrenal gland. Has 3 layers: a). Zona glomerulosa—outermost layer of the cortex with cells arranged in clusters. b). Zona fasciculata—middle layer of cortex with cells arranged in cords that are rich in lipids. c). Zone reticularis—innermost layer of cortex with cells arranged in a more branching-like network.
Adventitia
Outermost layer or covering of an organ; consists of connective tissue.
Adrenal gland
Paired pyramidal-shaped glands with one sitting on the superior surface of each kidney. Well supplied with blood vessels—some arteries are directly off the abdominal aorta and others branch off the renal vessels. Really like two endocrine organs in one. Made of an inner medulla and an outer cortex.
Filtration
Passage of a solution or suspension through a membrane or filter, with the purpose of holding back the larger particles. • The endothelium of the glomerular capillaries are specialized for this purpose
Anal canal
Passes through muscles of the pelvic floor. Epithelium of anal canal goes from simple columnar to stratified squamous as it meets the outer skin. Mucosa inside is thrown into longitudinal folds (anal columns) that connect inferiorly with one another to make anal valves. The outside wall is lined by internal (smooth) and external (skeletal) anal sphincter muscles.
Puberty
Period of life when reproductive maturity is reached. Secondary sexual characteristics: 1. Breast enlargement in females. 2. Both sexes develop pubic hair. 3. Reproductive organs become fully functional. 4. Gametes mature. 5. Gonad secrete sex hormones.
Inguinal
Pertaining to the groin region.
Renal
Pertaining to the kidney
Menopause
Phase at which a woman has reached when: • She has stopped having monthly menstrual cycles for 1 year and is not pregnant. 1. The age at onset typically is between 45 and 55 years. 2. Follicles stop maturing, and significant amounts of estrogen and progesterone are no longer being secreted. 3. Since the endometrial lining does not grow there is no longer a monthly uterine cycle with its associated menstrual period.io
Perimenopause
Phase at which a woman is nearing menopause 1. Estrogen levels begin to drop. 2. A woman may experience irregular periods, skip some periods, or have very light periods.
Mechanical digestion
Physically prepares food • Chewing • Churning in stomach • Segmentation in small intestines
Penile urethra
Portion of urethra that enters the bulb of the penis and extends through the length of the penis. (Spongy)
Prostatic urethra
Portion of urethra that extends through the prostate gland.
Membranous urethra
Portion of urethra that travels through the urogenital diaphragm.
Soft palate
Posterior muscular roof of mouth that is a mobile flap that rises to close off the nasopharynx during swallowing
Uterosacral ligament
Posterior portion of the cardinal ligament that extends from the cervix to the sacrum.
Anal triangle
Posterior triangle of the perineum that contains the anus in both sexes.
Haustra
Pouches (sacculations) of the colon.
Secondary follicle
Present during the third stage of follicle development: Primary oocyte surrounded by multiple layers of granulosa cells and one or several pools of follicular fluid
Primordial follicle
Primary oocyte surrounded by single layer of flattened follicle cells; the only follicles present before puberty. It is in a quiescent state.
Gonad
Primary reproductive organ: the testis of the male or the ovary of the female.
Oogenesis
Process of ovum (female gamete) formation. Females typically produces and releases a single oocyte monthly. Females begin gamete formation before birth.
Mammography
Process of performing an X-ray on the breast to detect for breast cancer
Respiration
Process of supplying oxygen and disposing carbon dioxide (a) Filter and condition inspired air (b) Pulmonary ventilation (breathing). Inhalation/exhalation (c) Gas exchange ¬supply oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide by working cooperatively with the circulatory system (d) Sound production (e) Olfaction (f) Immune defense (tonsils and MALT)
Hormonal stimuli
Release caused by hormones secreted into the bloodstream by another endocrine organ or cell.
Lactation
Production and secretion of milk.
Peristalsis
Progressive, wavelike contractions of smooth muscle that squeeze foodstuffs through the alimentary canal (or that move other substances through other body organs)
Stem cells
Proliferating precursor cells; source for replacement cells in the gut.
Humoral stimuli
Release of hormones controlled by monitoring levels of ions and nutrients in blood and body fluids. • Example: monitoring serum calcium levels—if calcium levels are too low this condition stimulates the release of parathyroid hormone that increases calcium uptake and retention by the gut and releases calcium stores from bone.
Labia major
Protects and cover female reproductive structures. Homologous to the scrotum in males.
Pepsin
Protein-digesting enzyme secreted by the stomach lining.
Defecation
Rectum is usually empty but when fecal matter enters it, it initiates contraction for defecation response. Anal sphincters are then signaled to relax. Major force for expelling fecal material is from the rectum but one can voluntarily delay this contraction.
Tunica submucosa
Second innermost layer of GI tract • Connective tissue containing blood vessels, lymphatics, nerve fibers, and sometimes elastic fibers
Muscularis externa
Second outermost layer of GI tract • Two layers of smooth muscle (inner circular layer and outer longitudinal layer). Functions to squeeze the GI tube and is responsible for peristalsis and segmentation. • Also called Tunica muscularis
Proliferative phase
Second phase of Menstrual Cycle • Spans approximately days 6-14 when a new functional layer of the endometrium is formed. • Overlaps the time of follicle growth and estrogen secretion.
Resorption
Second step of urine production in the kidney • Most of the nutrients, water and essential ions are recovered from the filtrate and returned to blood capillaries (99% is reabsorbed). Unwanted materials are not reabsorbed.
Parietal cells
Secrete HCl acid and gastric intrinsic factor (needed for vitamin B12 absorption later in the ileum). Acid pH can reach as low as 1-2, a pH that kills most bacteria.
Chief cells
Secrete pepsinogen that is converted to pepsin which begins enzymatically breaking down food. Pepsin only works under acid conditions.
Citric acid
Secreted by the Prostate and may serve as a nutrient for sperm health but it's real function is still unclear.
Antibiotic factors
Secreted by the prostate that combat urinary tract infections and in the vagina may help liquefy cervical mucous.
Feedback loops
Secretion by endocrine cells is controlled by feedback. 1. Negative feedback—secretion by cells is reduced or curtailed when levels of the hormone or humoral stimuli within the blood increases. 2. Positive feedback—secretion by cells is stimulated when levels of the hormone or humoral stimuli within the blood increases (example: progression of childbirth when levels of oxytocin stimulates the uterus to contract and the contractions stimulate further release of oxytocin).
Chyme
Semifluid, creamy mass consisting of partially digested food and stomach juices.
Visceral peritoneum
Serous membrane of abdominopelvic cavity that covers the external surface of the viscera (organs) and is continuous with the parietal peritoneum.
Parietal peritoneum
Serous membrane of abdominopelvic cavity that lines the inner body cavity wall.
Peritoneum
Serous membrane that lines the interior of the abdominopelvic cavity and covers the surfaces of the organs in this cavity.
Pleura
Serous membrane that lines the pleural cavity in the thorax and covers the external surface of the lung.
Hepatic portal system
Serves as the major entry for nerves, arteries, veins and hepatic duct. 1. Hepatic arteries—off of celiac trunk of abdominal aorta. 2. Hepatic portal veins—draining intestines, stomach and spleen. 3. Hepatic duct—from right and left lobes they meet to make the common hepatic duct. This duct meets the cystic duct (from gall bladder) to make the bile duct that empties into duodenum.
Gamete
Sex cell; sperm or oocyte.
Renal lobes
Single pyramid plus associated cortex surrounding the pyramid.
Ovary
Small almond-shaped female sex organs located in the pelvis and supported by ligaments, in which ova (eggs) are produced; the female gonad in the pelvis. Homologous to the testis in males. • Consist of a cortex and medulla surrounded on the outside by an epithelium: 1. Cortex—outer layer containing follicles with oocytes in various stages of development and corpus luteum in reproductive-aged women. 2. Medulla—inner core containing connective tissue, blood vessels and nerves. 3. Germinal epithelium covering—misnomer. Outer covering of the ovary consisting of a simple cuboidal epithelium. Where ovarian cysts form and site of ovarian cancer.
Salivary glands
Small individual glands that line the mouth and secrete mucus and saliva. Three major ones: • Parotid • Submandibular • Sublingual Functions: a). Moistens ingested food and helps turn it into a semisolid mass called a bolus that is more easily swallowed. b). Moistens and cleanses the oral cavity structures. c). First step in chemical digestion occurs when the enzyme amylase in saliva begins to break down carbohydrates. d). Contains antibodies and an antibacterial element called lysozyme that helps inhibit bacterial growth in the oral cavity. e). Watery medium into which food molecules are dissolved so taste receptors can be stimulated.
Paired cartilages
Smaller cartilages of layrnx • Arytenoid cartilages are triangular in shape and located at the superior posterior border of the cricoid cartilage. Vocal folds attach to these cartilages. Intrinsic laryngeal muscles attach to the arytenoid cartilages and can act on the vocal cords by moving these cartilages • Corniculate (horn) at the apex of the arytenoid cartilages. Acts like a sort of hinge or pivot point for the arytenoid cartilage.
