Anthropology 152 Final

ritual

- the visible control of abstract thoughts. Tries to control unpredictable events and the supernatural. Tries to know the unknowable and change the unchangeable.

nation-state

Has to be four things: soverign, limited, centralized, and finite. Political entity for governing large units. Political management of a geographical territory and its inhabitants. Centralized government institutions. State usually has a monopoly on force.

For example, what is "mati" in Surinam?

Mati are women who form intimate spiritual emotional and sexual relationships with other women. Women provide support for one another, sometimes living in the same household, sometimes living separately, and often sharing children rearing responsibilities.

How did colonialism shape understandings of race?

colonialism exposed Europeans to diverse kinds of people in the world. And really, before Blumenbach's hierarchy of racial differences became extremely popular, Europeans were already operating under the assumption that physical differences could also indicate one's entitlement to privileges

Prestige

esteem, respect, or approval for acts, deeds, or qualities considered exemplary

Ethnicity and Nationalism: How do anthropologists define ethnicity?

ethnicity is deeply important to many of us, yet it is another concept that is invented and mobilized for the purposes of creating order in society. It is not something that we are born with, and evidently it is something that can change as we move across national borders, as well as cultural boundaries.

How is ethnicity invented and reproduced?

ethnicity is deeply important to many of us, yet it is another concept that is invented and mobilized for the purposes of creating order in society. It is not something that we are born with, and evidently it is something that can change as we move across national borders, as well as cultural boundaries.

Nationalism

extreme loyalty and devotion to a nation and its interests, usually at the expense of other nations or societies.

Colonialism

forced change in which one culture, society, or nation dominates another.

What is globalization and how is anthropology useful for understanding globalization?

globalization is not just a set of political and economic processes that impact culture.....it is the stage or setting in which contemporary lives are experienced and contemporary social problems are created.Anthropology is useful to Understanding globalization by thinking through a global perspective in order to understand what Anthropology has to offer—and we can benefit from an anthropologic lens in order to better understand globalization. In other words, the two concepts go hand in hand—what a wonderful marriage!

Racism

harmful prejudice, discrimination, and/or persecution based on presumed ethnic/racial differences. An example of racism is not hiring someone for a job because of his or her skin color. Similarly, giving someone a preference in hiring due to skin color can be racism if people with other skin colors are disadvantaged by this act.

Structural functionalism

is a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation, which is a broad focus on the social structures that shape society as a whole, and believes that society has evolved like organisms.

What is a commodity chain?

is a process used by firms to gather resources, transform them into goods or commodities, and finally, distribute them to consumers. It is a series of links connecting the many places of production and distribution and resulting in a commodity that is then exchanged on the world market.

Space time compression

is the increasing sense of connectivity that seems to be bringing people closer together even thought their distances are the same. Space time compression is the solution to distance decay because technology (internet,cell phones) is allowing us to communicate more across longer distances

Salvage ethnography

is the recording of the practices and folklore of cultures threatened with extinction, including as a result of modernization. It is generally associated with the American anthropologist Franz Boaz; he and his students aimed to record vanishing Native American cultures

Intersectionality

is the study of overlapping or intersecting social identities and related systems of oppression, domination, or discrimination.

Kinship

is the system of meaning and power that cultures create to determine who is related to whom and to define their mutual expectations, rights, and responsibilities

language: What is language and where does it come from?

language is a system of communication organized by rules that uses symbols such as words, sounds, and gestures to convey information. Language is thought to be a unique feature of humans.

Dowry

money, property, or other things of high value given by a bride's family to the groom, ostensibly to establish a new household. It is her share of the family inheritance. A dowry is, in a sense, the reverse of a bride price.

Holistic

no dimension of culture can be understood in isolation, cultures are integrated wholes.

Thick Description

of a human behavior is one that explains not just the behavior, but its context as well, such that the behavior becomes meaningful to an outsider. -Today, "thick description" is used in a variety of fields, including the type of literary criticism known as New Historicism.

What is the "yan daudu" in Nigeria?

people recognized a feminine-type of manhood, which was labeled "'Yan daudu." The 'yan daudu have sex with other men and who also act like women: they cook, serve food, sing, dance, and work as prostitutes.

Food Forager

people who live in more or less isolated, small societies and obtain their food by foraging wild plants and hunting wild animals. Foragers generally have a passive dependence on what the environment contains. They do not plant crops and the only domesticated animals that they usually have are dogs. Most foraging societies do not establish permanent settlements. Rather, they have relatively temporary encampments with tents or other easily constructed dwellings. The length of time that they stay in any one location is largely determined by the availability of resources. Foragers are also referred to as hunters and gatherers.

participant-Obseravtion

physically and emotionally participating in the social interaction of another society on a daily basis in order to learn about its culture. In practice this usually requires living within the community as a member, learning their language, establishing close friendship ties, eating what they eat, and taking part in normal family activities. By becoming an active participant rather than simply an observer, ethnographers reduce the cultural distance between themselves and the host society.

Social reproduction

processes which sustain or perpetuate characteristics of a given social structure or tradition over a period of time.

Emic

referring to the categorization of things according to the way in which members of a society classify their own world. In other words, this is the way their culture and language divide up reality. Such emic categories generally differ from culture to culture and provide valuable insights into the perceptions and world view of other peoples. Discovering, recording, and analyzing emic categories is the task of ethnoscience.

Etic

referring to the classification of things according to some external system of analysis brought in by a visitor to another society. This is the approach of biology in using the Linnaean classification system to define new species. It assumes that ultimately, there is an objective reality and that is more important than cultural perceptions of it.

Gender performance

refers to the way gender identity is expressed through action. It is important to think of gender as something that is performed, a ritual of sorts because this reminds us that gender is not biological.

Rites Of Passage

ritual ceremonies intended to mark the transition from one phase of life to another.

Sacred

sacred - things and actions set apart as religious or spiritual which are entitled to reverence. ANYTHING THAT IS HOLY

magic

sing ritual formulas to compel or influence supernatural beings or powers to act in certain ways for good or evil purposes. By performing certain magical acts in a particular way, crops might be improved, game herds replenished, illness cured or avoided, animals and people made fertile. This is very different from television and stage "magic" that depends on slight-of-hand tricks and contrived illusions rather than supernatural power.

