Animal Behavior Test 3
A third level of consciousness, similar to the formation and use of mental maps, but more advanced in requiring abstract thought, allows one to relate a model to the real world. At what age can humans do this? Can some chimpanzees do this?
-3 years old -Some chimps can do this, but others can't
Chimps have been shown to have an ability to use sign language, and to have some numerical competence (ability to work with numbers to some degree). The same is true of African Grey Parrots. How high can these parrots count? Does this necessarily mean that they can count objects like we can? What is another possibility as to what they are doing which might not be as significant as the ability to count, i.e. "add" numbers?
-7 or 8 -No, they have a process of vision not addition
Do the baboons with mirrors show a very sophisticated self-awareness? What is the evidence? Do dolphins? What is the evidence? Do chimps? The evidence?
-Baboons: no, they don't recognize mirror images of themselves -Dolphins: yes, know image was itself, relaxed behavior -Chimps: yes, they use mirrors to examine themselves
How does the brain injury resulting in "Blindsight" in both humans and monkeys also illustrate that there can be a level of awareness without consciousness?
-Brain receives info from eyes but he doesn't see it -Monkey shown green light on blind side presses button that is lit and button to claim there is no light
How do chimps and ravens show insight learning
-Chimps: gather up crates with purpose not trial and error to reach banana with stick -Ravens: pulled up short length of line and held with food to steal fish on line -Experiment: animal must solve problem 1st time- ravens with no previous experience were able to pull up string whether it was crosses or not and get food -Problem: some chimps and ravens must have previous experience (accumulation of trial and error)
Tool use is usually considered a measure of some degree of intelligence. How do chimps in Africa and crows in New Caledonia each use of tools? What is the tool and what is its use?
-Chimps: use tools to get termites, sticks -> they sometimes make the sticks. Fight with weapons, branches and sticks, stones. Leaves used to swab wound and hygiene wipes -Crows: use twig carefully selected and shorten/refine for use to get grubs
Do deer seem to show an awareness of the concept of death? What is the evidence? What about elephants? What is the evidence?
-Deer: no, one deer dies and others keeps grazing -Elephants: yes, spend hours touching bones of dead elephants
Imitation is often considered a form of intelligence, but if it is a simple "aping" of behavior without a real consciousness of its significance, it might not indicate as high a degree of intelligence as we might initially think. What about the imitative ability of dolphins with respect to humans seems to suggest a relatively high level of intelligence?
-Imitation: 1st attempt is similar to practiced performer -Dolphin A was given task and dolphin B replicated it without knowing the original command, replicate human behavior
Be able to briefly explain and illustrate the seven types of intelligence
-Mental Map -Insight Learning: ability to solve problem in head -Tool Use -Imitative Learning -Classification -Numerical Competence -Language
Which primary type of male-male intrasexual selection do black grouse engage in? Which two indicators of fitness that we covered does the male grouse use to advertise himself to a potential mate?
-Outright battles -Plumage elaborateness, vigorousness of display
A high level of self-awareness would involve consciousness of other animals as like one' self, ad of what they are thinking. Do scientists agree that we are unique in this? How did a pet magpie show the possibility of this? How about a trained bear?
-There is a disagreement -Magpie: deceive dogs, they would rush to chase fox and he would celebrate -Bear: bears try to deceive trainer
Language is a fourth mental process that is often equated with consciousness. Normally our conscious thoughts are expressed in verbal form, even if only in our head. Does this always have to be the case with us? Is it possible that some animals engage in conscious thought that is dominated by pictures (or smells, sounds, ect.) instead of words? Is this true of some people?
-We can be aware of things without being able to form words, some people think in pictures -Yes, it is possible, bears recognize a person's distress
What advantages do wildebeest, zebra, and gazelles gain from long land migrations? What advantage do monarch butterflies gain from their journey from eastern North America to central Mexico?
-Wildebeest, zebra, and gazelles travel North when the dry season takes place and return South when it rains. The increasing salt content in shrinking water supplies alerts the herd of the need to migrate for new watering holes. By traveling over long land migrations, these herding animals can use available vegetation and water supplies based on the pattern of rainfall and gain the advantage of not being malnourished. -Monarch butterflies migrate from the Eastern parts of North America to central Mexico. They utilize wind to gain the advantage of minimizing flight energy cost. Before the Monarch butterflies reach their winter sites, they consume an increased level of nectar for winter storage. By spending the cold season in these higher altitude regions, the Monarchs gain the advantage of conserving vital resources which they will need for their return migration North.