Retroperitoneal
Some visceral organs (Duodenum, Pancreas, Urinary Bladder, and Kidneys) not suspended in the peritoneal cavity but rather held to body wall behind parietal peritoneum.
Peritoneal cavity
Space between the parietal and visceral layers of peritoneum. Contains a small amount of serous fluid.
Pleural cavity
Space between the parietal and visceral layers of pleura. Contains a small amount of serous fluid.
Corticosteroids
Steroid hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex. Examples are cortisol, aldosterone, and some sex hormones.
Mineralocorticoids
Steroid hormones secreted mostly by the zona glomerulosa cells of the adrenal cortex in response to a decrease in blood volume or pressure. Aldosterone prompts the kidneys to resorb more sodium. This passively retains more water within the blood thus increasing the blood volume.
Metabolism
Sum total of all the chemical reactions occurring in the cells of the body.
Bronchopulmonary segments
Supplied with air from tertiary bronchioles and gives rise to several generations of bronchioles that eventually give rise to terminal bronchioles
Tertiary bronchiole
Supplies air to a single broncho-pulmonary segment
Lumpectomy
Surgical removal of a breast cancerous lump
Appendectomy
Surgical removal of the appendix
Placenta
Temporary organ formed from both fetal and maternal tissues that provides nutrients and oxygen to the developing fetus, carries away fetal waste molecules, and secretes the hormones of pregnancy; shed as the afterbirth when labor is over.
Hypothalamus
The ____________ Directly influences: 1. The anterior pituitary by secreting or releasing inhibitory factors into the bloodstream upstream of the pituitary. 2. The kidney and uterus by releasing oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone into the bloodstream at the posterior pituitary. 3. The adrenal medulla directly through its effect on sympathetic innervation of the adrenal gland.
Calcitriol
The active form of vitamin D that increases intestinal adsorption and is converted from the inactive form of vitamin D (made in the skin or taken in by diet) by the kidneys after the kidneys get stimulate by increased calcium retention that was caused by PTH triggering osteoclasts to resorb bone
Fundus
The base of an organ; that part farthest from the opening of an organ.
Cecum
The blind-ended pouch at the beginning of the large intestine.
Uterine support
The broad ligament (mesentery folds), cardinal and uterosacral ligaments (thickened CT lining the pelvis), and round ligament of uterus (anchor it to the anterior body wall) and muscles of urogenital and pelvic diaphragm
Trachea
The cartilage-reinforced air tube that extends from the larynx to the bronchi; windpipe.
Menstrual cycle
The changes in the female reproductive organs that occur every month (28 days, on the average). A. Menstrual phase occurs approximately during days 1-5 of the cycle. This phase is marked by sloughing of the functional layer and lasts through the period of menstrual bleeding. B. Proliferative phase follows, spanning approximately days 6-14 when a new functional layer of the endometrium is formed. Overlaps the time of follicle growth and estrogen secretion. C. Secretory phase occurs at approximately days 15-28. During the secretory phase, there is an increase in progesterone secretion from the corpus luteum resulting in increased vascularization and development of and secretion from uterine glands. 1. If the oocyte is not fertilized, the corpus luteum degenerates, and the progesterone level drops dramatically. 2. Without progesterone, the functional layer lining sloughs off, and the next menstrual phase begins. D. Ischemic phase—clamping of blood vessels to the functional layer leading to necrosis of that layer and eventually to menstruation.
Cardiac sphincter
The circular layer of smooth muscle at the junction of the esophagus and stomach; contracts to prevent reflux of stomach contents into the esophagus.
Jejunum
The coiled part of the small intestine that is located between the duodenum and ileum. • Hangs by mesentery within the abdominal cavity. About 8 feet long.
Detrusor muscle
The collective name for the three layers of smooth muscle of the bladder wall
Alimentary canal
The digestive tube, extending from the mouth to the anus; its basic regions are the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, and anus. Also called gastrointestinal tract
Physiologic
The endocrine and nervous systems are similar in the sense that they influence the ________ functions of other organs.
Vulva
The external genitalia of the female. Lie anterior to the central tendon. Comprised of the mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, and prepuce
Adenohypophysis
The glandular part of the pituitary; also called the anterior lobe of the pituitary.
Renal corpuscle
The first part of the nephron. • Found only in the cortex of the kidney. • Consists of a glomerulus surrounded by the glomerular capsule (Bowman's capsule).
Urine production
The following are basics of what process in the Kidney?: A. Filtration—filtrate of blood leaves the kidney capillaries and enters nephron. Resembles tissue fluid. B. Resorption—most of the nutrients, water and essential ions are recovered from the filtrate and returned to blood capillaries (99% is reabsorbed). Unwanted materials are not reabsorbed. C. Secretion—additional release of undesired molecules from capillaries are actively transported and secreted by nephron into primitive urine.
Uterus
The following are functions of what organ? 1. Site for implantation. 2. Fertilized ovum (zygote) implants into the inner uterine wall and becomes connected to the uterine lining. 3. Supports, protects, and nourishes the developing embryo/fetus. a). Forms a vascular network that interacts with the placenta of the embryo and fetus. b). Ejects the fetus at birth after maternal oxytocin levels increase to initiate the uterine contractions of labor. 4. Site for menstruation. a). If the oocyte is not fertilized or after a baby is expelled, the muscular wall of the uterus contracts and sheds its inner lining (menstruation).
Female reproductive system
The following are functions of which organ system? A. Produces gametes (ova). B. Supports a developing embryo/fetus. C. Undergoes changes according to the menstrual cycle. D. Delivers newborn. E. Provides sustenance for newborn. Overview—ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitalia and mammary glands.
Exocrine
The following are involved the Pancreases _______ function? • Produce digestive enzymes (>22) • Acinar cells • Ductal cells
Endocrine
The following are involved the Pancreases _______ function? • Produces insulin and glucagon
Reproductive system
The following are main functions of which organ system: A. Ensure the sexual maturation of each individual. B. Produce reproductive cells known as gametes. C. Combine the gametes.
Ovarian cancer
The following are symptoms of what type of cancer? • Bloating • Abdominal or pelvic pain • Diarrhea and gas • Urinary symptoms • Difficulty in eating • Feeling full quickly • Abnormal vaginal bleeding.
Endometrial cancer
The following are symptoms of what type of cancer? • Vaginal bleeding • Abnormal menstrual cycle • Lower abdominal pain and • A white vaginal discharge in postmenopausal women
Cervix
The inferior, necklike part of the uterus (cervix = neck). Internal and external os are the openings at either end of the cervix. • Cervical glands secrete mucus that fills cervical canal during pregnancy thereby blocking spread of infection from vagina. • Expels fetus at delivery
Upper lumbar region
The kidney is a Red/brown, bean-shaped organ lying retroperitoneal in the abdominal wall of what region?
Pars distalis
The main division of the adenohypophysis of the pituitary gland; the anterior lobe of the pituitary.
Urea
The main nitrogen-containing waste product produced by kidney and excreted in urine derived from breakdown of amino acids during normal metabolism.
Renal calyx
The membrane-lined space that the renal pyramids project into
Foreskin
The name of the cuff that the loose skin covering the penis forms when it extends over the glans penis.
Nares
The nostrils.
Trigone
The of bladder where the two ureters empty and the urethra begins.
Anus
The opening at the distal end of the alimentary canal.
Glottis
The opening between the two vocal cords in the larynx.
Perimetrium
The outer tunic of most of the uterus is a serosa called the ___________, which is continuous with the broad ligament.
Chorion
The outermost fetal membrane; helps form the placenta; technically, it consists of the trophoblast and the extra-embryonic mesoderm.
Neurohypophysis
The part of the pituitary gland that derives from the brain; contains the stalk-like infundibulum and the posterior lobe of the pituitary.
Adenoids
The pharyngeal tonsil on the roof of the pharynx.
Hypophysis
The pituitary gland.
Glucose
The principal blood sugar; the main sugar used by cells for energy.
Pars nervosa
The region of the neurohypophysis of the pituitary gland from which hormones are secreted; the posterior lobe of the pituitary.
Primary follicle
The second stage in follicle development and it is actively developing. The primary oocyte is surrounded by the zona pellucida (an extracellular matrix—our version of an egg shell) and several layers of follicle (granulosa) cells
Muscularis
The smooth muscle tunic layer of the vagina
Myometrium
The thick middle layer of smooth muscle in the uterine wall. During the course of a pregnancy, smooth muscle cells increase both in size and in number.
Primary bronchi
The trachea branches to form a right and left bronchus • Structure-C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings are present that are similar to those in the trachea. • The right bronchus is more vertical, shorter and wider than the left bronchus. • Hence, it is more likely for aspirated objects to lodge in the right bronchus • Primary bronchi each carry air to and from one lung. Each enters their respective lung before undergoing further division. Primary bronchi enter lung at the hilus • Division of bronchi and the rest of the bronchia tree occurs within the lungs
Spermatogonium
These are diploid stem cells that consist of 46 chromosomes • Found near the periphery of the tubule. • Produce more stem cells (spermatogonia type A) or that differentiate into type B spermatogonia. • Type B spermatogonia divide and differentiate into primary spermatocytes.
