Anthropology

Miocene missing links?

o African apes • Human and other apes Share a common ancestor Have different ancestors (sivapithecus is not a common ancestor to us. • Identifying the so-called missing links...

Apes: hominoidea

superfamily-Apes Forest and woodland environments (reflect changes in the evolution of apes) • No tail—more upright positioning • Increased body sixe and brain/body ratio • Shortened faces

2) Pongids

separation is 13 million years ago (orangutans) • They get large and rarely move in the trees. • Upright and specialized to eat a lot of fruit and herbavores. • Extrememly sexually dimorphic • Social structure is unique and have a social group of 1. Males alone. Females may have 1 more.

Out of Africa 2:

One population of H. Erectus in Estern Africa evolved into: • Homo sapiens o 300,000 ya to present. • Subspecies: o H. sapiens o H. sapiens sapiens o H. sapiens neandertalensis o Others? • What makes them different? o Full bipedalism o Increasing cranial capacity (much larger, larger brain than body) o Explosion of Material culture. Out of Africa 2: o Small groups of humans spread occupying the world—Hunter gatherer society • Sapiens replacing Erectus Mostly? Home erectus goes on in some places

2) Australopithecus

early hominins • three different evolutionary paths: o marked by: • increasing bipedalism • changes in teeth and jaw=depends on the evolutionary paths some took. • small cranial capacities remain=has to do with bipedalism. • Fossil remains-700+ individuals o no artifacts o defining 5 different species.

3. How did this change differ in the Old World Middle East from what happened in the New World?

... Old World Middle East— • Natufian people settle (12,000ya) • Become sedentary but continue broad spectrum foraging.=Rich environment which allowed them to settle and forage. New World Americans— • Archaic peoples continue nomadism • Beginning domesticating first o Planting food—10,000 ya.

Evolutionary divergence: Three living hominoid families

1) Hylobatids 2) Pongids 3) Hominids

Connecting humans and non-human apes (possible ancestors): the Miocene links

1) Pierolapithecus Catalaunicus: • 13 million y.a. • Potential common ancestor of living great apes (hominids) 2) Toumai= potentially common ancestor • 6-7 million year old skull • dates to time period when humans and chimps diverged not where we see early evolution occurring there. The reason it is an ancestor because it shows human like traits and ape like traits. Must be an ancestor to chimps 3) Orrorin Tugenensis • 6 million year old fossils • 5 individuals common ancestor of humans and chumpanzees possible common human and chip ancestor, but leans more towards human side because of the long bones. • the degree angle of the femur in socket

c) Be knowledgeable of the evolutionary tree for primates, particularly the branches leading to the human species.

1)Early Cenozoic Primates >The Paleocene >The Eocene >Oligocene 2)Early Miocene Hominoids >Miocene (Cattarhine infraorder split to Old World monkeys and old world apes)

a) Know the four trends of hominin evolution that define biological change leading to Anatomically Modern Humans.

4 evolutionary trends: 1. bipedalism=being able to walk upright on two feet. Ability increased throughout time. Shaped the human skeleton because the traits to walk were selected for. • Big knee changes=the angle changed from straight (the ape) to angled (humans, swing legs easier) • Feet= no longer have an apposable toe • Phalanges are short and straight. Apes of the past had curved fingers for climbing. • Foramen magnum=originally apes had it in the back of their skull, meaning their spine was up there. Human's have it in the bottom center of the skull to allow for seeing straight when walking on two feet • Pelvis=restructured from early hominins had a wider pelvis for staying up right. Homosapiens evolved to keep all the organs in and stand upright. 2. dental changes=face is getting smaller, jaw is changing shape, so teeth change because of changing diets. U shaped jaw. See in fossil record especially. 3. cranial capacity=expanding area in hominin cranium. Brain/ body ratio increased over time. • It doesn't change in the earliest hominin. • Homo line specifically starts to get a larger cranial capacity. Pelvis=Bipedalism became maladaptive when larger cranial cavity because of the pelvis. Birth canals and pelvis had to adapt to a larger cranium for babies. 4. material culture=complexity of human made objects increasing over time.