Be able to explain from data on Yarrow's spiny lizards and American redstarts a major cost and benefit of territoriality.
-Yarrow's spiny lizard: increased testosterone via implants led to decreased survival when no food supplements were given to offset the likely greater energetic demands -American redstarts: departed wintering territories earlier for breeding grounds and fledged more young, when they occupied the preferred and presumably higher quality, black mangrove habitat
Be able to list and illustrate the six primary sensory modes by which animals communicate.
-auditotory: cockatoo, toadfish, frogs -visual: honeyguide, stotting, feigning African ringed plover, fireflies, squid -odor: insects, mammals -touch: dolphins -vibrations: mole rats, lacewings, water striders, narwhales -electric field: electric eels
Be able to briefly explain and illustrate the six types of consciousness
-awareness of surrounding -Mental Image -Abstract thought: relate a model to real world -Language -Self-awareness -Process implications of pain and death
As illustrated from examples involving chipping sparrows and mountain sheep, understand that genetic factors, habitat imprinting, and tradition can all play a role in the development of habitat selection.
-chipping sparrows innately prefer pine to oak, but exposure to oak can only partially offset this (genetic, habitat imprinting) -mountain sheep have 2-7 patchy, season grassland home ranges: knowledge of where they are and when to visit them is passed on to generations (tradition)
Understand the basic definition of communication and be able to distinguish between the three subcategories of misinformation, eavesdropping, and true communication, illustrating each with an example.
-communication: a sender transmits info to a receiver who uses the info in a response -misinformation: sender transmits a signal meant to mislead the receiver --sneaker males -eavesdropping: receiver intercepts and exploits cues from a sender who is not benefited --bat intercepts chuck chuck noise of tungara frog -true communication: sender and receiver both benefit from exchange --ravens yelling at carcass to overpower territorial pair
Understand the costs and benefits of dispersal, the two general patterns of dispersal found in mammals and birds with respect to which sex generally disperses a greater distance, and the possible explanations for each of these patterns, based on whether a resource-defense or a mate-defense mating system exists, as well as problem with these explanations.
-costs (energy expended and predation risk) and benefits (avoid competition and inbreeding) -in birds males are relatively philopatric and females engage in longer dispersal movements --birds are most often monogamous, males use resource-defense, it is easier to find territory in an area you are familiar with, females can consider their options by dispersing farther, and females avoid inbreeding -in mammals females are relatively philopatric and males engage in longer dispersal movements --mammals are often polygamous, males use mate-defense mating system, it is easier for subordinate males to mate away from dominant males, females tend to associate with female relatives and benefit from group living, males avoid inbreeding -problems: of 13 species of mammals examined that are territorial like birds, only one had female-biased dispersal like birds. more than one factor is involved and different factors are probably important in different species.
Be able to explain the "dear enemy" effect with respect to territoriality, and how floaters, sneaker males, and satellite males all influence the dynamics of territoriality.
-dear enemy effect: less cost to maintain boundaries than having to establish new ones -floaters: without territory and wait for one to open up when current owner dies -sneaker males: genetic, do not defend territory, mimic female -satellite males: lurk near male attracting females, attempts to intercept female
Understand the differences between dispersal and migration, and between partial migration and differential migration. Also be able to explain the two primary hypotheses offered to explain the differential migration pattern seen in birds, where females and juveniles often migrate a greater distance. Finally, be able to explain two primary reasons that can explain partial migration in some birds species.
-dispersal: relatively permanent and random movement of individual from an area -migration: regular often seasonal movement back and forth between locations because of resource availability --partial migration: some but not all individuals of a species migrate ---different environments: northern species migrate, but southern species may not ---different social status: most desirable to stay resident, but subordinates have to migrate --differential migration: behavior differs among age and sex classes ---social dominance hypothesis: males dominate so subordinates migrate farther ---closeness to breeding site hypothesis: males establish territory and benefit more from migrating shorter distance
Be able to recognize and illustrate five different benefits to migration in birds that winter in the tropics and breed in temperate regions.
-food/energy is more available -climate can be more hospitable -day length is longer in northern temperate areas compared to tropics -year-round warmth and moisture in the tropics = higher competition -seasonal population fluctuations of prey in temperate areas = fewer predators, dilution effect
Be able to relate the different characteristics of bird song in open and forested habitat with the environmental influences that are believed to be related to these differences.
-in open country songs are complex, high frequency because there is little echo to distort and scatter - in forest songs are simple, low frequency because these are distorted least by echos and still carry with some deflection
Understand three primary factors that can influence where a species is found, giving examples of each.