Juxtaglomerular cells
These are granular cells of the afferent and efferent arterioles in the juxtaglomerular apparatus that function as a mechanosensory apparatus that excrete renin in response to a fall the blood pressure within the afferent and efferent arterioles.
Adult teeth
These consist of Incisors, canines, premolar (bicuspid), molars, and wisdom (tertiary molars).
Muscularis mucosa
Thin layer of smooth muscle cells producing small local movements of the epithelium located in the Tunica mucosa of the GI tract
Secretory phase
Third phase of Menstrual Cycle in the Uterus • Occurs at approximately days 15-28 beginning at ovulation. • There is an increase in progesterone secretion from the corpus luteum resulting in increased vascularization and development of and secretion from uterine glands. 1. If the oocyte is not fertilized, the corpus luteum degenerates, and the progesterone level drops dramatically. 2. Without progesterone, the functional layer lining sloughs off, and the next menstrual phase begins. -Also called Luteal phase
Luteal phase
Third phase of ovarian cycle (days 15-28) • Period when the follicle cells remaining in the ruptured vesicular (Graafian) follicle becomes a corpus luteum which: a). Secretes progesterone and estrogen and prepares the uterine endometrium for implantation of the embryo. b). Has a life span of the corpus luteum is about 10-13 days if the ovum is not fertilized. i). In the absence of fertilization, the corpus luteum regresses and becomes a corpus albicans (scar). ii). The demise of the corpus luteum results in a decline in progesterone and estrogen. This causes the uterine lining to be shed—menstruation. c). If fertilization and implantation occur, the corpus luteum continues to produce estrogen and progesterone throughout most of the pregnancy and is known as a corpus luteum of pregnancy.
Secretion
Third step of urine production in the kidney • Additional release of undesired molecules from capillaries are actively transported and secreted by nephron into primitive urine.
Parafollicular C cells
Thyroid cells that secrete the hormone, calcitonin, when blood levels of calcium are high. Calcitonin lowers circulating calcium levels by stimulating calcium secretion from the kidneys and decreasing the calcium-releasing activity of osteoclasts (decreases bone resorption).
TRH
Thyrotrophic-releasing hormone, which gets secreted by the hypothalamus when it receives a stimulus like low body temperature
T4
Thyroxine, a thyroglobulin that is less potent than T3, but lasts longer
Hepatic caniculi
Tiny intervening spaces between hepatocytes that empty into the bile ducts of the portal triad and these then join others to make the large hepatic bile duct leaving liver at the hepatic portal.
T3
Triiodothyroxine, a thyroglobulin that is more potent than T4
Urethra
Tube that carries urine from the bladder and semen from the ejaculatory duct to the outside of the body Three portions in a male: -Prostatic urethra that extends through the prostate gland. -Membranous urethra that travels through the urogenital diaphragm. -Penile (spongy) urethra that enters the bulb of the penis and extends through the length of the penis.
Uterine tube
Tube through which the ovum travels to the uterus; also called fallopian tube and oviduct.
Brunner's gland
Tubular gland in duodenum that release alkaline buffer to help neutralize stomach acid.
Intestinal crypts
Tubular glands found between villi that secrete a watery liquid that mixes with chyme (semi-liquid, partially digested food).
Gastric pits
Tubular glands in the epithelial lining of the stomach that contain gastric mucous neck cells, parietal cells and chief cells.
Tubal pregnancies
Type of ectopic pregnancies. Occur when the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucid, while still in the uterine tube, allowing the embryo to implant itself on the inner wall of the tube. This is dangerous as it can cause the uterine tube to rupture when embryo grows.
Kupffer cells
Type of macrophage that removes bacteria and foreign particles in the blood. Hence, they cleanse the blood coming from intestines before re-entry into rest of the circulation. They also remove any fragmented RBCs and floating tumor cells. Also serve as antigen processing cells.
Spermatogonia Type B
Type of spermatogonium divide into primary spermatocytes
Spermatogonia Type A
Type of spermatogonium that produce more stem cells
Absorption
Uptake and transport of nutrients from GI into blood stream and lymphatics.
Stress incontinence
Urethral sphincter is incapable of stopping urine loss due to increased pressure during coughing and sneezing.
Micturition
Urination, or voiding; emptying the bladder. • Bladder contraction assisted by muscles of abdomen. • As the bladder fills, stretch receptors in bladder wall signal the need to void. At some point, the pontine portion of the brain signals the parasympathetic system to contract the bladder muscle (detrusor) and relax the internal sphincter by inhibiting the sympathetics that keep it from contracting. • Cerebrum (voluntary) can influence and override the brain signal to micturate by signaling the external urethral sphincter to contract
Hemorrhoids
Varicosities of veins in the wall of the anal canal. These can get inflamed, throb and bulge into lumen of anal canal. Severe hemorrhoids are often removed by strangulation (by rubber band) or injected with hardening agents or cauterized electrically or by infrared light. If ruptured it can lead to serious infections.
Hiatal hernia
Weakening diaphragm muscles no longer reinforce action of cardiac sphincter and stomach bulges into thorax. Leads to persistent acid regurgitation.
Immunosuppressive drugs
What are some of the restrictions if you receive a kidney transplant? In other words, what does the recipient have to take for the remainder of their life?
Respiratory bronchioles and alveoli
What are the respiratory units that can exchange respiratory gasses?
Periodental ligament
What binds the teeth to the bone? It binds the cementum of the root to the alveolar bone.
PAP Smear sample
What can a woman take to check for Cervical cancer? It allows for the monitoring of changes in the morphology of epithelial cells as a means of assessing possible precancerous and cancerous status of the epithelium
Filtration membrane
What constitutes the filtration barrier between the blood and the primary urine? • Restricts the passage of large elements of blood and all but the smallest proteins. • Allows passage of water, ions, glucose, amino acids, and urea. • Consists of: - Fenestrated endothelium of capillary. - Slots between foot processes of podocytes. A thin diaphragm covers each slot. - Intervening basement membrane consisting of the fused basement membranes of the endothelium and podocytes.
Pyloric sphincter
What controls passage of food from the stomach and into the small intestines?
Secondary oocyte
What differentiation of oocyte is an oocyte that has just completed meiosis I after being stimulated to divide by FSH just before it is released and gets stuck in meiosis II, unless it is fertilized? It gets released during ovulation
Angiotensin
What does renin convert angiotensinogen into?
Tamoxifen
What drug is used to treat cancers of the female reproductive system, especially breast cancer, because it antagonizes the estrogen receptor?
Stratified squamous
What epithelium lines the oropharynx and laryngopharynx? It's non-keratinized
Ovulation
What event occurs event marks the end of the Proliferative phase and the beginning of the Secretory phase? Begins on day 14 of the Menstrual cycle.
Estrogen
What female sex hormone Regenerates the endometrium? • (proliferative phase of the uterine cycle)
Estrogen
What female sex hormone is Made by follicle and granulosa cells in response to FSH.
Estrogen
What female sex hormone is responsible for secondary sexual characteristics?
Prolactin
What hormone stimulates the serous mammary epithelial glands to secrete milk?
Venous capillaries
What hypothalamic portal system structure carries the releasing/inhibitory hormones released from the hypothalamus and then drain into the hypothalamic portal veins leaving the hypothalamus?
Capillary plexus
What hypothalamic portal system structure supplies the hypothalamus and takes up the hormones secreted by the hypothalamic neurons
Hypothalamic portal veins
What hypothalamic portal system structures enter the anterior pituitary and again break up into a capillary plexus where the releasing/inhibitory trophic hormones within the blood signal the anterior pituitary cells?
Hypothalamic neurons
What hypothalamic portal system structures secrete hormones, much like it would neurotransmitters that are then taken up by the capillary plexus, which supplies the hypothalmus?
Branches of the Vagus nerve (CN 10)
What innervates the larynx? It regulates tension
Sympathetics
What is keeping the detrusor from contracting when the bladder is not full? It needs to be inhibited by the parasympathetics, in order for the detrusor to contract and in turn, relax the internal sphincter to permit voiding
Androgens
What is responsible for driving the development of male secondary sexual characteristics? • Leydig/Interstitial cells are stimulated to produce these hormones by LH • Cause development of axillary and pubic hair and deeper voice and also required for sperm production
Vagina
What is the Copulatory organ?
200-500
What is the average sperm count in an ejaculate?
Cryptorchidism
What is the consequence if descent of the testes into the scrotum fails?
Infundibulum
What is the distal end of the uterine tube called? The wider funnel-like part helps sweep the ovum into uterine tube. The proximal ends open into the uterine lumen
3-5
What is the range in volume in ml of semen ejaculated
Fornix
What is the recess formed at the superior part of the vagina?
Corpus albicans
What is the scar called that the corpus luteum becomes after regressing, in the absence of fertilization?
Iodine
What key element is found in T3 and T4?
Normal life
What life-long consequences do individuals donating a kidney have? • Live donors can live a ______ ______with just one kidney
External spermatic fascia
What makes up the outer layer of the Spermatic cord? • Consists of connective tissue fibers that continue from the external abdominal oblique muscle aponeurosis.