1) Ardipithecus

>earliest hominins **2 species with fossil remains of 11-15 individuals: marked by • earliest bipedalism (transitional=toes changing) • lived in woodland environment • small cranial capacities=heads are staying small (no artifacts ) >2 species: • Ardipithecus kadabba ---5.8—5.5 may ---in eastern africa • Ardipithecus ramidus ---5.5—4.4 mya Why do they want bipedalism???? There was environmental change. Late Miocene (6-7 mya) Environmental change • humid forests→ dispersed woodlands and savannah growth • Why it was chosen: 1) grassland movement=getting resources 2) cooling off=different hair patterns and sweat glands. It allowed them to be upright and only expose the top of their body to direct sunlight. Might help regulate body temp. 3) see predators=wider view for finding predators *****The problem is that already had bipedalism selected for. 4) GENERAL ADAPTABILITY=allowed them to move to where they could survive better. Early ardipithecus lived in changing woodlands that they needed to adapt to and change to survive.

Early Homo

A population of A. Afarensis in E. Africa evolves into: oHomo habilis • 2.4 to 1.4 mya •small in groups • major changes: >somewhat larger cranial capacity from a rapid increase >reducing teeth •complicated evolutionary appearance. >Associated with tools >Culture? Earliest material culture. •Why is cranial capacity increasing being selected for? • Pliocene (5—2 mya) o Environmental change? Not really • Diet change? Competition for food with other hominins. Smaller teeth, shift toward omnivores. o Stone tools? First use ****Oldowan tools >Chopper/ Pebble tools >H. Habilis >A. Garhi? May have been using tools. Makes the argument that creating tools didn't increase cranial capacity. >Earliest tool evidence=doesn't have to do with finding a tool itself. You find a bone of animal that was killed by it. Problem was that the homo genus was not around in 3.3 mya. That means it predates the homo genus to austropithecus. >Language? Can't find out because the parts aren't fossilized. >General adaptability?

3) Homo genus*****

Appearance of homo genus o Four species: •Homo habilis: >Eastern Africa • Homo errectus >Eastern Africa •Homo sapiens >Homo sapiens >Homo sapiens sapiens (humans) >Homo sapiens neandartalensis >Other? •Homo floresiensis

a. What is archaeology and and what are the different types of cultural material remains?

Archeology=the study of the ancient and recent human past through material remains. It is a subfield of anthropology, the study of all human culture. Beginnings of Culture •Three major goals in interpreting the archaeological record o Reveal the form of the past o Discover the function of the past o Understand cultural processes Cultural material Remains • Artifacts o Material items that humans have manufactured or modified • Cultural features o Nonportable remnants from the past • Cutlural landscapes o Human made or modified environments

Catarrhines (Old world monkeys and apes)

Both terrestrial and arboreal • Significant distinctions exist o Arboreal • Much smaller • Little sexual dimorphism (occurs in multiple species, one sex is larger than the other) o Terrestrial • Larger • Greater sexual dimorphism

b. Know the hominin evolutionary tree and the evolutionary order of the different Hominin genera

Chronology of human evolution: ***Three hominin genera 1)Ardipithecus 2)Australopithecus 3)Homogenus

B) i. What are the first two changes that mark first true human cultural behavior?

Cultural Origins • How and when did culture arise? oFirst • Tool production oSecond milestone • Art—earliest is 164, 000 ya in Africa

c. What are the advantages and disadvantages of changing adaptive strategies to Domestication and Sedentism?

Domestication and Sedentism Advantages and Disadvantages • Book table • That weren't thinking about the problems=not use ful for considering full to • Why did people choose to change their ways of life> • Disadvantages: o What were people reacting to? o1)Population change • large population increase o2) shift in the diet • farmers rely on small number of food types o3) Insecure food supply • greater susceptibility to disasters o4) Increase in disease • greater concentration of people o5) Environmental degradation • agriculture changes the environment o6) increase in labor • longer work day for farmers • Advantages of domestication and sedentism: o1) Farmers ned less land than a hunter-gatherer. o2) Farmers have a more predicatable food source • can predict their food. o3) Farming is less damaging to the body • less violent deaths • longer life-spans o4) Sedentism meant new opportunities for social complexity • more chances to socialize

b) Understand the shared traits that define primates as a Order and the specific environments in which primates evolved.