-physical and chemical (abiotic): temp and moisture -biotic interactions: competition, predation, parasites, disease, parapatric ranges -(behavioral) lack of opportunity to disperse: rabbits in Australia, European starlings, house sparrows, house finch
Concerning the function of habitat selection in aiding an individual's survival and reproduction, understand the concepts of source and sink populations, how territory size can vary due to differences in habitat quality, and as illustrated by honeybees how individuals have the ability to assess the quality of habitat.
-source population is individuals inhabiting high quality habitats -sink population is individuals inhabiting low quality habitats -territories in lower quality habitat are typically larger to compensate -honeybees swarm choose a new colony site --scout's dance vigor drops off with each return from potential nest site --if many scouts like site, visits there will increase --once a threshold number of scouts are visiting it, a piping signal tells rest of swarm to warm up and move to site
What sorts of thought would be included in a higher level of self-awareness?
Ability to be aware of one's existence, contemplate mortality, understand others existence, body contains unique mind
territoriality
An area that an individual defends against an intruder
Just as we saw with intelligence, there are several levels, types, or definitions of consciousness. What is the simplest?
Awareness of surroundings -> basic
Understand that intrasexual selection (usually male-male) can be divided up into competition that occurs before mating/fertilization and competition that occurs after mating/fertilization. For intraspecific competition before mating, be able to describe the five ways that this can occur, illustrating with an example. For competition after mating be able to describe the two ways that this can occur, elaborating on a couple of the ways that sperm competition can occur.
Before Mating --Outright battles --Dominance hierarchies --Sneaker and Satellite males --Mate when dominant male is distracted --Subordinate male-male alliance, subordinate male alliance with females After Mating --Mate Guarding --Sperm Competition ---variation in quantity and quality ---sperm displacement ---order of fertilization
A fifth category of consciousness is self-awareness. However, this concept can have more than one meaning. What is the first, basic meaning of self-awareness? Do many animals have this?
Bodily self-awareness -> animals are aware of their own body
What are two benefits of migration that can outweigh the costs for blackpolls and other birds?
By taking a migration route across the sea there is a great insect supply and longer days to feed
Hans Commission
Carl Stumpf formed a panel of 13 people, The commission passed off the evaluation to Pfungst, who tested the basis for these claimed abilities by: Isolating horse and questioner from spectators, so no cues could come from them, Using questioners other than the horse's master, By means of blinders, varying whether the horse could see the questioner, Varying whether the questioner knew the answer to the question in advance.
habitat imprinting
Chipping sparrow: innately prefer pine to oak, but exposure to oak can only partially offset
To use language in the sense that humans do means having the ability to combine words in different combinations/orders and to understand the different meanings based on the different word order. What animal seems to show this ability to some degree, and how did it show evidence of this?
Dolphins must understand sentence as a whole to know how word order changes command for sign language -> word order affects meaning
What is different about the migration of the European Blackbird compared with how we typically think about migration in birds? Is this difference hereditary? What is this strategy or tactic called?
European Blackbirds use a strategy of migration in which some embers of the species migrate in the fall, leaving their breeding ranges open for other members of the species. This is called a conditional tactic. The decision of whether to migrate or not is not hereditary due to the evidence that individuals can switch whether they stay or migrate. It is instead suggested that this conditional strategy is based on dominance. The more dominant members of the species can choose the tactic that increases their fitness, while the more subordinate members are left with the less optimal option.
Understand that there are three hypotheses for which sex is choosier in mate selection; all three of which can explain the pattern we see, depending on the species. For each hypothesis be able to give an example of a species that illustrates it, explaining how it supports that hypothesis.
Gamete Investment --female chicken makes egg --male katydid produces one nutrient packed spermatophore Offspring Investment --female mammal nurses --male seahorse provides pouch, O2, nutrients Reproductive Capacity --Australian Katydids when food is scarce male produces one spermatophore and females compete, when food is plentiful the opposite occurs
Communication is also sometimes directed to enemies. As we have talked about previously, and illustrated here, what animal stots, to what animals is this directed to, and what is the purpose? Why don't they stot to cheetahs?
Gazelles stot at wild dogs to show they are strong and can run, wild dogs choose poor stotters. Cheetah selects prey before chase and sprints so there is no time for message
What part of the brain is associated with spatial learning/memory, or having a mental map of our surroundings?
Hippocampus
Be able to distinguish the different characteristics of honest versus deceptive communication, illustrating each.