Internal spermatic fascia
What makes ups the inner layer of the Spermatic cord?
Pampiniform plexus
What nerve plexus helps cool arterial blood going to the testis, in order to create optimal conditions for spermatogenesis?
Liver
What organ crowds the right kidney?
Vagina
What organ functions as the Birth canal for delivery of the baby?
Hypothalamus
What organ indirectly influences other endocrine organs/cells by releasing "trophic" hormones that stimulate hormone secretion from the anterior pituitary? • Examples include hypothalamic hormones that stimulate the release of TSH, somatotropin, ACTH, FSH and LH, prolactin and MSH from the anterior pituitary.
Kidneys
What organs get stimulated by increased retention of calcium, which was indirectly caused by PTH stimulating osteoclasts to resorb bone?
70
What percent of kidney transplant recipients survive for more than 3 years if they get their kidney from a cadaver?
80-90
What percent range is survival rate after 3 years for kidney recipients from live donors?
Pontine mictruition center
What portion of the brain signals the parasympathetic system to contract the detrusor and relax the internal sphincter by inhibiting the sympathetics that keep it from contracting, in response to signals of the need to void from stretch receptors in the bladder wall?
Exocrine portion
What portion of the pancreas is often the site of pancreatic cancer development?
Cerebrum
What region of brain can influence and override the brain signal to micturate by signaling the external urethral sphincter to contract?
Sympathetic nervous system
What side of autonomic nervous system is responsible for ejaculation?
Parasympathetic nervous system
What side of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for erections?
Cremaster muscle
What skeletal muscle of the spermatic cord relaxes in response to elevated temperatures, in order to move the testes inferiorly away from the body, causing their temperature to reduce
Distal convoluted tubules
What tubules are dependent upon aldosterone for re-uptake?
Collecting tubules
What tubules are targeted by ADH?
Fenestrated capillary
What type of capillary is the glomerulus? It has true pores. • Allows it to be Specialized for filtration.
Simple columnar
What type of epithelial cells make up the large intestine?
Transitional epithelium
What type of epithelium are the urethra initially made from? and then
Stratified squamous
What type of epithelium covers the tongues' surface?
Simple columnar
What type of epithelium does the stomach consist of?
Stratified squamous
What type of epithelium does the urethra become at its exterior?
Pseudostratified columnar
What type of epithelium is found in the Epididymis?
Transitional epithelium
What type of epithelium lines the Ureters and Bladder? • A type of stratified epithelium whereby the luminal-most cells change shape depending on the fullness of the bladder
Ciliated simple columnar
What type of epithelium lines the lumen of the uterine tube?
Respiratory epithelium
What type of epithelium lines the nasopharynx?
Parasympathetic system
What type of nervous systems does the pontine portion of brain signal to contract the detrusor and relax the internal sphincter by inhibiting the sympathetics that keep it from contracting?
Stratified squamous
What type of non-keratinized epithelium lines the Mucosa layer of the Vagina?
Mature ovum
What type of oocyte has been fertilized and is in the Vesicular follicle stage?
Primary oocyte
What type of oocyte is present during the primordial and primary follicle stages of development and during the secondary stage of follicle development prior to getting stimulated to undergo meiosis I?
Human papilloma virus
What virus is responsible for most cases of cervical cancer?
Neuromuscular disorders
What would a deficit of PTH lead to?
Fetal period
When does oogenesis begin?
Dartos muscle
When the testes are exposed to elevated temperatures, what smooth muscle located in the scrotal wall relaxes to increase the thinness of the scrotal sac?
Female reproductive tract
Where does Capacitation end?
Abdomen
Where in the fetus are the testes originally located? The descend to the scrotum near term
Endometrium
Where in the uterus does the most common form of uterine cancer occur?
Hepatitis C
Which form of Hepatitis is more likely to be spread because of a long delayed appearance of symptoms?
Basal layer
Which layer of the endometrium does not get shed? It functions as a base for regeneration of a new functional layer
Functional layer
Which layer of the endometrium gets shed? It functions to support the embryo/fetus
Round ligament
Which ligament anchors the uterus to the anterior body wall?
Surface
While exocrine glands secrete things that will drain onto an epithelial _______, the secretions (hormones) of endocrine glands go into the bloodstream.
Intraperitoneal
Within the peritoneal cavity.
Ducts
______ leading from testes to the glans penis include: a). Epididymis b). Vas (ductus) deferens c). Ejaculatory ducts d). Urethra
Classes
______ of hormones: • Peptide/protein hormones 1. Chains of amino acids. 2. Comprises the largest class of hormones. 3. Examples are growth hormone and parathyroid hormone. • Biogenic amines 1. Small molecules produced by altering the structure of a specific amino acid. 2. Examples are thyroid hormone and epinephrine both synthesized from the amino acid, tyrosine. • Steroid hormones 1. Type of lipid derived from cholesterol. 2. Examples are estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol.
Homologs
_______ between the female and male reproductive system: A. Ovary and testis—produce gametes and hormones. B. Clitoris and glans penis—contains sensory and autonomic nerves that stimulate arousal and sexual climax. C. Labia majora and scrotum—protect and cover reproductive structures. D. Vestibular gland and bulbourethral glands—secrete mucus for lubrication.
Epithelial lining
_________ ____ of the stomach: Composed of Simple Columnar consisting entirely of surface mucus cells that coat and protect lining. They produce a thick and cloudy mucous that is constantly released and protects the stomach lining. b). Gastric pits—tubular glands containing gastric mucous neck cells, parietal cells, chief cells, and stem cells.
Secondary
_________ sexual characteristics become prominent at puberty: 1. Breast enlargement in females. 2. Both sexes develop pubic hair. 3. Reproductive organs become fully functional. 4. Gametes mature. 5. Gonad secrete sex hormones.
Endocrine glands
a). Ductless glands that release their secretions (hormones) into the bloodstream. b). Endocrine glands are highly vascularized to ensure that their hormones enter the bloodstream rapidly and effectively.
Waste products of kidney
a). Urea—from breakdown of amino acids during normal metabolism. b). Uric acid—from breakdown of nuclei acids. c). Creatine—from breakdown of creatine phosphate, a molecule found in muscle that helps store and supply energy in muscle.
Type I diabetes
• (insulin-dependent)—usually seen before age 15 and appears suddenly. • Thought to be an autoimmune disease that destroys the beta cells. • Must take insulin several times during the day.
Type II diabetes
• (non-insulin dependent)—develops more slowing and hence seen more prevalent in adults. • Accounts for ~90% of diabetes mellitus. • Insulin usually still produced, but cells in body are resistant to responding to it. • Primary means of managing it include low carbohydrate diet, weight loss, and exercise. • Oral medications that raise blood insulin levels and lower glucose levels are also used. Many of these medications target the liver where glucose is stored.
Kidney stones
• 12% men and 5% women in North American will form these (made of calcium, magnesium, and/or uric acid salts). • If less than 5 mm, most pass without symptoms. • Larger ones get caught in the ureter causing extreme pain from contractions of its walls. • Treatment—surgical or extracorporeal shock wave therapy to break up stones into smaller pieces that can pass naturally
Bladder cancer
• 3% of cancer deaths and 5 times more common in men. • Usually they are neoplasms of the bladder epithelium. • Blood in urine is a common symptom. • It is usually lethal if it metastasizes. • Chemotherapy and surgical removal of bladder or bladder segments can extend life (average 5 years).
Kidney transplants
• 30% from living donors and 70% from cadavers - (kidney can be maintained up to about 36 hr). • Survival rate of the kidney is 80-90% for greater than 3 years if it was from a live donor and about 70% if it was from a cadaver. • Live donors can live a normal life with just one kidney. • Recipient must take immunosuppressive drugs for remainder of life.
Adult incontinence
• 80% can be treated (35% of the population over age 60 are estimated to have it).
Prostate gland
• A compact encapsulated organ, shaped like and about the size of a walnut. • Located immediately inferior to the bladder. • Secretes a slightly milky fluid that is rich in: - Citric acid may serve as a nutrient for sperm health but it's real function is still unclear. - Antibiotic factors that combat urinary tract infections and in the vagina may help liquefy cervical mucous. - Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is an enzyme that helps liquefy semen during ejaculation.
Loops of Henle
• Descending and ascending limbs of nephron. • Descending part is connected to PCT. • First part of it is thinned walled, made of permeable simple squamous epithelium. -This thin part is connected to the ascending limb and -Near the top of the ascending limb it gets thick again. • About 15% of the water is resorbed here. • The site of selective secretion such as calcitonin-driven calcium secretion. • These tubules loop down into the medulla and then back up into the cortex
Vagina
• A distensible three layered thick-walled, fibromuscular tube that forms the inferior-most region of the female reproductive tract and measures about 10 centimeters (~4 inches) in length in an adult female. • Connects the uterus with the outside of the body. • Fornix is the recess formed at the superior part of the vagina while the hymen an incomplete diaphragm at the external opening • Functions: 1. Birth canal for delivery of baby. 2. Copulatory organ. 3. Passageway for menstrual debris. • It's relatively thin, distensible wall consists of three tunics 1. Mucosa - marked by transverse folds; lined with non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. 2. Muscularis - smooth muscle tunic. 3. Adventitia - fibrous connective tissue.