Early primates in a tropical world: • Arboreal environments o Tree living econiche • Feeding behavior? • Movement? o Primate traits evolve: shift • Smell to sight • Grasping • Nose to hand=have sensory paths (primate trait) >Leads to other traits: • Brain/body size ratio • Parental investment • Sociability

Continent split (environmental change)

Evolutionary split into two infraorders: 1) New world monkeys • Plattarhines=flat noses • flat noses and semi-moist • prehensile tail (fifth appendage) • Lack full color vision (a little bit) 2) old world monkeys and apes • catarhines=sharp noses • Forward noses • Full color vision

c. What are the three different evolutionary paths that start with Australopithecus? (Know that A evolved from blank and where they came from)

First evolutionary path of Austra: Amen **East Africa (4.3 MYA) >Gracile body types • light skeleatal build • smooth skull shapes • A. anamensis (4.2—3.9 mya) • A. afarensis (3.9—3.0 mya) + still gracile in the pelvis and long bones. omnivorous hominin o (1st evolutionary path) Robust body type: isolated case. May have been because of resource shortage and competition. • big skeletal build • large muscle attachments to the skull • Bosisei )2.6—1.2 mya) ate grasses, bark, plants → diet led to them being on a totally different path. goes extinct Second evolutionary path of Ausra: ***South Africa (3.8 mya) >A. Afarensis (3.8-3.0 mya) + populatin moves south 1) Gracile body type o A. africanus (3.0—2.0 mya) >light skeletal build >smooth skull shapes 2) Robust body type o big skeletal build o large muscle attachments on the skull o A. Robustus (2.0—1.0 mya) • goes extinct—out competed by omnivores. • Usually dated by relative dating=know the date of something and compare it to another object to date it. Third evolutionary path: • Eastern Africa again: o A. Afarensis (3 to 2 Mya) • One population leads are the ancestors of Homo genus

Out of Africa 1:

First hominin to leave Africa. • More efficient bipedalism • More complex behavior >Advanced tools >Ashlian hand axe. It took an individual is carving a stone, knows the schematic. >First to use fire=hunter gatherers. Subsistent strategies. >Rarely find an elder. >Stronger bones. The skull had brow ridges. Extrememly thick skulls. Sagittal keel shared human trait. • Changing diets: o Rates of change? • Australopithecus vs habilis=very similar • Habilis vs errectus= very different. ***Homo floresiensis—aka "hobbits" o A population of H. Errectus in Indonesia evolved into: o Homo floresiensis • 95, 000 ya to 13, 000 ya • small cranial capacity • small gracile bodies~1 meter • tool users.

f) What are the behavioral similarities and differences between living humans and the other living apes? what do these similarities and differences say about early hominin evolution?

Homologous traits. • Origins of behavior=may be what is unique of being human o Similarities: • Learning Behavioral not genetic Ex: wild chimps have learned behavior like humans. May be an ape (hominoid) trait. • Tool usage Not the only ones that use tools. Chimps use it in the wild. Shape sticks for fishing or termite mound. Rocks to smash things. • Predation and hunting=chimps also hunt. Opportunistic and cooperative hunting. Very organized. • Aggressive conflict=common chimpanzees are aggressive with each other and form external conflict with other chimpanzee troops. o Differences: • It's about the scale of the behavior. So we make better tools and have more complex hunting. • Increased sharing and cooperation Caring for the elderly (information exchange) • More complex mating and kinship structures

b. How does hominin species hybridization help explain some modern human variation?

Interbreeding. Best of two species come together for like a best possible evolution (opposable thumbs) Best attributes of both.

Two types of evolution

Macroevolution: Over a long period of time environmental isolation creating genetic changes that lead to new species. • No longer reproductively active pairs over time Ex: Hominin evolution Microevolution: Genetic changes over a shorter period of time with no environmental isolation or speciation. • Slow gene flow • Ex: human variation

Rise of Complex Societies

Middle east sedentism first North America domestication was first.