How does language intersect race/ethnicity in the United States?

sociolinguists—anthropologists who are interested in the ways culture shapes language and language shapes culture, particularly the intersection of language with cultural categories and systems of power such as race, gender, class, and age. We began to touch on sociolinguistics in our discussion of the uses of silence. We were able to identify many uses of silence, and many of those uses involved a power play of some sort.

How does power shape language and communication?

sociolinguists—anthropologists who are interested in the ways culture shapes language and language shapes culture, particularly the intersection of language with cultural categories and systems of power such as race, gender, class, and age. We began to touch on sociolinguistics in our discussion of the uses of silence. We were able to identify many uses of silence, and many of those uses involved a power play of some sort. Guest provides an example of sociolinguistics in his description of the power issues involved in the "N-Word."

Cultural Relativism

suspending one's ethnocentric judgments in order to understand and appreciate another culture. Anthropologists try to learn about and interpret the various aspects of the culture they are studying in reference to that culture rather than to their own. This provides a better understanding of how such practices as polygamy and cannibalism can function and even support other cultural traditions. -understanding the ways of other cultures and not judging these practices according to one's own cultural ways.

What is the relationship between religion and magic?

t is a postulate of modern anthropology, at least since early 1930s, that there is complete continuity between magic and religion.[2][3] In the past, there have been many attempts by anthropologists to establish some fundamental distinction between magic and religion, most notably by James George Frazer and Bronisław Malinowski; they tried to demonstrate that "magical thinking" is a form of proto-science or pseudoscience rather than a form of religious practice, and that by this line of thought, early magical beliefs developed through a post-hoc fallacy — a supplication was made on the altar, and then it rained shortly afterward. Regardless of whether the supplication was the actual cause, it was credited with the change, and thus magical beliefs could grow

What is "machismo" in Nicaragua?

that machismo is sometimes defined as an exaggerated performance of masculinity, and creates a strong contrast between aggression and passivity. Thus "real men," must always present themselves as aggressive in order to protect their identities.

hegemony

the ability of a dominant group to create consensus and agreement within a population without the use of threat or force

Genocide

the act or attempt to systematically kill all members of an ethnic group or culture. The Nazi extermination of Jews and gypsies by the millions before and during World War II is an example of genocide.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

the early 20th century idea of Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf that language predetermines what we see in the world around us. In other words, language acts like a polarizing lens on a camera in filtering reality--we see the real world only in the terms and categories of our language. This hypothesis was objectively tested by anthropologists in the 1960's. That research indicated that Sapir and Whorf went too far. It is now clear that the terminology used by a culture primarily reflects that culture's interests and concerns. All normal humans share similar sense perceptions due to the fact that their sense organs are essentially the same. Therefore, they can understand and perceive the categories of reality of another culture, if they are explained.

What is the purpose of an economy?

the economy is where goods and produce and be distributed, traded/sold, and consumed. The purpose is so everyone can get what they need-ex) farmer sells crops and goes buy paint for his barn...farmer grows crops and only crops, and the paint maker makes only paint, and basically they trade so they both get what they need.

How does the concept of family intersect the concept of concept of nationhood?

the experience illustrates Guest's point that the notion of nationalism draws heavily on kinship and family to create a sense of connection among a group of people who are unrelated.

Flexible Accumulation

the increasingly flexible strategies that corporations use to accumulate profits in an era of globalization, enabled by innovative communication and transportation technologies

Cultural capital

the knowledge, experience and or connections one has had through the course of their life that enables them to succeed more so than someone from a less experienced background.

Status

the relative social position of an individual. For instance, student, teacher, child, and parent are easily identifiable statuses in most cultures. Each of us has a number of different statuses. We usually acquire new ones and lose old ones as we go through life.

Liminality

the transitional period or phase of a rite of passage, during which the participant lacks social status or rank, remains anonymous, shows obedience and humility, and follows prescribed forms of conduct, dress, etc.

Gender

sexual identity as male or female.

Power

the ability to influence the actions of others.

Sex

the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women.

Wealth/Income

the net gain in material well-being from economic activity. Wealth is measured according to the items of value in a given culture.

Franz Boas

-German-American anthropologist and a pioneer of modern anthropology - "Father of American Anthropology" -awarded a doctorate in 1881 in physics while also studying geography. -field work with the indigenous cultures and languages of the Pacific Northwest. -In 1887 he emigrated to the United States where he first worked as a museum curator at the Smithsonian -1899 became professor of anthropology at Columbia University where he remained for the rest of his career. - influenced the development of American anthropology. -prominent opponents of the then popular ideologies of -scientific racism: the idea that race is a biological concept and that human behavior is best understood through the typology of biological characteristics

Agency

-Human agency is the concept that each human individual within a culture has the ability to determine and choose by free will his/her actions, beliefs, etc. -This contrasts the idea that we are completely governed by either nature or environmental factors (like culture) because we possess these innate capacity to think for ourselves. Thus, looking throughout civilizations, certain individuals changed the entire course of human history. An obvious example is Hitler and horrific events during the Holocaust. However, these individuals also produce positive influences within cultures as well. Additionally, this concept does not imply that cultural and natural forces are invalid, but rather adds to the complexity within understanding human behaviors within a culture

Fieldwork and Ethnography: How do anthropologists undertake fieldwork and write ethnography?

1) It entails spending time with people: It is "experiential," in that one learns about another culture by being a part of it and doing what the people in that culture typically do and experience. 2) The experience of ethnographic research impacts the researcher. Think about your experience conducting quick and dirty participant-observation on campus. (culture shock—the feeling of being disoriented and overwhelmed by a new and unfamiliar people and experiences. Definitely, anthropologists experience culture shock going into the field. They can also experience it coming out of the field. ) 3) Fieldwork as social science and art 4) Fieldwork Informs Daily Life

What is Fordism and Flexible Accumulation?