Cricoid cartilage
• A ring of cartilage forming the inferior wall of the larynx. • Ligaments attach it inferiorly to the first C-shaped cartilage ring of the trachea while it is attached superiorly to the thyroid cartilage and by ligaments and muscles. • Serves as a landmark for making an emergency tracheotomy (tracheostomy) where an incision is made below this cartilage to avoid the thyroid gland and laryngeal nerves
Pineal gland
• A small endocrine gland located within the diencephalon of the brain. • Releases melatonin important for regulating circadian rhythms.
Gastroesophageal reflux disease
• Abnormal weakness of cardiac sphincter allowing acids to be regurgitated. • Symptoms: belching; heartburn; coughing and bronchial asthma if acid gets up high. • If it persists, it will cause ulcers and can be serious if not treated. 10-20% of Americans experience GERD symptoms every day.
Appendicitis
• Acute inflammation causing a blockage that traps infectious bacteria within lumen of the appendix. • When it swells, it causes severe pain. • Can rupture leading to peritonitis and death if not treated. Occurs in up to 7% of population in western countries. • Often difficult to diagnose because of the variety of symptoms.
Angiotensin II
• Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) converts Angiotensin I into this hormone in the lungs. • Stimulates aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex -(i.e., zona glomerulosa). • When sodium is resorbed back into the blood (restoring salt content), water follows causing the blood volume to increase and ultimately increasing blood pressure.
Nasopharynx
• Area from the internal nares to the plane of the soft palate serving as the passageway for air. • Lined w/ respiratory epithelium (i.e., ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium w/ goblet cells). • Openings of the Eustachian tubes (auditory canals) connect the middle ear chamber to this airway where small amounts of air pass through allowing equalization of pressure on both sides of the eardrum. • Pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids) found here.
Ovarian cancer
• Arises from cells in the germinal epithelium. • It is the 8th most common type of cancer in women (1:10,000 in NE in 2007). • Patient may complain of bloating, abdominal or pelvic pain, diarrhea and gas, urinary symptoms, difficulty in eating, feeling full quickly, and abnormal vaginal bleeding
Endometrial cancer
• Arises from the endometrium of the uterus. • More common than ovarian cancer and cervical cancer. • It is the 4th most common type of cancer in women • (~35,000/yr in the US). • Symptoms include vaginal bleeding, abnormal menstrual cycle, lower abdominal pain and in postmenopausal women, a white vaginal discharge
Neuronal control of micturition
• As the bladder fills, stretch receptors in bladder wall signal the need to void. • At some point, the pontine portion of the brain signals the parasympathetic system to contract the bladder muscle (detrusor) and relax the internal sphincter by inhibiting the sympathetics that keep it from contracting. • Cerebrum (voluntary) can influence and override the brain signal to micturate by signaling the external urethral sphincter to contract
Male accessory reproductive glands
• As the sperm travels through the reproductive tract, they are nourished by nutrients contained in the fluid found in the reproductive ducts. • The vagina is a highly acidic environment so as to prevent bacterial growth. • Sperm cannot survive in this type of environment, so an alkaline secretion called seminal fluid is necessary to lessen the acidity of the vagina and bring the pH values closer to neutral. The accessory glands produce components of the seminal fluid. - Seminal vesicles - Prostate - Bulbourethral glands
Spermatic cord
• Blood vessels, nerves, and vas deferens to the testis travel from the abdomen to the scrotum in this structure. • Its contents include: - Vas deferens (passageway for the sperm.) - Testicular artery (supplies testes with arterial blood.) - Pampiniform plexus of veins (venous drainage of the testes; helps cool incoming arterial blood going to the testes.) - Nerves and lymphatics • Its coverings include: - External spermatic fascia (outer layer). - Cremaster muscle and fascia (middle layer). - Internal spermatic fascia (inner layer). • Begins in the scrotum and enters the abdominal cavity at the superficial inguinal ring, then runs along the inguinal ligament, and then enters the abdominal cavity by passing through the deep inguinal ring. Both rings are sites of abdominal wall weakness and the abdominal peritoneum or abdominal contents can herniate out.
Secondary bronchi
• Branches of the Primary bronchi that supply each lobe of the lung. • There are two secondary bronchi in the left lung and • Three secondary bronchi in the right lung
Thyroid gland
• Butterfly-shaped biloped endocrine gland in the anterior neck just below the laryngeal prominence (Adam's apple). • Well vascularized by the superior and inferior thyroid arteries; its main hormone (thyroid hormone) increases metabolic rate. • Composed of hollow spherical structures called follicles made up of cuboidal-shaped epithelial cells (follicular cells) with the lumens filled with a fluid called colloid. • Interspersed within the follicle epithelium are special cells called parafollicular C cells.
Vasa recta
• Capillary-like BVs located in the deepest part of the cortex, enter the medulla, & are continuous w/ efferent arterioles • Supply the loops of Henle and collecting ducts in the medulla of the kidney. • Very thin walled, looping vessels. • Loop down alongside the loop of Henle. • Constitute a part of the urine concentrating system.
Pyelonephritis
• Infection of renal pelvis and calices (pyelitis) that spreads into rest of kidney. • If left untreated, it can lead to kidney damage. •Usually caused by E. coli spread from anal region up the urinary tract to kidney.
Mucous neck cells
• Cells at the top of the gastric pits of the epithelial stomach lining that secrete a different kind of mucus (more watery) than goblet cells. • Secrete bicarbonate-buffered mucus.
Interstitial cells
• Cells found in the Interstitial compartment of the testis that produce steroid hormones called androgens that are needed for spermatogenesis. - LH stimulates androgen production by Leydig cells. - There are several types of androgens, the most common one they secrete is testosterone. - Androgens cause males to develop the classic secondary sex characteristics such as axillary and pubic hair and a deeper voice, and are also required for the production of sperm. • (Also called Leydig cells)
Primary spermatocytes
• Cells that divide by meiosis I to produce secondary spermatocytes. Division of these cells and all subsequent steps are incomplete (i.e., there is a failure to completely separate the cytoplasm between the daughter cells— the cells remain connected by a thin bridge of cytoplasm).
Episiotomy
• Central tendon can be torn by baby's head thereby weakening the pelvic floor as the tear may heal badly. • An incision is made in the posterior vaginal oriface to widen it when the baby's head appears, either through the middle or off to one side of the central tendon. • After delivery, the clean incision is stitched. • (It is done 30% of the time in US— controversial as may not be necessary and it can be very painful during the healing process)
Hepatitis C
• Chronic viral infection of the liver transmitted by blood or body fluids. • Can lead to cirrhosis and liver cancer but is often asymptomatic. • Difficult to diagnosis and one can carry the viral infection for 20 years before knowing it (and hence spread it) before developing serious symptoms. 4 million Americans have it (~300 million world wide). • Can be treated similarly to that for hepatitis B with an approximate 40% cure rate (depending on viral genotype). • No vaccine is available. In 2011, the FDA approved a new antiviral drug (boceprevir) to treat patients unresponsive to previous treatment regimes (first new drug approved in 20 years). • Other new drugs are in the pipeline. • Leading cause for liver transplants.
Chromaffin cells
• Clusters of sympathetic neurons in the Medulla of the Adrenal gland that are stimulated by the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. • One population secretes epinephrine • Other population secretes nonepinephrine • Work together to prepare the body for an emergency or for a "fight or flight" situation.
Renal pelvis
• Collecting funnel for urine that empties into ureter. • Outpocketings from the pelvis are called the renal calices and these collect the urine from the pyramids.
Epididymis
• Comma-shaped structure in the scrotum adjacent to the testis; composed of a long convoluted duct that is approx. 4-5 meters, in which the sperm mature. • Lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium. • Sperm must reside here period of time to become mature. -If they are expelled too soon, they lack the capacity for motility necessary for traveling through the female reproductive tract and fertilizing an oocyte. - If sperm are not ejected from the male reproductive system in a timely manner, the old sperm degenerate in the epididymis.
Paranasal sinuses and lacrimal ducts
• Communicate w/ respiratory portion of the nasal cavity and thus contribute to providing moisture. • But the sinuses also have a role in phonation
Respiratory area of nose
• Conditions inspired air and transmits air to the pharynx. • Located b/w the vestibule & the internal nares. • Lined w/ ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium • Mucous secreted from cells in the conchal epithelium provides moisture to the inspired air and also traps dust particles
Renal pyramids
• Cone-shaped masses located in the medulla layer of Kidney • Their base abuts the cortex and their • Apexes point internally and project into a membrane-lined space called the renal calyx. • Separated by renal columns
Root
• Consists of root, shaft (or body) and glans penis. • Covered by a loose skin that extends over glans - (forms a cuff called the prepuce or foreskin). • Internally contains erectile tissue and penile urethra
Angiotensin I
• Converted from angiotensinogen by renin • Constricts blood vessels thereby increasing blood pressure. • Gets converted to Angiotensin II in the lungs by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE).