Homo erectus

One population of H. Habils in E. Africa becomes: o Homo erectus •1.7 to 0.07 mya >environmental change >resource competition, dryer climate >Physically? +Increasing cranial capacity +Language perhaps +Smaller teeth >Increased bipedalism: +Larger, more robust. Increased sexual dimorphism.

3) Hominins

Three tribes: 1)Gorillas • Mostly terrestrial • Large (400 pounds) • Social organization • 3 species: not sexually interactive mountain gorillas (know most about, live in small troops 15 individuals, silver back is the dominant male, multiple females that are related to each other but not the male, aggressive but eat wood and leaves, western gorillas (threatened) eastern gorillas (don't know much about them) 2)chimps o Two species: • Common chimpanzees They have complex Social organization: hierarchy and status, large troops, status depends on age and sex. • Bonobos Smaller in size. Social organization=they are different than most chimps. They live in small troops. Less conflict with no hierarchy. Have sex all the time. Females have more status. 3)humans • Hominins (bipedal apes) o One living species >Modern humans Scientific name • Primate anthropoig • Catarrhine hominoid • Hominid hominin • Homo spaien sapien •Largely terrestrial •Social organization is very complex

d. What is race and what does it have to do with human variation?

What is Race? • The presumed Biological Category o Isolated subdivision of a species, based on common ancestry and biological traits. • Highly problematic definition: o Based primarily of skin color o Skin color has a clinical distribution • Populations vary with no breaks • Gradual shift in genetic traits o No reproductive barriers between human populations

f. Why did the early states collapse?

Why early states collapse? • Various factors: o Warfare o Prolonged drought o Diseaes o Famine o Evenvirobnental changed o Social transitions. • Interrelationships of environment and culture • Different people made dirrerent choices.

d) Think about why we study primatology in anthropology.

o Study of nonhuman primates. Helps to see how we became ourselves o Two important kinds: • 1) Terrestrial Monkeys=early human evolution in shared behavior and evolution • 2) most closely related to people=if we can see similarities to a shared ancestor, we can see something about early human evolution.

c. What are the different theories that archaeologists have suggested to explain these rises in complex societies? Which early civilization locations best fit each of these theories? (BOOKS)

o Why the rise of complex societies? *Rise from the knowledge of the early states. • Prime movers or motors of civilization: Different explanations: • Hydraulic systems=irrigation systems to help grow more food→ the need to increase food would create a need for organization from a powerful leader to lead other people. (mesopotamia) • Long distance trade=economic model. The spread of trade occurs. The more growth is in in areas of major trade. Monopoloies→ with wealth they gained power→ took over social systems. (Incas) • Circumscription, population, war=boundaries of geography that limit population expansion. Social boundaries also occur. Greater conflict occurs as people grow in population and begin taking resources. In conflict, a certain group gets better at organizing warfare is where social complexity grows. (indus valley) • Religion=occurs early on and integrates into social systems. Religious structures and sites drew people in to form markets and pilgrimages and people took over the economic and organization. (Maya) • Charismatic leaders=societies focused on the existence of one person. They are good at organizing people and forming structures. (Maya) • • NO single reason or cause exitsts!!!! Each reagion had multiple reasons • Interrelationship of environment and culture • Different people made different choices.

Third major change?

oCulture change and culture innovation: • Shifting adaptive strategy • People shift to Broad spectrum foraging: using a broad spectrum of meats and grains to sustain life o Populations and environmental shift around 12,000 ya • New adaptive strategies called the Neolithic shift arise