Fordism is describes modern economic and social systems based on industrialized, standardized mass production and mass consumption. The concept (named for Henry Ford) is used in social, economic, and management theory about production, working conditions, consumption, and related phenomena, especially regarding the 20th century. -Flexible Accumulation is the increasingly flexible strategies that corporations use to accumulate profits in an era of globalization, enabled by innovative communication and transportation technologies

What are the strategies that anthropologists use to gather data?

Formal Interviews, Life Histories, Surveys, Kinship Analysis, Social Network Analysis, Field notes, Mapping.

What is the difference between income and wealth, how do these concepts illuminate class in the American society?

Income has to do with one's earnings from work (and this includes profits from other things that "work" for you vs. Wealth is the total value of what someone owns, minus any debt—so this includes stocks, bonds, real estate minus mortgages and credit card debt. They both illuminate class in American Society because one's life chances are heavily influenced by the class position of one's family—the financial and cultural resources passes from generation to generation.

How does gender shape language?

Women and men are socialized to use language in different ways. We would discover this if we asked the women and men in the class to make a list of the colors they see in the classroom. Usually, women produce longer and a more nuanced lists of colors compared to the lists of men. There are some arguments that suggest that due to biological differences between women and men, men aren't capable of seeing. But for each of these studies, there are just as many studies that demonstrate that the range of colors that we see relates to one's enculturation. For example, cultures around the world have different classifications of colors. Some cultures have as few as 3 sets of colors (white, red, black); others have a few more colors (see chart below).

What is the concept "culture of poverty"?

This term or concept was coined by an anthropologist named Oscar Lewis. He conducted research in Mexico, and other places as well, and he was very interested in sensitizing people to the reality of living in poverty. -Lewis was also trying to show that growing up in poverty lead to an orientation in life that prompted one to reproduce poverty. In other words, children who grew up feeling helpless, hopeless were vulnerable to living adult lives with these feelings and reproducing them among their off spring.

How does an anthropologist's identity shape how they study culture and write ethnography?

Today's anthropologists use "mixed methods," which is a term that refers to the collection of quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative research is the type of research that entails statistical information about a community that can be measured and compared. Qualitative data is drawn from non-statistical sources, including participant-observation, personal stories, interviews, life histories, among other things. Although cultural anthropologists collect quantitative data, they tend to place the accent on collecting qualitative data. As we have already discussed in class, participant-observation is a highly qualitative research strategy that involves a good deal of reflexivity

Communitas

Turner's concept, denoting intense feelings of social togetherness and belonging, often in connection with rituals. In communitas, people stand together "outside" society, and society is strengthened by this. The concept is in many ways the opposite of Marx's alienation or Durkheim's anomie, and is closely related to the latter's ideas about the "sacred" (vs. the "profane").

What are the roots of poverty in the United States?

U.S. Census Bureau found 45.3 million people (14.5%) in the U.S. live in poverty. This is the largest number of people living in poverty in the U.S. in the 53 years that poverty statistics have been collected. In 2013, the U.S. government's poverty line for single adults was $11,888 in pretax income and $23,834 for a family of four.

How is race constructed in the United States?

a. slavery and European conquest of indigenous people b. the creation of white supremacy-the belief that whites are biologically different and superior to people of other races. c. the counting of slaves for the U.S. census as only 3/5th of a person (between 1790-1860). d. the outlawing of intermarriage; and a loss of status for white people who married Others. e. the invention of white privileges so as to prevent landless white people from identifying and joining forces with landless Others (e.g. the right to own a gun, livestock, and land, the right to freedom after indenture, the right to discipline blacks, and the right to vote) (on a side note....I wonder if the new show "Underground" will portray white people as diverse in class background......hmmm....let's watch and see) f. the invention of hypodescent (the one drop of blood rule)...recall the story of Susi Phipps, a woman who appeared white but according to her birth certificate was black; by law, based on a folkloric notion of race, she could not qualify as a white person, and this case was upheld by the Supreme Court in 1982 (holy smokes! That was recent!!)

Horticulturalism

an agricultural technology distinguished by the use of hand tools to grow domesticated plants. Does not use draft animals, irrigation, or specially prepared fertilizers.

Swidden

an area of land cleared for cultivation by slashing and burning vegetation

Bride wealth

an economic exchange by the groom's family to compensate the bride's family upon marriage.

Homosexuality

an individual who is sexually and/or emotionally attracted by members of his or her own gender. Homosexuality generally refers to sexual interaction between members of the same gender. In North America, female homosexuals are often referred to as "lesbians" while males are known as "gays."

Hetrosexuality

an individual who is sexually and/or emotionally attracted by members of the opposite gender from himself or herself. Heterosexuality generally refers to sexual interaction between members of the opposite gender.

What are the kinds of things that sociolinguistists study?

anthropologists who are interested in the ways culture shapes language and language shapes culture, particularly the intersection of language with cultural categories and systems of power such as race, gender, class, and age.

The Global Economy What is an economy?

the wealth and resources of a country or region, especially in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services.

What events , people, rituals have contributed to the social construction of sexuality in the U.S.?

white weddings, Lesbian and Gay Commitment Ceremonies, etc

What does it mean to say that gender is performed?

-Gender performance refers to the way gender identity is expressed through action. Conceiving gender as a type of performance that is crafted in response to a social situation, permits us to appreciate that gender is not a fix , essentializing category. It is fluid, and notions of gender do not necessarily have to be oppositional (i.e., dichotomous).

Profane

ANYTHING THAT IS NOT HOLY

Who invented this term and how was this concept used in American politics?

This term or concept was coined by an anthropologist named Oscar Lewis.