Honest Communication -cannot be faked, energetically expensive, reliable indicators of fitness, typical within a community of interest -European toad: amplexus, male competition, deeper calls are larger males that are favored Deceptive Communication -can be faked, energetically cheap, typical when there is a conflict of interest, exploits adaptive communication in which it is costly for participant not to respond -feigning plover, predatory firefly, white-winged tanager shrike
Regarding intraspecific competition, understand the difference between a conditional strategy and a distinct strategy. Be able to illustrate a conditional strategy using either the example of horseshoe crabs or scorpionflies, explaining how an individual in each case might change its strategy, depending on the conditions it finds itself in (example health or size). Also be able to illustrate a distinct strategy using the example of sponge isopods, explaining how three different sized individuals, genetically programmed for that size, each has a different strategy for mating success that allows it to coexist with the other two under certain conditions.
Horseshoe crab Conditional Strategy -both dominant and satellite males collected, plastic bags placed on front claws, healthy individuals stayed offshore and failed to attach to females, worn ones returned to beach -individuals were choosing best strategy Scorpionfly Conditional Strategy -large males guard crickets, medium ones offer saliva, smallest ones tried to force mating, when larger ones removed the other males change tactics -individuals choose best strategy Sponge Isopod Distinct Strategy -males exist in alpha, betta and gamma forms, large males throw competitors, medium males look like females, small males use satellite -genetic traits can't be changed, different tactics work under different conditions
A sixth level or type of consciousness is a mental processing of pain and its implications, and at an even higher level, an awareness of the concept of death. While we cannot prove it, what evidences suggest that animals are aware of pain in some of the same ways we are?
Increased endorphins in body, nervous systems with similar pathways, pain relief aids in recovery
biotic
Interactions with other organisms
When a dog is trained to do some complex task like pack a suitcase, does this necessarily imply that the dog has a conscious awareness or understanding of what its actions mean to us? Why or why not?
Learned behavior-> makes errors until one works and get reward (trial and error)
The honeyguide bird has a cooperative relationship with other animals such as honey badgers, as well as humans, involving communication. How does the honeyguide communicate, and what is the function or purpose?
Makes a specific sound, guides people to honey and waits because it can't get the honey itself
mate-defense mating system
Males compete more directly with other males for mates by fighting
resource-defense mating system
Males compete more indirectly by acquiring a good territory
One argument as to why many juvenile animals disperse is to avoid what? Also, a possible reason why male mammals disperse greater distances than females is to avoid what?
Many juvenile animals disperse to avoid against inbreeding depression; which is when the offspring of two closely related individuals has an increased risk of inheriting two damaging recessive alleles, thus decreasing the next generations fitness. A possible reason male mammals disperse greater distances than females is because the cost of dispersal is different for the sexes. It costs more for females to disperse and by staying close to their mother's territory they gain assistance in protecting their home against rivals and they are familiar with the location of food resources. Also, male mammals tend to be more aggressive when searching for mates and by dispersing to locations farther away from same sex competitors it increases their chances for reproductive success.
Regarding interspecific competition, be able to give four examples/illustrations of material benefits. For nonmaterial benefits, be able to explain each of the four hypotheses for why a female might chose a particular male that does not provide her with any material benefits. For the good genes hypothesis be able to list several potential indicators of a males fitness or genetic quality, and also be able to explain how the handicap principle relates to this hypothesis. Also have an idea of which hypothesis or hypotheses seems to have the strongest evidence in its favor.
Material Benefits -territorial: food, nesting resources, cover -parental: incubating, brooding, feeding, protecting -nuptial gifts: prey, body product, own body sacrifice -protection from harassment of other males Nonmaterial Benefits -good genes hypothesis: plumage brightness, elaborateness, symmetry, vigorousness of display, song complexity, flight performance, elaborateness of bower --handicap principle: males have survived in spite of elaborate plumage -healthy male theory -runaway selection theory (most speculative) -chase away selection theory (most speculative)
What process must occur in the mind of a honeybee to forage for food that implies a second type of consciousness (mental map)?
Mushroom body: form picture of surrounding: bee can recognize surroundings through mental images of know path, they may rest and go through events to develop mental map
Does intelligent behavior (ex. learning) necessarily imply consciousness? Do mental calculations?
No, they may be predatory or reacting with mental calculations, but can be done subconsciously
"dear enemy" effect
Once boundary disputes between neighbors have been settled, there is less cost to maintaining them than having to establish new ones if you lose your territory and have to establish a new one
What experiment seemed to clearly show that a chimp was conscious of what a trainer was thinking, and did not know? What did the chimp do in this case?