1. How were adaptive strategies changing on a global scale?

oExplaining Neolithic Adaptive changes: • Process of sedentism >Environmental determinants • Receding ice age. •New populations of plants and animals. >Social determinants • Population size=high •Process of domestication: Process of domestication= >Plants genetic changes • Wild vs domesticated o Small bs large o Grains fall vs grain stay on o weak joint vs tougher joint o In natural range vs outside normal environment o Normal polled and changes in pollen (able to see pollen Animal genetic changes • Wild vs domesticated o Larger vs. smaller o In natural environment vs outside natural range o (domesticated)=morphological changes o (domesticated)=increased population o Normal sex/age ratio vs abnormal sex/age ratio •Plant domestication: >Opportunistic • Most productive plant gets selected for. o Waste and refuse from what you eat grew into a plant. >Intentional • Purposefully planted and selecting traits Animal domestication • Opportunistic o Earliest—dog? ***Domesticated to hunt • Intentional o Mobile food source

B) ii. What is the fourth major change that defined origins of human culture and a new adapative strategy?

oFourth set of cultural milestones: • Sedentism >Settled life styles and living permenant structures • Domestication >Human interference with reproduction of another species.

d. What three factors really help explain and understand why the human species changed overall cultural behaviors and adaptive strategies during the Neolithic era?

oWhy really: oLocal Factors Dominate • Climate and environment=its occurring in that area and making food acquiring unpredicatable in foraging. • Population pressures=far fewer people in the New World. As population grew it became more common. • Opportunism=there were opportunities to domesticate these animals no matter the diversity of all the species. Only domesticated by chance or choice. • Explaining all Neolithic changes: Shift to sedentism and domestication: o Three important factors: • 1) Environment Reacting to environmental changes • 2) population pressure supporting larger numbers • 3) Human Sociability increasing social complexity and organization

b. Where have different civilizations arisen independent of each other?

• 7 locations of Rise of Civilizations: China, Monte Verde, Egypt, Mesoamerica, Peru rose t power where you see highly diverse and socially complex groups independent of each other. • Development of: o Social classes=social differences based on activities and economic activities o Social stratification=unequal access to power and prestige o Specialists=making a living doing something other than producing food (artists)

Neandetalensis

• A population of H. Sapiens in Europe evolved into: o Homo sapiens neandertalensis • 130,000 ya to 28,000 ya • Largest cranial capacity ~1520 cm3 • cold adapted • large noses to warm up air to extract oxygen when it reached the lungs • Changing behavior=like homo sapiens. Most likely survived on animal protein Subsistence Variety of stone tools Middle Paleolithic tools Symbolic behavior? We see evidence. No cave paintings and maybe figures. Burials and took care of their elders. Necklaces and music o Neandertals vs sapiens sapiens: • Skull grew up rather than out.

2. Where were the different locations these changes were happening?

• Earliest domestication: Middle East • 11,000—8000 ya o wheat barley, sheep, groats and catttke • Food production spread out: o Egypts Nile valley (8000 ya) o Europe—7000 ya o India 8000 ya o Pakistan 8000 ya The New World • 10000—7000 o turkeys, llama, guinea pigs o squash, maize, potatoes manioc • Food production spread out o South to central America—6000 ya. o Central to South America—6000 ya o Central to North America—4000 ya (corn)

2) Early Miocene Hominoids

• Early Miocene Hominoids o Miocene (23-5 m.y.a.)—era of the apes o Cattarhine infraorder splits • 2 superfamilies old world monkeys old world apes • hominoidea=don't live on the ground. Large changes in diet, teeth, and face. Adapt to eat fruit in the trees.

a. Why is there biological variation within and between human populations today?

• Evolutionary adaptation to: oENVIRONMENTAL FLUCTUATION: • Bipedalism and higher Cranial Capacity • Human Biological Plasticity=frost bite, supplying oxygen in high altitude, oModern Biological diversity: • Explaining the human phenotype: Why people look different? • Adapting to specific eco-niches • Creating phenotypic differences.

Asian apes--

• Gigantopithecus o Largest primate • 10 ft tall • 1200 pounds • lived to 300,000 ya • ate plants so it got big to digest the plants and muscle attachments.

c. What are some examples of specific modern human population adaptations?