E. E. Evans-Pritchard

- English anthropologist who was instrumental in the development of social anthropology. - He was Professor of Social Anthropology at the University of Oxford from 1946 to 1970. -Sexual Inversion Among the Azande: How people experience the erotic and express themselves as sexual beings; the awareness of themselves as males and females; the capacity they have for erotic experiences and responses -"Witchcraft, oracles, and magic among the Azande.": -Azande are both like and unlike Western Americans. Both irrational and rational. Have their own common sense but have different perspective of "natural" and "supernatural". Based on the structure of their environment.

tribe

- a group that centers around kinship units and common-interest groups that cross-cut kindred boundaries. Horticulture typifies the subsistence technology. People who attain prestige according to cultural standards may be seen as leaders. The big-man institution is quite common in tribes.

band

- a small group of related people, who are primarily organized through family bonds. Foraging typifies the subsistence technology. A respected and older person may be looked to for leadership, but the person has no formalized authority.

consanguineal

- members of one's kindred who are related by blood line.

affinal

- members of one's kindred who are related through a marital linkage.

chiefdom

- political organization is typically inherited through kinship lines. A ranked society in which a few leaders make decisions for the group.

enculturation

- the process of learning one's own culture, also called socialization.

bourgeoisie

- the social order that is dominated by the so-called middle class. In social and political theory, the notion of the bourgeoisie was largely a construct of Karl Marx (1818-83) and of those who were influenced by him. -is a word from the French language, used in the fields of political economy, political philosophy, sociology, and history, which originally denoted the wealthy stratum of the middle class that originated during the latter part of the Middle Ages.

Alfred Kinsey

- was an American biologist, professor of entomology and zoology, and sexologist who in 1947 founded the Institute for Sex Research at Indiana University,now known as the Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction -He is best known for writing Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953), also known as the Kinsey Reports, as well as the Kinsey scale. -Kinsey's research on human sexuality, foundational to the field of sexology, provoked controversy in the 1940s and 1950s. - His work has influenced social and cultural values in the United States, as well as internationally. -controversial research 1940 on sexual experiences of men and women kinsey scale: 0-6 heterosexual to homosexual 1-5 varying levels of alternative to either sex

Edward Sapir

-(1884-1939) was an American anthropologist-linguist, who is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the early development of the discipline of linguistics. -He studied Germanic linguistics at Columbia, where he came under the influence of Franz Boas who inspired him to work on Native American languages -Sapir-Whorf hypothesis linguistic relativity - language transmits culture, shapes thought -Learning the language is learning their world Language isn't just tags for the words -Linguistic Relativity Principle: A position, associated with Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, that asserts that language has the power to shape the way people see the world

Antonio Gramsci

-1891-1937 -Italian -Student activist --Grew up poor and as a societal outcast -School in Turin -interested in Turin council movements -Musilini- Authoritarian figure who puts Gramsci in jail. -He dies in jail but begins his writings -Important Works: Questions About Culture Prison Notebooks (1929-1936) -Basic Ideas: Gramsci discusses in great detail the role of intellectuals in society. Intellectuals are the members of society that possess the technical ability to garner and sustain the support of its groups' members by being able to bridge the gap between themselves and the dominant groups. The intellectuals are the organizers of society that are able to relate extremely well to their people while being able to see ways to progress their current status to obtain hegemony. Gramsci discusses the need for a wide-ranging education to elaborate the intellectuals of society effectively. Education will help produce "organic intellectuals" from among the proletariat. The intellectuals are the functionaries in society and it is up to them to aide in their respective groups progression. In terms of revolution, these intellectuals are called upon to be the mobilizers of society and creators of agendas to lead the disadvantaged proletariat. Gramsci also highlights the importance of culture and especially counter-culture. Bourgeois culture is hegemonic; thus, the working class needs its own culture to be counter hegemonic and spur the revolution. -Hegemony: Overwhelming influence of authority over others (cultural hegemony=cultural domination). From Proletariat needed: Lengthy cultural assault. -Organic Intellectual -Intellectual that articulates the collective consciousness of their class (the political, social, and economic culture). -All men are intellectuals -Working class will produce its own intellectuals

Max Weber

-21 April 1864 - 14 June 1920) was a German sociologist, philosopher, jurist, and political economist whose ideas profoundly influenced social theory and social research. -Weber is often cited, with Émile Durkheim and Karl Marx, as among the three founders of sociology. -Weber was a key proponent of methodological antipositivism, arguing for the study of social action through interpretive (rather than purely empiricist) means, based on understanding the purpose and meaning that individuals attach to their own actions. - Unlike Durkheim, he did not believe in monocausality and rather proposed that for any outcome there can be multiple causes. -main intellectual concern was understanding the processes of rationalisation, secularisation, and "disenchantment" that he associated with the rise of capitalism and modernity and which he saw as the result of a new way of thinking about the world. -best known for his thesis combining economic sociology and the sociology of religion, elaborated in his book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, in which he proposed that ascetic Protestantism was one of the major "elective affinities" associated with the rise in the Western world of market-driven capitalism and the rational-legal nation-state.

Culture: What is culture and its distinct features?

-A system of knowledge, beliefs, patterns of behaviors, artifacts, and institutions that are created, learned, and shared by a group of people. -Distinct Features are: 1. System of knowledge: The concept of "system" is important to the definition of culture because culture is a complex and integrated entity. "Structures" such as the economic system, political system, religious system, kinship system, system of social identification, etc. overlap and are interconnected. And when one part of the system changes, other parts respond. 2. Beliefs, patterns of behaviors, artifacts, and institutions:culture is a mixture of that which is "material" (i.e., artifacts, and institutions), and that which is "symbolic" (i.e., beliefs and patterns of behavior)—it is comprised of things we can touch, and ideas that swirl around in our minds and that shape how we view the world. 3. Created: This, perhaps, is one of the most important elements of the definition of culture. Culture is without a doubt invented by people. The reason this is important to understand is that some people believe that culture is "inherited," since we like to say that culture is 'passed down through the generations.Once we start to assume that culture is "natural" because it is "inherited," we can easily begin to stereotype groups for possessing certain kinds of behaviors. 4. Learned: This is also a good word to include in the definition of culture. The reason for this is also related to the above paragraph. Culture is something that is acquired through "lessons." We are not born with it. Again, it problematic to think of culture as naturally inside of us, and even that some of us have better or more culture than others. And when I use the word "acquired," I want to underscore that I am not suggesting that one is celebrated for acquiring culture. Anthropology does not advocate for the idea that that the more culture you have, the more cultured you are. Anthropologists do not think of culture as not an object that one possesses more or less of. We prefer to avoid talking about "Culture" with a capital "C" 5. A lens for interpretation and guides behavior: So, one thing I would add to Guest's definition of culture is that works like a colored pair of lens that shape one's world view---shapes how things look to a person, how to interpret the world, and how to behave in the world. It guides one's behavior. Once one interprets the world around oneself through the structure of a cultural lens, this sets them up to act in the world in particular ways. For example, think about the misunderstandings that women and men have in conversations......if women are silent, for them, they may be waiting for a man to say something more, where a man might interpret silence as a sign of approval. 6. Norms, symbols, values, mental maps of reality: Please take note of Guest's discussion of these terms. They are simple and familiar concepts, but we shouldn't take them for granted. Guest is particularly a big fan of mental maps......As cultures provide ways of seeing and interpreting the world, humans are very big on giving their observations a certain order---they create systems of classification as a means to manage the detail of the world. We need to keep in mind that mental maps are applied to a whole host of phenomena including ways of classifying the difference between humans, animals, and inanimate objects, to classifying the differences among humans in different contexts. Different societies have different systems