Renal medulla
• Darker layer of Kidney. • Consists of renal columns and cone-shaped masses called pyramids. • Base of the medullary pyramids abut the cortex and their apexes point internally and project into a membrane-lined space called the renal calyx. • Renal columns of the medulla separate the renal pyramids and run from the base of the cortex to the middle of the calyx.
Oropharynx
• Derived from the soft palate to the level of the hyoid bone. • It is the common passageway for food, liquid, and air. • Lined with non-keratinized stratified epithelium. ∗ Palatine and lingual tonsils found here ∗ Uvula is a dangling fleshy tissue extending downward from the soft palate at the rear of the mouth. Helps prevent reflux of food into the nasopharynx and important in phonation
Peptic ulcer
• Digestive juice and acid may erode into the wall of GI tract and escape past the chemical barriers. Painful. • If erosion penetrates walls it can be dangerous and even lead to death. • Treated with antibiotics (as again bacteria may be the cause), anti-acids, or pharmaceuticals that decrease acid secretion.
Bladder
• Expandable and collapsible muscular sac for storing urine that lies in the pelvic cavity just posterior to pubic symphysis and just anterior to rectum in males and to uterus in females. • Normally holds up to about 400-600 ml of urine in adult but can reach a maximum of 1 liter. A. Trigone—base of bladder where the two ureters empty and the urethra begins. B. Nerves—sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. C. Muscular wall—three layers of smooth muscle (collectively called the detusor muscle). D. Epithelial lining is transitional epithelium, a type of stratified epithelium whereby the luminal-most cells change shape depending on the fullness of the bladder.
Scrotum
• External sac of skin underlying superficial fascia that hangs inferiorly and external to the abdominal cavity at the root of the penis. • Has a septum separating it into 2 compartments with each compartment containing a testis that it protects. • Homologous to the Labia majora in females sac of skin and
Capacitation
• Final maturation process whereby the spermatozoa become metabolically active and attain their full capacity for fertilization of the ovum. - Modified to acquire motility - Cell surface proteins change - Acrosomal enzyme content changes • Process begins in the epididymis of male reproductive tract and is completed in the female reproductive tract.
External urethral sphincter
• Found in females and Surrounds the urethra w/in the urogenital diaphragm. • This is skeletal muscle and hence is voluntary.
Kidneys
• Functions to maintain proper chemical composition of the blood and other extracellular fluid & Filters out toxins, wastes, excess water, and ions to generate urine. 1. Main waste products are: a). Urea—from breakdown of amino acids during normal metabolism. b). Uric acid—from breakdown of nuclei acids. c). Creatine—from breakdown of creatine phosphate, a molecule found in muscle that helps store and supply energy in muscle. 2. Plays a major role in maintaining fluid volume and fluid composition of the body. • Red/brown, bean-shaped organ lying retroperitoneal in the abdominal wall in the upper lumbar region. • The liver crowds the right unit. • They sit in an envelop of fat so as to cushion them and help hold them in place. B. Hilus—medial, concaved opening into the kidney. It is the major route for entry of BVs and nerves. It is also the exit point for ureters. C. Wall of kidney—has dense connective tissue on the outside. Capsule helps support kidney and keep its shape. A. If you slice through the kidney, you will find two major layers: the cortex and medulla. 1. Cortex—is lighter in color and is granular appearance. 2. Medulla—darker in color. Consists of renal columns and cone-shaped masses called pyramids. Base of the medullary pyramids abut the cortex and their apexes point internally and project into a membrane-lined space called the renal calyx. Renal columns of the medulla separate the renal pyramids and run from the base of the cortex to the middle of the calyx. 3. Renal lobes—single pyramid plus associated cortex surrounding the pyramid. 4. Renal pelvis—collecting funnel for urine that empties into ureter. Outpocketings from the pelvis are called the renal calices and these collect the urine from the pyramids.
Large intestine
• Gets residue after digestion and breaks down some materials (mainly due to its bacterial flora) and uptake nutrients. • Main function is to reabsorb water and electrolytes. Anatomy: - Cecum - Vermiform appendix - Colon (Ascending, transverse, descending) - Rectum - Anal canal.
Bowman's capsule
• Glomerular space containing the primary urine (filtrate). • Consists of 2 layers: - Parietal layer comprised of simple squamous epithelium that is continuous with the proximal convoluted tubule and a - Visceral layer that clings to basal side of the glomerulus. ****Made of special cells called podocytes, which have foot-like processes that interdigitate to make slit-like pores.
Glucocorticoids
• Hormones secreted primarily by the zone fasciculata layer of the adrenal cortex, but also from the zona reticularis • Increases concentration of glucose and amino acids in the blood and aid the body in resisting long-term stress. Especially important in brain metabolism. • Suppresses immune system by activating anti-inflammatory pathways; used to treat diseases having over active immune system. • Release controlled by ACTH from pituitary (ACTH from pituitary is controlled by corticotrophin-releasing hormone released from the hypothalamus).
Cushing's syndrome
• Hypersecretion of glucocorticoids because of either an ACTH- secreting pituitary tumor or a tumor in adrenal cortex. • Rare: 5-25 per million. a). Characterized by high levels of glucose in blood, protein loss in muscles and muscle weakness, and lethargy. • Visual signs include weight gain, swollen face, fat redistribution, and depression of the immune and inflammatory responses. See thinning of skin with red stria (stretch marks) due to rapid weight gain. Also see cognitive dysfunction.
Addison's disease
• Hyposecretory disorder of the adrenal cortex usually in both glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids. • Blood glucose and sodium levels drop, there is severe dehydration and low blood pressure. Fatigue, loss of appetite and abdominal pain can be found. • There are several causes including being an autoimmune disease that destroys adrenal cortex cells or due to an inherited metabolic disease leading to deficiencies in hormone-producing enzymes. • Rare: 5-7 per million.
Pelvic inflammatory disease
• Infections in vagina and uterus spread into uterine tubes and may even reach the pelvic peritoneum. • Occurs in 10% women in US. • Symptoms include tenderness of lower abdomen, fever, and vaginal discharge. • Can lead to infertility (if not treated within days).
Gastritis
• Inflammation of the gastric lining that may be due to drug ingestion (e.g., alcohol/aspirin), stress, or bacterial infection (50—80% due to bacteria particularly Helicobacter pylori.) • Can lead to a peptic ulcer.
Digestive process
• Ingestion • Mechanical digestion - Chewing - Churning in stomach - Segmentation in small intestines • Propulsion - Swallowing (oropharynx) - Peristalsis • Chemical digestion • Absorption • Defecation
Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease
• Inherited disorder characterized by slow enlargement of cysts arising from a small fraction of the collecting ducts that increase in size over time. • They accumulate urine thereby impeding the drainage of other ducts and crushing the surrounding tissue. • Asymptomatic at first but by age 30-40, it eventually starts causing kidney dysfunction as the cysts and kidneys increase in size. • Eventually patients die through kidney failure because of blood pressure miss-regulation. • Incidence is about 1:500 in US. • Various measures are used to treat the increased rate of kidney infections. • Major changes in dietary intake can delay the symptoms and extend life. Dialysis and kidney transplants are the only major options.
Hypothyroidism
• Insufficient TH production. • Thought to be an autoimmune disease that attacks and destroys follicle cells. • Symptoms include low metabolic rate, weight gain, lethargy, chilliness, edema, and mental sluggish. • Effects ~7% women and ~ 3% of men.
Epiglottis
• Large leaf-shaped elastin cartilage. • Stem of the epiglottis is attached to anterior rim of the thyroid cartilage-causing the epiglottis to act as a hinged gate • During swallowing the epiglottis swings down over the glottis (vocal folds and the space between them). • In this way, the epiglottis prevents food and liquid from passing into the larynx and air passages below
Stomach
• Lies beneath diaphragm in the superior left part of peritoneal cavity. Is anchored at both ends by esophagus and duodenum but is mobile in between. • It's J- shaped. • Divided into regions: cardiac region (where esophagus attaches—sphincter here prevents reflux of acid), fundus, body and pyloric regions. • Greatly extendable in size. Inner layer is thrown into numerous folds (rugae). • Consists of inner circular and outer longitudinal layer and an extra inner layer and an epithelial lining
Trachea
• Located anterior to the esophagus; directly connected to the larynx superiorly and it extends down to the level of the sternal angle (level of where the manubrium and body of the sternum meet) before branching. • 16 to 20 C-shaped cartilages are stacked to form a tube. • The "C" is closed posteriorly by transverse smooth muscle fibers and elastic connective tissue
Cardinal ligament
• Located at the base of the broad ligament of the uterus. • Contains the uterine artery and uterine vein. • Attaches cervix to the lateral pelvic wall by its attachment to the Obturator fascia of the Obturator internus muscle, and is continuous externally with the fibrous tissue that surrounds the pelvic blood vessels. • It thus provides support to the uterus • Thickened CT lining the pelvis
Mesangial cells
• Located on glomerular tuft. • Cells thought to rid the glomerular filter of any cellular debris entering the space through the process of phagocytosis. • These cells also have contractile properties so they may help regulate blood flow through glomerulus.