• Human variation: o Blood types • Sickle cell malaria • ABO blood types= O is the primitive trait. Most prominent among native Americans. Immunity to syphilis. A type=in Europe • Bubonic plague resistance B type= most common in Asia • Smallpix resistance o Facial features: • Thomson's Nose rule Large long nose=cold weather. Smaller flatter noses= warmer climates • Teeth Large teeth=grittier food. Farmers of grains. Small teeth= • Allen's an Bergman's rules • Hit clincare Climate temperatures. • Cool climates: Less body surface • High Altitude. Andes • More efficient blood • Low birth weight Himalayas • Enlarged lungs • Altered placentas • Skin color: Melanin—diff. populations have diff production of melanin Darker skin—more protection against skin cancer and sunburn Lighter skin=greater ability to form vitamin D. • Skin color is relative to proximity to the equator and how long they've been thre. o Race= relate it to skin color. >Alan and Birdman=larger in a cold place, taller and thinner in a hot environment--> more sweat glands.

Miocene hominoids: Apes

• Lived throughout Europe, Asia and Africa (wandering around, back and forth, not fixed)

1) Hylobatids

• Make up gibbons (arborial, don't have secual dimorphism, long arms and long fingers, can walk on the ground, Monogomous ape) and siamangs (lesser apes and Asian apes).

d. What made Homo genus different from Australopithecus?

• More adept bipedalism • Smaller teeth and face—diet • Increased cranial capacity >Language >Material culture=make more complex things over time

Out of Africa 3:

• One population of H. Sapiens in E. Africa evolved into: o Homo Sapiens Sapiens • 195,000 ya to present found everywhere • Larger cranial capacity ~1350 cm3 • Different behavior: Tools are getting more complex. Subsistence Great variety of stone tools Upper Paleolithic tools Associated with modern humans Symbolic understanding— Find symbolic behavior in artifacts: artwork (cave paintings, figurines, carvings of animals) • Loss of browridge became prominent foreheads • Distinctive chin • Out of Africa 3: Eveolve in eastern Africa and move out. They spread and reoccupied the world. Replacing Archaic H. Sapiens Based on mtDNA evidence

European apes—adapted to the environment

• Oreopithecus o Lived 7 to 9 mya o Didn't live in the forest, no tail, upright, and lived in a grassland o Bipedal=not connected to human evolution but it adapted like a human. > Analogous trait

Other kinds of humans?------

• Other populations of H. Sapiens evolving? Found because of DNA and better techniques to sequence DNA and to study fossils. • Denisovans? o Southern Siberia • 400,000 ya to 45,000 ya o H. Denisova? H. Sapiens Denisova? o Considered not a modern human because of human variation. Not a neandertal either. • Red Deer Cave People o Central asia • 11, 500 ya o descendent of • H. Sapiens? H. Erectus? • H. or A. Naledi o Has a mixture of traits. o Has Homo and australopithecine features • Head—homo but it is a tiny head • Looks like a modern human hand—but long curved finger like austropithecine • Pelvis is austripithecine • Feet look like a modern human feet. o We identify by homologies (common ancestor)? But what about analogies? o No dates of living—very difficult to date in South Africa

Order of species

• Primates, anthropoids, catarrhines, Hominoids, Hominids, Hominis, Humans, Recent Humans, AMHs

African apes—more important toward human evolution. Lots of different apes.

• Proconsul—three species that get included in this classification. Don't know which one is the common ancestor. The change is largely in the head, ape teeth but look like a monkey—that's why we don't know. o An ancestor of modern apes • Teeth and face • Sexually dimorphic (earliest dimorphism)

1) Early Cenozoic Primates

• The Paleocene (65—54 m.y.a.) o Primates appear but we don't have a lot of evidence. • The Eocene (54-38 m.y.a) o Dominated by prosimians • Descendants are Lemurs and Lorises Nocturnal >Only in Madagascar Primate suborders: • Primate order has two suborders: 1) Prosimians • time of anthropoid speciation • Oligocene 38-23 may 2) Anthropoid suborder • Become most prominent primate Better stereoscopic vision Dryer noses Not nocturnal • Includes all monkeys and apes

How do anthropologists place fossils into evolutionary order based on techniques that determine age and the homologies?