Louis Henry Morgan

-All cultures pass through the same development stages in the same order which is (Unilineal Evolution) - Evolutionary Theory: -Savagery: Lower (earliest forms of humanity subsisting on fruits and nuts), Middle (began with discovery of fishing technology and fire), Upper (began with the invention of bow-and-arrow). -Barbarism: Lower (began with art of pottery making), Middle (began with domestication of plants and animals in Old World and irrigation cultivation in New World), Upper (began with smelting of iron and use of iron tools). -Civilization: Began with the invention of the phonetic alphabet and writing. - pioneering American anthropologist and social theorist who worked as a railroad lawyer. -He is best known for his work on kinship and social structure, his theories of social evolution, and his ethnography of the Iroquois. -Interested in what holds societies together - he proposed the concept that the earliest human domestic institution was the matrilineal clan, not the patriarchal family.

Margaret Mead

-Anthropologist, Women's Rights Activist (1901-1978) -best known for her studies and publications on cultural anthropology. -Mead did her undergraduate work at Barnard College, where she met Franz Boas, who she went on to do her anthropology Ph.D. with at Columbia -She became a curator of ethnology at American Museum of Natural History, where she published the bestseller, Coming of Age in Samoa(1928) -Mead is credited with changing the way we study different human cultures -Growing Up in New Guinea (1930) -Male and Female (1949) and Growth and Culture (1951):which Margaret Mead argued that personality characteristics, especially as they differ between men and women, were shaped by cultural conditioning rather than heredity. -Some critics called her fieldwork impressionistic, but her writings have proved enduring and have made anthropology accessible to a wider public. -Margaret Mead (1901 - 1978) American Anthropologist (Boas' student) - coming of Age in Samoa (1928) -individuals sexual orientation may evolve throughout life. -She married 3 men, -had romantic relationships with 2 women

Emile Durkheim

-April 15, 1858 - November 15, 1917) was a French sociologist, social psychologist and philosopher. -He formally established the academic discipline and—with Karl Marx and Max Weber—is commonly cited as the principal architect of modern social science and father of sociology. -much of Durkheim's work was concerned with how societies could maintain their integrity and coherence in modernity; an era in which traditional social and religious ties are no longer assumed, and in which new social institutions have come into being. -His first major sociological work was The Division of Labour in Society (1893) -first major sociological work was The Division of Labour in Society (1893). - In 1895, he published The Rules of Sociological Method and set up the first European department of sociology, becoming France's first professor of sociology. -French sociologist. Explored ideas of the sacred and profane and practical effects of religious ritual. His work provided key tools for social scientists seeking to understand common elements in different religious movements. Saw religion as social (not practiced alone). Saw religion as the glue that holds together society's many pieces.

Edward Burnett Tylor

-English anthropologist, the founder of cultural anthropology. -Tylor is representative of cultural evolutionism. -In his works Primitive Culture and Anthropology, he defined the context of the scientific study of anthropology, based on the evolutionary theories of Charles Lyell. -He believed that there was a functional basis for the development of society and religion, which he determined was universal. -Tylor maintained that all societies passed through three basic stages of development: from savagery, through barbarism to civilization.

What are the differences between food foraging, pastoralism, horticulturalism, and agriculture?

-Food foraging consists of people who live in more or less isolated, small societies and obtain their food by foraging wild plants and hunting wild animals. Foragers generally have a passive dependence on what the environment contains. -Pastorilism is the branch of agriculture concerned with the raising of livestock. It is animal husbandry: the care, tending and use of animals such as camels, goats, cattle, yaks, llamas, and sheep. -Horticulteralism ; Slash-and-burn/swidden; simple tech. Slightly formal leadership (chiefs/elders have authority) Villages/clans of 200-500 people Some occupational differentiation Some hierarchy -Agriculture: Several 1,000s of people Irrigation ; other public works organized by formal leaders Occupation specialization Fortification Religious structures Hierarchy and Bureaucracy "Fertile Crescent" --Uruk (Erech/Iraq) (3600-3100 BC)

How did anthropologists first study culture and then how did they develop the craft of fieldwork?

-In the 19th century, the first anthropologists relied on documents brought to their offices from missionaries, colonial administrators, and merchants who were traveling the world in search of goods and people to colonize. - Salvage Ethnography: This term is associated with "Papa" Franz Boas, the American father of Anthropology, and according to Guest, the father of the "Four-field approach" to anthropology (the one where one studies the linguistic, archaeological, biological, and cultural backgrounds to a cultural group. Boas's approach to fieldwork was sort of rapid. -Proto-fieldworkers: Indeed people were doing a bit of what professional anthropologists do before the 19th century. We like to credit Herodotus, a Greek historian/traveler, which launching the practice of fieldwork. 2,500 years ago he wrote about his travels to Egypt, Persia, and the Ukraine.