Laryngopharynx
• Lowest portion of pharynx. • Extends down from the hyoid bone and is continuous with the esophagus posteriorly and larynx anteriorly. • Connects passageway to the larynx and esophagus. • Lined with non-keratinized stratified epithelium
Penis
• Male organ of sexual intercourse that delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract. • Consists of root, shaft (or body) and glans penis. • Covered by a loose skin that extends over glans - (forms a cuff called the prepuce or foreskin). • Internally contains erectile tissue and penile urethra. - Corpus spongiosum - Corpus cavernosa - Main vessels and nerves run along dorsal penile surface. • Erection results because of engorgement of blood into erectile tissues due to parasympathetic innervation of blood vessels supplying this tissue. • Ejaculation is driven by the sympathetic stimulation of smooth muscle tunics surrounding male ducts (e.g., the vas deferens) and glands and contraction of the muscles surrounding proximal portions of erectile tissues.
Corpus spongiosum
• Mid-line erectile body containing penile urethra. • Proximal end beneath the urogenital diaphragm is larger and called the bulb of the penis while the • Distal end forms main component of Glans penis. • Prevents closure of the urethra during erection.
Labia minora
• Minor folds of skin-Covered connective tissue folds lying just medial to the labia major that form medial border of the vaginal opening (vestibule of vulva—homologs of the skin of the penis). • Hairless on both sides. • Contains sebaceous glands
Mammary glands
• Modified sweat glands making up the breasts that produce milk to feed offspring. • Located between 2-6th ribs. • Has a glandular structure that is undeveloped in non-pregnant women. • 1 in 500 have an extra nipple or breast - (both men and women) • Areola-- pigmented skins surrounding nipple. - Special sebaceous glands that secrete oily substance that helps protect area from chapping and cracking due to frequent nursing. • Serous epithelial glands generate and secrete milk. These glands increase in number during pregnancy. • Milk production starts after childbirth. Hormone stimulating milk release is prolactin.
Breast cancer
• Most common cancer in women and second most common cause of cancer deaths in women in the US in 2004-2008 (according to CDC). • 97% occurs in women over 55. • A woman has a 1 in 8 chance of having it in her lifetime • Factors increasing risks: family history, late menopause, first live birth after age 30, estrogen replacement therapy. • Early detection- self examine & mammography. • Treatment: a). Surgical removal of the mass (lumpectomy). b). Radiation therapy. c). Administration of selected hormones or synthetic hormones. Some cancers require estrogen to grow so some can be treated by anti-estrogen therapy. -Example: Tamoxifen antagonizes the estrogen receptor. d). Chemotherapy.
Benign prostatic hyperplasia
• Non-metastatic uncontrolled growth of mucosal glands and surrounding connective tissue within the prostate leading to constriction of the prostatic urethra. • 50% of men at age 50 and 80% by age 70 develop this • Often diagnosed by symptoms of: - Difficulty in urinating and frequency of urination. - Digital exam often reveals condition as well. • Drugs are sometimes used to relax surrounding muscle and treat the symptoms. -Surgical trans-urethral prostatectomy or microwave treatment may be necessary,whereby some of the constricting tissue is destroyed or removed.
Testicular cancer
• Often afflicts males between 15-35 years of age. • Due to abnormal proliferation of spermatogenic cells. -Tumors are firm, painless and associated with swelling of testis. - Can be discovered by self-examination. - Very curable if detected early. - Prevalence is increasing for unknown reasons.
Serosa
• Outermost layer of GI tract It is the visceral peritoneum in organs suspended within the peritoneal cavity. (In other areas it is referred to as the adventitia.)
Corpus cavernosa
• Paired dorsal erectile bodies comprising most of the penile mass. • Proximal ends (crus) are anchored to the pubic arches. • Primarily responsible for erection of the penis.
Seminal vesicles
• Paired glands on the posterior surface of the urinary bladder adjacent to the terminal end of the vas deferens • Each of these is an elongated, pouch-like hollow gland approximately 5-8 centimeters long. • The duct from each merges with a vas deferens to form the ejaculatory duct. • Secrete a viscous, whitish-yellow alkaline fluid containing both fructose and prostaglandins. - Fructose is a sugar that nourishes the sperm as they travel through the female reproductive tract. - Prostaglandins promote the widening and slight dilation of the external os (opening) of the cervix. - Contains factors that suppress the female immune system against semen.
Bulbourethral glands
• Paired, pea-shaped glands located within the urogenital diaphragm on each side of the membranous urethra. - Each gland has a short duct that empties into the penile urethra. - Their secretory product is a clear, viscous mucin. ****As a component of the seminal fluid, this mucus protects the urethra and serves as a lubricant during sexual intercourse. • (Also called Cowper's glands) • Homologous to the Vestibular glands in females
Oral cavity
• Parts: Lips, cheeks, soft and hard palates and tongue. • Covered by non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium except the tongue, hard palate and gingival (these are lightly keratinized stratified squamous epithelium).
Conducting portion
• Portion of Respiratory system consisting of interconnecting cavities and tubes that carry air to the lungs • Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles
Respiratory portion
• Portion of Respiratory system where gas exchange occurs • Respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts and alveolar sacs
Proximal convoluted tubules
• Primary urine in Bowman's capsule funnels into PCTs. • Found only in the cortex. It is the most active tubule in resorption and secretion. • Cuboidal/columnar epithelial cells with abundant microvilli (increases surface area) form the walls. • Resorbs water, ions and solutes from the filtrate. • Re-uptake of ~65% of the water and ions occurs here. • Requires lots of energy so cells of the PCT have lots of mitochondria and their cell membranes are highly folded in the basal and lateral walls to increase surface area and increase transported materials into BVs.
Collecting tubules
• Primitive urine passes from the DCT into collecting tubules. • Several DCTs will empty into a single collecting tubule. • Run from cortex straight into the medulla. -Here, several collecting tubules join up to make larger papillary ducts that eventually empty into the minor calices. • Walls are made of simple cuboidal epithelium that transition to simple column at their terminal ends. • Most important function—water uptake. -Release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH; also known as vasopressin) by the posterior pituitary gland increases permeability, so they can reabsorb more water and transport it into surrounding BVs. - Alcohol inhibits the release of ADH resulting in more water loss in urine.
Spermatogenesis
• Process by which sperm (male gametes) form in the seminiferous tubules of the testes; involves meiosis. • Males typically produce 100 million sperm/day but are stored a short time in the duct system. • If not expelled, they are resorbed. • Begins at puberty and continues until death: • Stages: -Spermatogonium -Primary spermatocytes -Secondary spermatocytes -Spermatids • Whole process takes about 64 days. • Earliest stages located closest to the basal side of the tubule • More mature gametes located luminally.
Labia majora
• Prominent folds of skin-Covered connective tissue folds extending between the mons pubis to the central tendon. • Form the lateral-most border of the vaginal opening (vestibule of vulva—homologs of the male scrotum). • Lateral side has hairs, medial side does not. • Has sebaceous glands
Teeth
• Responsible for mastication, the first part of the mechanical digestion. • Consists of: A Crown, Constricted Neck, and one or more Roots anchoring it to the jaw. • Roots fit tightly into dental alveoli (sockets within the alveolar bone of both the maxillae and mandible). • Enamel, dentin, cementum, & pulp. • Periodontal ligament binds the cementum of the root to the alveolar bone.
Negative feedback
• Secretion of hormone by cells is reduced or curtailed when levels of the hormone or humoral stimuli within the blood increases.
Positive feedback
• Secretion of hormone by cells is stimulated when levels of the hormone or humoral stimuli within the blood increases • Example: progression of childbirth when levels of oxytocin stimulates the uterus to contract and the contractions stimulate further release of oxytocin
Prostatic cancer
• Slow growing cancer arising from the prostate. • Much more common in men over age 60. • Second most common cause of cancer in men, -Kills about 3% of US males. - Initially symptomless until it begins impinging on urethra. - Eventually metastasizes to pelvis and axial skeleton. • Discovered/Diagnosed through Screening by: -Taking Digital exams, -Monitoring serum PSA levels (take biopsy if elevated) • Treatments: -Radiation (by implanting grains of radioactive material) -Surgical removal of the prostate. • Surgery is very difficult and often has severe side effects. • Benefits of conducting PSA tests and surgery are now controversial
Cervical cancer
• Slow-growing. Arises from epithelium at the tip of the cervix portion of the uterus. • Early detection and treatment has greatly decreased deaths. [50 years ago it was the number one cause of cancer deaths in women but in 2011 this number was down to 4,200 in 2011.] • PAP smear sample—monitor changes in the morphology of epithelial cells as a means of assessing possible precancerous and cancerous status of the epithelium. • Viral infections responsible for ~90% of the cases (human papilloma virus). • Vaccination against several types of this virus reduces cervical cancer risk.
Parathyroid glands
• Small small brownish ovoid endocrine glands located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. • Most individuals have 2 pairs but can have several more. • Blood supply is mainly through the same vessels as the thyroid gland. It plays a major role in regulating calcium levels. • Consist of thick branching cords composed of two basic types of cells, chief cells and oxyphil cells.