One scientist locker apricot in box and another scientists asked chimp where it was, she showed him. Next they hid the keys, chimp shows scientist where keys were, not trained
abiotic
Physical and chemical factors
Having a concept of classification or categories of objects is another measure of intelligence. How do pigeons show some measure of ability to classify? How did they show a classification ability superior to humans? Do you think this means that pigeons are more intelligent than humans? How did they show a classification ability inferior to humans? Do these two results indicate that we must be careful about what type of tests we use to measure intelligence, and how we interpret it?
Pigeon must recognize concept of tree to accept new picture, recognized Picasso's painting styles, capable of recognizing area but not abstract thought: >, <, =
Why are poor quality sink habitats used by some individuals?
Poor quality sink habitats are often used by competitors that cannot insert themselves into superior habitats. These individuals may be subordinates that are not able to outcompete superiors and therefore must settle for less than ideal habitats
Be able to list and illustrate the nine primary functions of communication, also identifying two different subcategories of reproduction, spacing/attraction, food, alarm, agonism/social status, and recognition.
Reproduction --ID sex, species: fireflies --condition: mammals --synchronization: fireworm mating, ring doves Spacing/Attraction/Group Cohesion --territorial: water strider, cockatto, indri, black gibbon --contact calls: African crowned hornbill duet --insect assembly/rally pheremones: locust Food --location: honeyguide, bees --hunting intention: pack --warning coloration Alarm --predator warning: vervet monkey --discourage predator: stotting, mobbing --distract predator: feigning ringed plover --avoidance pheromone Agonism/Social Status --dominance/submissiveness --warning/threat: mole rats Recognition --species: lacewing --group members: mangabee --individuals Synchronize Hatching --precocial chicks Soliciting Care/Giving --baby birds beggins Play Intention --dogs
How much in agreement are scientists regarding the idea that animals are conscious? What are the two extremes in position on this subject? Is it more likely that the answer is somewhere in between?
Scientists are split, animals are conscious, or they are machines, more likely in the middle
The film concludes by suggesting a force that has been associated most closely with intelligence. What is that force? (Note: the film implies evolution did this, but it is just as feasible that this is the factor most important in determining what abilities God gifted different animals with).
Social behavior affects intelligence
What is a source habitat and what is a sink habitat?
Source habitats are those in which a population experiences growth. Sink habitats are those in which a population experiences decline.
How does driving a car illustrate that "awareness" does not have to always imply consciousness?
Subconsciously taking in information and responding while doing something else
Dispersing individuals regularly have to pay what costs and risks for dispersing?
The costs and risks for dispersing include energetic travel costs, developmental costs, and become an easy target for predators in unfamiliar areas.
Habitat selection is typical among all groups of animals. What seems to be a primary reason?
The primary reason for habitat selection is to ensure successful reproduction. Certain species require specific habitat types for survival and breeding, therefore these animals have strong preferences for these environments.
It is not always the case, however, that individuals attempting to reproduce in lower quality habitats are less successful in reproducing. Blackcap warblers and side-blotched lizards are two examples. Why were individuals in higher quality territories in these cases not being more successful in reproducing?
These species chose the less ideal habitat, because as the number of competitors for resources increases in higher quality habitats causing the ability to successfully reproduce in those habitats decreases. Therefore, choosing the lower quality habitats allows the individuals to have higher reproductive success.
Identify two important costs to migration.
Two important costs to migration are the extra weight that migratory birds have to gain for the trip because of the calorie cost of flight and predation risk and the increased distance that birds travel to minimize the ocean travel.
Do rats seem to have the capability not only to form a mental map of their environment, but also to use that mental map to plot a new route or a new solution when a familiar route is blocked
We can plot a new route from mental map, originally rat uses trial and error but it also checks the layout of the maze, when known route is blocked the rat is able to use a mental map to get to the food without trial and error
Chimpanzees have an outer brain region, the neocortex, which is similar to the area of the human brain that is responsible for abstract thought and consciousness. Does this prove that chimps are conscious like us? Can we prove that any other human beside ourselves is conscious, that is, has mental processes similar to ourselves?
We can't prove it scientifically, we only know it about ourselves
Anecdotal evidence are casual stories or accounts that seem to support some scientific hypothesis such as that some animals are very intelligent. What is wrong scientifically with such "stories of success"
We do not hear about the failures, so it is may just be trial and error
The "Dear Enemy" hypothesis is said to be exhibited when two neighboring territorial fiddler crabs join forces to fend off a wandering male that challenges one of them. What is the benefit that either is believed to gain by helping his neighbor?