Karl Marx

-Marxist Theory: The most influential theory on capitalism and economic or class stratification in anthropology and the social sciences comes from Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. -Marxist theory provides the analytical tools to understand economic or class stratification within capitalist societies. -was a philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. -Born in Prussia to a middle-class family -he later studied political economy and Hegelian philosophy -collaboration with German thinker Friedrich Engels and published various works - the most well-known being the 1848 pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. - His work has since influenced subsequent intellectual, economic, and political history.

Arnold van Gennep

-a Belgian anthropologist who observed that many rituals follow a tripartite pattern in which there are components of separation, transition, and reincorporation -Rites of Passage: the term suggested by Arnold van Gennep for rituals that mark a person's passage from one identity or status to another. ^ Seperation/ Threshold (liminality)/Reaggregation Three components Arnold Van Gennep said were parts of ritual rites of passage -Arnold van Gennep Rites of passage, prelimital (separation), liminal (threshold), postlimonal (reincorporation). He systematically compared those ceremonies that celebrate an individual's transition from one status to another within a given society. EG: Vision quest

Symbol

-a sound or thing which has meaning given to it by the user. - Human languages are systems of symbols.

Deal Breaker Terms in Anthropology: language

-a specific set of rules for generating speech. -Language is a dual system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. The duality is due to the coexistence of two systems of language—the system of sounds and the system of meanings; thus, duality is a basic feature of language. Language is arbitrary because we cannot predict which features will be found in any particular language; language is symbolic because the words humans speak are associated with objects, ideas, and actions.

bronislaw malinowski

-an early contributor to the cross-cultural study of human psychology -is famous for his field work in the Trobriand Islands. -He is considered as one of the fathers of anthropology and the father of ethnography because of the years he spent doing fieldwork in the Trobriand Islands. -Functionalism is often associated with -Who is credited with establishing functionalism to the field of anthropology -introduced and popularized the method of B Participant observation -Tribal life has its own form of common sense and code of conduct. -To learn from the tribe we must engage with them. -Culture to satisfy needs. -Savages are just like us, but more distinct in WHO they are and how they act. -Use their beliefs to function and make sense of life. -Biological vs Sociological Paternity.

Politics and Power What is the difference between a band, tribe, chiefdom, and state?

-band society, for example, is likely to be a food foraging society that operates on the principles of reciprocity for distributing resources. In theory, ban societies are more egalitarian. -Tribe is a tricky word because due to ethnocentrism, it has often been used to refer to indigenous cultures of any sort. For anthropologists, a tribe is a collection of bands with a leader who emerge informally due to their charism and personal skills. They can sometimes be "big men" (a concept often used when describing Melanesian cultures. These are individuals who know how to manipulate the potlatch so as to become powerful individuals in the community. -A chiefdom is a collection of villages under the control of a permanent chief who is usually born into the position. In this type of society, power is more "centralized" (located in the hands of a chief). Being a chief is often a full time job. -A state is yet a much more complex structure of power. According to Guest, a state is an autonomous regional structure of political, economic, and military rule with a central government authorized to make laws and use force to maintain order and defend territory.

Michel Foucault

-born Paul-Michel Foucault, 15 October 1926 - 25 June 1984) was a French philosopher, historian of ideas, social theorist, philologist and literary critic. -His theories addressed the relationship between power and knowledge, and how they are used as a form of social control through societal institutions. -Though often cited as a post-structuralist and postmodernist, Foucault rejected these labels, preferring to present his thought as a critical history of modernity. -His thought has been highly influential both for academic and for activist groups, such as within post-anarchism. -The History of Madness - The Birth of the Clinic and The Order of Things, which displayed his increasing involvement with structuralism, a theoretical movement in social anthropology from which he later distanced himself. -These first three histories exemplified a historiographical technique Foucault was developing called "archaeology". -more info on other quizlet set

Transgender

-denoting or relating to a person whose self-identity does not conform unambiguously to conventional notions of male or female gender. -Two-Spirit is a modern umbrella term used by some indigenous North Americans to describe gender-variant individuals in their communities. The term was adopted in 1990 at an Indigenous lesbian and gay international gathering to encourage the replacement of the anthropological term berdache. It is a spiritual role that is recognized and confirmed by the Two-Spirit's indigenous community.

What are the different types of marriage arrangements practiced by different cultures?

-exchanges are another aspect of marriage types, Bride wealth and dowry,

How has globalization impacted gender?

-globalization has affected gender is it has given rise to new and elaborated international sex markets. -So, I would say that a heighten commodification of women's bodies and the internationalization of sex markets are two major impacts of globalization on gender.

Leith Mullings

-is an author, anthropologist and professor. -She was president of the American Anthropological Association from 2011-2013 - a Distinguished Professor of Anthropology at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York -Mullings has been involved in organizing for progressive social justice, racial equality and economic justice as one of the founding members of the Black Radical Congress and in her role as President of the AAA. - Under her leadership, the American Anthropological Association took up the issue of academic labor rights. -Her research and writing have focused on structures of inequality and resistance to them. - Her research began in Africa and she has written about traditional medicine and religion in postcolonial Ghana, as well as about women's roles in Africa. -In the U.S. her work has centered on urban communities. -She was recognized for this work by the Society for the Anthropology of North America, which awarded her the Prize for Distinguished Achievement in the Critical Study of North America in 1997. - Mullings is currently working on an ethnohistory of the African Burial Ground in New York City.

How is globalization transforming culture?

-points out the presumed notion that globalization homogenizes culture. - It is true that there are some cultural forms that are now present in cultures all around the world—like Coke, McDonalds, blue jeans, Hollywood films, etc. So yes, culture is homogenized. -BUT, culture is also hetereogenizing in these intersections too, as McDonalds, for example, is not the same all over the world. I -n India, for example, beef hamburgers are not served because the cow is considered to be a sacred animal. -In Russian, vodka is also offered on the menus. -In Japan, there are rice dishes included on the menu as well. -So, globalization creates a new opportunity to redefine global cultural forms. -Another way of phrasing this is that globalization gives rise to more localization of global cultural forms.