Nephron
• Smallest functional unit in the kidney. • Produces urine. • Lined with a simple epithelial. • Parts include: - Renal corpuscle - Proximal convoluted tubule - Loop of Henle (thin and thick segments), and - Distal convoluting tubule
Sertoli cells
• Somatic cells located in the seminiferous tubules that "nurse" the developing male gametes. • FSH stimulates these cells to produce androgen-binding protein (ABP) necessary for proper gamete development. • (Also called Sustentocytes)
Juxtaglomerular appartus
• Specialized structure important in blood pressure regulation and kidney excretion. Made of specialized cells in the wall of the afferent and efferent arterioles called the juxtaglomerular cells, together with specialized cells in distal loop of Henle called macula densa cells. 1. Juxtaglomerular (granular) cells of the afferent and efferent arterioles are a mechanosensory apparatus that excrete renin in response to a fall the blood pressure within the afferent and efferent arterioles. 2. The macula densa is chemosensory and monitors salt concentration of the filtrate. If the salt concentration falls too low, the macula densa signals the juxtaglomerular endothelial cells to secrete renin. a). Renin converts angiotensinogen in the blood to angiotensin b). Angiotensin I constricts blood vessels thereby increasing blood pressure. c). Angiotensin I is also converted to Angiotensin II in the lungs by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). Angiotensin II stimulates aldosterone release from the adrenal cortex (i.e., zona glomerulosa). d). Aldosterone then stimulates sodium resorption in DCTs. e). When sodium is resorbed back into the blood (restoring salt content), water follows causing the blood volume to increase and ultimately increasing blood pressure. f). Renin-angiotensin system (RAS) also acts on CNS to trigger thirst.
Follicular cells
• Synthesize and secrete colloid that contains thyroglobulin. The thyroid is the only gland that stores its hormones extracellularly. a). T3 and T4 are iodine-containing hormones that, when released, control basal metabolism of many cells in the body, body temperature, oxygen usage, etc.
Pylorus
• The distal, ring-shaped portion of the stomach that joins the small intestine and contains the pyloric sphincter muscle, which Controls entry into small intestines. • Parasympathetic innervation (CN X) opens and sympathetic innervation closes it
Teniae coli
• Three strips of smooth muscle that make up the outer longitudinal layer of the small intestine and run its length. • When contracted, they cause the large intestines to pucker into sacs called haustra. • Found in all of the large intestines except for the rectum.
Goiters
• Thyroid enlargement most commonly due to iodine deficiency. Follicle cells keep producing thyroglobulin but cannot iodinate it to make TH. Lack of TH causes the pituitary to release TSH in hopes of increasing blood TH levels but all it does is cause the follicles to accumulate more colloid. Iodine supplementation prevents this.
Spermiogenesis
• Transformation of spermatids to spermatozoa. • Takes about 24 days of the 64-day spermatogenesis process • Develop: - Head - Tail - Mid-piece -Acrosome - Flagella. • At end of transformation, they look mature morphologically but are still immature functionally.
Arytenoid cartilages
• Triangular in shape and located at the superior posterior border of the cricoid cartilage. • Vocal folds attach to these cartilages. • Intrinsic laryngeal muscles attach to the arytenoid cartilages and can act on the vocal cords by moving these cartilages
Urethra
• Tube that drains urine from bladder to exterior. • Consists of outer smooth muscle tunic and inner mucosa made initially of transitional epithelium but • As it approaches the exterior, it is converted into pseudostratified columnar epithelium (may find a short stretch of stratified columnar at the this level) and then • Becomes stratified squamous epithelium at its exterior end. A. Its length and the position of the external urethral orifice differs between sexes. -In females: It is short and exits just anterior to vagina -In males: It runs within the penis and opens at penile end. B. Females: Only about 1.5'' in length from bladder to exterior 1. Membranous urethra—portion from the bladder that passes through the urogenital diaphragm. a). Internal urethral sphincter—at bladder/urethra border. It consists of involuntary smooth muscle that prevents urine passage between voiding. b). External urethral sphincter—surrounds the urethra within the urogenital diaphragm. This is skeletal muscle and hence is voluntary. 2. Short external urethra that opens at the external urethral orifice into the vestibule. C. In males: averages ~ 8'' in length from bladder to exterior. 1. Prostatic urethra—in males only. A reproductive gland called the prostate lies beneath the bladder and superior to the urogenital diaphragm. As it leaves the bladder, the male urethra passes through the prostate gland and enters the urogenital diaphragm. 2. Membranous urethra—portion of the urethra passing through the urogenital diaphragm. It is the same as that found in the female. 3. Penile urethra—in males only. The urethra passes through the length of the penis; longest portion of the urethra; encased in cylindrical erectile tissue to reach the external urethral orifice.
Ureters
• Tubes carrying urine from kidney to bladder. ~10 inches long • Run retroperitoneally through abdomen, enter the pelvis, and enter the bladder at its base. • Lined with specialized epithelium called transitional epithelium (like the bladder). • Have outer smooth muscular layers consisting of an: - Inner longitudinal layer and - Outer circular layer. • Urine entering the ureter stimulates peristaltic waves of contraction to help propel urine into bladder.
Distal convoluted tubules
• Tubule of nephron Confined to cortex and its walls are made of cuboidal epithelium and are specialized for selective secretion and reabsorption of ions. • Re-uptake here is dependent on the hormone, aldosterone released by the adrenal cortex.
Glomerulus
• Tuft of specialized capillaries supplied by an afferent arteriole and drained by an efferent arteriole. • Specialized for filtration -(Fenestrated capillary with true open pores). • Allows large amounts of fluid to pass through the capillary wall as well as some proteins and ions - (80% remains in blood & about 20% enters capsular space). • This fluid is the primary urine. -Kidneys make about 1 quart of primary urine every 8 minutes (about 45 gallons per day) but - Only about 1% of this ends up being excreted as urine.
Grave's disease
• Type of hyperthyroidism thought to be due to an disease whereby abnormal antibodies are made that mimic TSH thereby stimulating over secretion of TH. • Symptoms include: elevated metabolism, sweating, rapid heart rate, and weight loss. • Eyeballs may protrude because of edema behind the eye and swelling of eye muscles due to inflammation. • 4-8X's more common in women than men. • Treated by partial removal/destruction of gland or anti-thyroid drugs to decrease production of TH. (~1:2000 US)
Urge incontinence
• Uncontrolled contraction of bladder muscles that is described as a sporadic or over-active bladder. • Due to irritation in the bladder or dysfunction of nerves innervating the bladder.
Uriniferous tubule
• Urine producing and concentrating unit. • More than a million/kidney and these are separated by a bit of connective tissue and vessels. • Each unit is composed of: A. Nephron—the urine-forming structure that is lined with a simple epithelial. Parts include: renal corpuscle, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle (thin and thick segments), and distal convoluting tubule. B. Collecting duct—concentrates urine by removing water.
Kidney cancer
• Usually from epithelial cells of uriniferous tubules or calices. • 2% of cancer deaths in US but the incidence is rising. • It is twice as common in men. • Has usually metastasized by the time of discovery, so the prognosis is bad—12-18 months. • Resistant to current chemotherapy and radiation. • Usual treatment is the removal of the kidney and associated lymph nodes and nearby adrenal gland.
Hepatitis A
• Viral infection spread via fecal/oral route usually as a contamination of food or water. • Acute infections usually do not cause long-term damage. • No specific treatment is given as most recover within 3 months. • Can be prevented by vaccination.
Hepatitis B
• Viral infection transmitted by blood or body fluids. • Most recover and develop antibodies but some develop chronic liver disease and cirrhosis and have an increased risk of liver cancer. • Interferon (enhances immune system) and antiviral drugs slowing viral replication can be used in treatment. • Vaccines are available.
Endometriosis
• When fragments of endometrium, possibly due to menstrual reflux, take hold and grow in within the uterine tubes, ovary, or even the peritoneum. • It leads to pain, bleeding, cysts, and inflammation • Occurs in ~10% women and is responsible for about 1/3 of the cases of female infertility.
Vas deferens
• When sperm leave the epididymis, they enter here • A thick-walled smooth muscular tube: - Traveling within the SPERMATIC CORD - Then through the INGUINAL CANAL, and - Then entering the PELVIC CAVITY before reaching - The PROSTATE GLAND. • Lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium and • Has a thick muscularis externa that can be palpated through the scrotal wall. - Unites with the duct from the seminal vesicle gland to form the ejaculatory duct. - When contracting, it propels spermatozoa through the ejaculatory duct that extends from the epididymis to the urethra; ********Propels sperm into the urethra via peristalsis during ejaculation*********
Renal arteries
•Large arteries off the abdominal aorta. The right one is longer than the left because aorta is off center toward the left side. • They divide into: 1. Segmental arteries—branch off renal artery and go to the segments of the kidney. 2. Interlobar arteries—run between renal lobes supplying lobes found in each kidney segment. 3. Arcuate arteries—arching branches off interlobar arteries lying along the bases of the pyramids. 4. Cortical radiate arteries—branches off the arcuate arteries and project into the cortex. 5. Afferent arteriole and efferent arterioles—supplying and draining renal corpuscles and tubules.