• We give fossils dates of living in two ways: o 1) relative dating • stratigraphy how earth sediments are deposited over time. Things get deposited in order, o 2) Absolute dating • molecular MtDNA dating counting mutations when species became isolated from each other • radiometric techniques measuring loss of unstable radioactive isotopes carbon 14 is in all things living=radiating body till death. Tries to decay back into nitrogen 14. Potasium argon=volcanic rock Uranium series=minerals Thermolumninescence=rocks and minerals Electron spin resonance=rocks and minerals Dendrochronology=wood and charcoal

e. What are the cultural attributes of early states?

•Became a state independently form others Early or primary state: o Not the same as today o A complex society with no earlier antecedents. o Only a few examples: Middle East—site of Ore. Karahl South America. • Traits that are present for the first time: 1) Regional territory=marking boundaries 2) Farming economies=large amount of the population is producing for themselves and others through domestication. 3) Tribute and taxation=portion of what you produced to put into surplus. Labor was also present as tax or tribute. 4) Stratified=groups on the top and on the bottom. 5) Building programs=everyone is involved through labor tribute. 6) Record-keeping systems=states form records to keep track of tribute and taxation.

Perhaps they changed because of....

•Explaining early cultural innovation o Neolithic adaptive changes • Why did humans shift from foraging to sedentary and farming lifestyles? Sedentism attractive? Was domestication necessary • Except this scenario only works for the Middle East. • Explaining processes in the New World (sedentism after domestication) oClimate? Kinda oGeographic barriers? Fewer geographic barriers in the ME but NW had different growing seasons in different areas. •Problem is that people are smart and they are not affected by geography this much.

a. The fourth major cultural change that defines cultural origins was about social structures. What are the social and political organization changes that occurred after people became sedentary and reliant on domesticated plants and animals?**********

•Food production led to: o Early farming communities • In the Middle East Ali Kosh and Jarmo 9000 ya •In the New World Nachoc peru 5,500 ya Oxaca mexico 5000 ya oResulted in • higher food yield • larger population→ more food so you have babies and more babies makes you have more labor for food. • Greater management needs • Rise of Civilization: oSocial and cultural change • FOURTH Cultural milestone: Long shift toward civilization • Complex society with an extensive social hierarchy 1) shift from small Neolithic Villages • egalitarian villages o no large social differences • gender roles LEADS TO..>.....> • ranked agricultural communities o inherited social differences o larger populations o Cheifdoms o 7000 ya, middle east vs 4000 ya Mesoamerica 2) Shifting from chiefdoms • to early State Societies o larger social differences and hierarchies o encompass other areas around it and communities o 6000 ya Middle East vs. 3200 Mesoamerica

g. Be able to describe the rise of civilization in detail for at least one location and region?

•Harappan Civilization in the Indus Valley oLarge river valley • Highlands, desert, and ocean oDomestication—9000 ya • Some not all • Farming wheat • Herding • Foraging • Harrapan civilization; development of large population centers oAround 4500 • The settling of Mohenjo-Daro began • Large public structures. • Organized neighborhoods=streets and alley ways, • large public bathing facility • public toilets, sewers, and house bathrooms main sewage lines • Invented a wheel • Invented a writing system >Indus script >Still undeciphered

b. What are the origins of human cultural behavior?

•People expand throughout the world: oReached Australia • 40,000 t0 50,000 ya • advancement in tool production to get there. • Fluctuated environments • Ice age lead to humans entering the Americas. • Migration waves: oEarliest evidence of people • Monte Verde, Chile • 14, 000 ya oEarliest evidence of a culture • Clovis tradition (North America) • 13-12,000 ya oEarliest adaptive strategy • 300,000-15,000 ya • hunting and gathering big game hunting plant gathering nomadic oClimate started to warm slowly • Starting 15,000 ya • Created shift in environment oCulture change and culture innovation: • Shifting adaptive strategy • People shift to Broad spectrum foraging: using a broad spectrum of meats and grains to sustain life o Populations and environmental shift around 12,000 ya • New adaptive strategies called the Neolithic shift arise