Victor Turner

-was a British cultural anthropologist best known for his work on symbols, rituals and rites of passage. His work, along with that of Clifford Geertz and others, is often referred to as symbolic and interpretive anthropology. -Victor Turner & Edith Turner: The role of pilgrimages, liminality, communitals (sense of community and equality) created during the pilgrimage itself. -Victor Turner's thoughts on pilgrimages 1. Liminality 2. Communitas -Victor Turner studied... Symbols, communitas, pilgrimages -lifelong study of the Ndembu tribe of Zambia -Turner spent his career exploring rituals. As a professor at the University of Chicago, Turner began to apply his study of rituals and rites of passage to world religions and the lives of religious heroes.

Benjamin Whorf

-was an American linguist and fire prevention engineer -Whorf is widely known as an advocate for the idea that because of linguistic differences in grammar and usage, speakers of different languages conceptualize and experience the world differently. -This principle has frequently been called the "Sapir-Whorf hypothesis", after him and his mentor Edward Sapir, but Whorf called it the principle of linguistic relativity, because he saw the idea as having implications similar to Einstein's principle of physical relativity. -The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: suggests that different languages create different ways of thinking. -Based on evidence from Benjamin Whorf's research with the Hopi, a Native American group in the southwestern United States, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that: thought is rooted in language. -, Benjamin Whorf's linguistic research suggested that the Hopi people of Arizona have: a worldview where past and present represent lived reality and the future is hypothetical.

Herodotus

-was born in Halicarnassus a Greek city in southwest Asia Minor and lived in the 5th Century. - Herodotus was a Greek Historian from Ionia. -He is most notably known for his writing of The Histories. - was a writer who invented the field of study known today as `history'. - Greek historian. -The father of history. -Herodotus, later famous as a historian to the point of becoming known by his admirers as the 'father of history', was born in Halicarnassus (now Bodrum, Turkey) in about 484 BC. -Sometime around the year 425 B.C., the writer and geographer Herodotus published his magnum opus: a long account of the Greco-Persian Wars that he called The Histories. (The Greek word "historie" means "inquiry.")

Class and Inequality How does the study of baseball (♥) illuminate the structure of class in American society and the various conflicts that are inherent within that structure?

. Baseball clearly illustrates the unequal distribution of resources in American society. It also illustrates that there is some possibility to challenge the system. That said, the cleaners' challenge only resolved their own personal situation—not the entire system. As Guest points out later in the chapter, indeed, the U.S. has a clear pattern of class stratification that in broad strokes has remained the same since the 60s, but in a close look appears to be changing as that gap between "the haves" (people with the highest incomes and most wealth) and the "haves not" (people with lower incomes and amounts of wealth) has been getting wider since the 60s.

Of Interpretivism?

. Interpretive anthropology, initiated by Clifford Geertz (1926-2006) then becomes the new way of doing things, especially in American anthropology. Interpretive anthropology, as Guest defines it, focusses on seeing culture as a symbolic system in which every action conveys deep meanings. Geertz' famous example is to point out the difference between a wink and twitch of the eye. A wink or a scratchy contact lens?? A twitch is considered to be a "signal" -it doesn't convey cultural meaning, although it does convey that muscles are moving in the body. A wink, in contrast, is a "symbol." But what it symbolizes depends on the cultural context. In the context of a social situation where people are meeting each other to socialize and have fun, it could convey a notion of sexual interest. In the context of a business meeting, it could acknowledge insider knowledge or awareness of information, or approval.

Who were Sapir and Whorf and what contributions did they make to the study of language in culture?

. We began to explore the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis which asserts that there is link between language and culture—however, the nature of that link is controversial. Recall, Sapir theorized that language REFLECTS one's environment, as evidenced in focal vocabularies and the structures of grammar. Whorf theorized that language GUIDES behavior, as evidenced by miscommunications that occur and which have consequences.

Which of the four fields has Anth 152 emphasized?

1) Physical Anthropology, which is sometimes called biological anthropology, and is comprised of "paleoanthropology" (the study of the history of human evolution) and "primatology" the study of non-human primates as well as primate fossils to better understand human evolution and early human behavior. 2) Archeology, which is the study of the human past by means of excavating and analyzing material objects, or artefacts. This branch is our only source of information about human societies before writing began (around 5,500 years ago). We call this "prehistoric archaeology." Another brand of archaeology, "historic archaeology" explores the more recent past, and this branch uses written records as well as artifacts. 3) Linguistic anthropology focusses on human languages in the past and present. There are also several branches of study within this sub-field. Descriptive linguistics, for example, study languages and their various parts (the range of sounds, the range of rules, etc.). Historic linguists study how language changes over time within a culture and how languages travel across cultures. And, sociolinguistics examine how language is used in its social and cultural context. For example, it examines how and why women and men use language differently, and how interactions in formal settings are so vastly different in informal settings. 4) Cultural anthropology is the final branch and the focus of this course. This subfield focusses on the behaviors, beliefs, and institutions of contemporary people. It looks as how people make meaning as they live, work, and play together. The hallmark research technique for this subfield is "participant-observation." This research strategy inovles observing people and participating in their daily lives. By living along side people, anthropologists believe they can come to understand how meaning is created. Other techniques, such as questionaires and structured interviews can mask distort this meaning. Witnessing and experience this knowledge seems to best the best way to understand the "tacit cultural knowledge—the knowledge that people use but do not speak about, do not have labels for, and are sometimes not even aware that they are using this knowledge. Finally, ethnology is central to the anthropological perspective. Ethnology refers to the analysis and comprison of ethnographic data across cultures. At the heart of it, anthropology is a comparative discipline.

What is racism, individual and institutional racism?

1) individual racism—when individuals express prejudices, scapegoat, and lack respect for others; 2) institutional racism—when racial inequality is structured through key cultural institutions, policies, and systems.

How has globalization affected the state?