When male fiddler crabs help their neighbors by defending off wandering males they gain the benefit of maintaining familiar relationships and boundaries. By helping their less aggressive neighbors maintain their territories, they help protect their own territory and thus protect their ability to reproduce. Also, males that have already established territories around each other rarely fight and therefore save energy.
display
a behavior pattern adapted/designed to serve as a social signal
Eavesdropping
a receiver intercepts and exploits cues from a sender who is not benefitted: prey detecting predator, vice versa
true communication
a sender and receiver both benefit from the exchange of information (signal): mating display, territorial display
Misinformation
a sender transmits a signal meant to mislead the receiver: camouflage, mimicry
Communication
a sender transmits info to a receiver who uses the info in a response
The Clever Hans Effect
an animal or a person senses what someone wants them to do, even although they are not deliberately being given signals
clicker training
animal training method based on a bridging stimulus (the clicker) in operant conditioning. The system uses conditioned reinforcers, which a trainer can deliver more quickly and more precisely than primary reinforcers such as food
satellite male
do not defend territory, lurk either at a distance from or near a male who is attracting female, when female approaches calling male, satellite male attempts to mate with her, natterjack toad, frogs, toads
nuptial gift
food items or inedible tokens that are transferred to females by males during courtship or copulation intersexual selection: usually female choice of male, material benefits (territorial, nuptial, protection from harassment) or nonmaterial benefits ( Good genes hypothesis, Healthy male theory, runaway selection theory, chase-away selection theory)
sneaker male
genetic trait, do not defend territory, lurk near a territorial male's territory and when a female begins to male with a male, sneaker male slips in and deposits sperm to fertilize some eggs, toadfish, bluegill, sunfish
distinct strategy
genetic, the individual has the inherited ability to use only one of multiple alternate tactics that exist in the species, each tactic has an advantage under certain conditions and so is maintained in the population
Clever Hans
horse owned by Wilhelm von Osten, said to have been taught to add, subtract, multiply, divide, work with fractions, tell time, keep track of the calendar, differentiate musical tones, and read, spell, and understand German, answered by tapping hoof
parapatric range
implicate interspecific competition as one factor (A)(B)
Learning to apply information to new situations is sometimes known as
insight learning
source population
main population of dominant individuals, able to use source (superior) habitats
floater
males or females without a territory, waiting for a territory to open up when current owner dies, so they can take advantage of the vacancy, cryptic
mate guarding
males regularly police their mate's activity after mating in order to prevent extrapair copulations (EPCs) with other males, males adjust the timing to be most efficient
differential migration
migration behavior that differs among age and sex classes
Can we likely ever know what animals think and aware of?
no
Thought question: even if some animals were shown to have conscious capabilities very similar to humans in many ways, what would still make humans unique?
our souls
home advantage
owners have greater familiarity with the territory's resources make the territory more valuable to them
migration
regular (often season) movement back and forth between more distant locations because of resource availability
partial migration
some but not all individuals of a species migrate, ex. American robin
sink population
subordinate individuals that are forced to use sink (inferior) habitats
Back-chaining
teaching a skill by starting at the end and working back to the beginning
conditional strategy
the individual has an inherited flexibility to use different tactics under different conditions
philopatry
to remain near the place of birth
Shaping
using a series of steps to teach animal to do a new behavior, speeds up learning and reduces confusion
intrasexual selection
usually male-male competition, outright battles, dominance hierarchies, sneaker and satellite males, subordinate male alliances, conditional strategies, distinct strategies, mate guarding, sperm competition
handicap principle
variant of the good genes hypothesis, males that have survived and succeeded in spite of elaborate plumage, conspicuous colors to predators, must have good genes
As illustrated from the example of an Australian gecko, understand that the proximate environmental cues that an animal uses to choose its habitat are typically complex, involving multiple factors that are prioritized because trade offs must sometimes be made.
warmer sites aid in food digestion, will abandon warmer sites if snake scent is present or if larger male is present - dominance > snake free > temperature
Language is yet another type of measure of intelligence, and many animals have a form of language in which a sound is associated with an object, such as a predator. But this can be simple classical conditioning (associating two stimuli with each other), and not necessarily involve any type of abstract thought as we employ in communicating. On the other hand, do African Grey Parrots seem to have the ability to classify objects, employing a form of abstract thinking?
yes