1. Globalization is making states more culturally heterogeneous due to increased flows of international migration, a primary feature of globalization. 2. Globalization is weakening states because supra-statal organizations increasingly have more power than states. For example, the World Bank and World Trade Organization seem to play a big role in the development of states more so than the governments of states that buy into World Bank loans and aid. 3. Globalization is strengthening the power of citizens within states. Some argue that civil society organizations (e.g., Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, Africa Watch, etc.) have a greater impact because with the Internet, rapid telecommunications and transportation they are able to mobilize people around the world more efficiently, thus citizens are able to voice and fight for their rights more forcefully.

How is globalization transforming anthropology?

1. Rapid change: As I mentioned above, it is now challenging to conduct participant-observation as cultural change happens so quickly, there is a lot to track. Everything is moving fast....and yet, this still hasn't diminished the value of participant-observation. It is just a little bit more difficult to undertake. 2. It now seems necessary to conduct participant-observation in multiple fieldsites. 3. Guest does not dive into the issue of the way that globalization has indirectly impacted the definition of culture. In the next chapter we'll talk more about this. But, consider your "folk" definition of the notion of culture. Up until recently, we conceived of culture as related to people who were located in a particular geographic location. Well, now that people move so rapidly and extensively around that world, we wonder if culture and space truly map onto themselves so neatly any more. As we increasinlgy recognize internal differences within cultural groups, we realize that cultures are not entirely reflective of the features and properties of their geographic space

Sexuality What is natural about sexuality?

For Guest, sexuality can be defined from at least two perspectives: 1) the full range of desires, beliefs, and behaviors that are related to erotic physical contact, intimacy, and pleasure; 2) the cultural arena with which people debate ideas of what kinds of physical desires and behaviors are morally right, appropriate, and "natural," and use those ideas to create unequal access to status, power, privileges, and resources. Sexuality, in short, is not fixed.

Of historical particularism?

A succeeding generation of anthropologists challenged the views of cultural evolutionism and developed their own brand of anthropology. This generation of scholars was led by Franz Boas (1858-1942). Boas was someone who felt strongly about conducting fieldwork in order to understand cultures. His experience of staying for long periods of time in the field, working especially with the Kwakiutl of the Pacific Northwest, informed his critique of cultural evolutionism and the development of his theory of culture: historical particularism. Boas asserted that cultures develop in specific ways as a result of particular geographic and historical circumstances, not according to their ability to pass through certain hierarchical stages. Boas also noted that similarities between cultures were probably due to "diffusion" the spread of and borrowing of cultural traits from other cultural groups.

Underdevelopment

A term associated with dependency theory and used to describe the condition of poverty and economic stagnation characteristic of many Third World societies. It implies that these societies are not simply suffering from lack of development, but also that they have not achieved the expected levels of development which would have occurred, had they not been exploited by the advanced capitalist states.

What is agency, and why is this concept relevant to understanding the state?

Agency, however, is a concept that also applies to the micro level and the actions people take within the context of the constraints and freedoms they experience.

What is the incest taboo and what is its function in society?

All cultures have some form of this, some set of rules that prohibit sexual relations with certain close relatives. In general, the rules forbid sexual relations within the nuclear family. However, some societies have permitted brother-sister marriages (e.g., ancient Egyptian royalty; the Inca of Peru). In other societies, cross-cousin (children of a mother's brother or father's sister) are preferred marriages. In the U.S., incest rules regarding marrying cousins vary from state to state. Some states permit first-cousins (between the children of two siblings), but not all states permit this. In U.S., it is illegal to marry a half-sibling, but this is not the case in other cultures. So, it is very interesting that while the incest taboo is universal, its form is not universal.

Why are anthropologists very interested in studying the processes of states instead of the structures of states?

All of these mundane acts constitute the processes through which the modern state creates itself in people's eyes as something that is fixed, coherent, and cohesive. Anthropologists have become very interested in studying these processes because, in fact, the state is not quite as fixed as it may seem. It's a work in progress that poses as something that fixed, stable, and has been around forever.

In what ways of Western people, presumably rational and scientific people, mystical and hold strong beliefs in magic?

Although magic has an ambiguous relationship with Western religion and science, it is rooted in the main institutional, social, and intellectual traditions in Western history. Moreover, modern attempts to arrive at a universal definition of magic reflect a Western bias. In particular, 18th- and 19th-century views on cultural and historical evolution set magic apart from religion and science. in Western popular culture to refer to acts of conjuring and sleight of hand for entertainment. The purpose of magic is to acquire knowledge, power, love, or wealth; to heal or ward off illness or danger; to guarantee productivity or success in an endeavour; to cause harm to an enemy; to reveal information; to induce spiritual transformation; to trick; or to entertain.

Informed Consent

An aspect of fieldwork ethics requiring that the researcher inform the participants of the intent, scope, and possible effects of the study and seek their consent.

What is neoliberalism?

An economic philosophy that argues for minimal government involvement in the economy and greatly accelerated economic growth. Well-being is best served by liberating individual entrepreneurs to operate in a framework of strong property rights, free markets, and free trade

Intersexual

An intersex person is born with sexual anatomy, reproductive organs, and/or chromosome patterns that do not fit the typical definition of male or female. This may be apparent at birth or become so later in life. An intersex person may identify as male or female or as neither.

How is ethnicity related to the nation?

For example, there are groups such as the "Hip Hop Nation," the "Nation of Islam," and "First Nations' People." These groups are not states but merely groups with which people identity and feel they are a member of. These groups are recognizable, too, because they have identifiable characteristics and practices.

Why are anthropologists so interested in the relationship between power and culture?

Anthropologists who are not satisfied by analyzing the symbols of culture for the sake of analyzing the symbols of culture are generally folks who are interested in questions related to power. Guest defines power as "the ability or potential to bring about change through action or influence." Questions about the relationship between power and culture have lead anthropologists in many directions. It has led anthropologists to confirm that cultures are not homogenous, and that within cultural groups there are various forms of stratification, or uneven distributions of resources. -So post-1960s, anthropologist became very interested in analyzing the various forms of stratification—stratification and power dynamics in households, peer groups, neighborhoods, religious communities, schools, within nation-states, and among countries around the globe.

Introduction: What is anthropology and what are its four fields?

Anthropology is the study of humankind and its four fields are biological anthropology, cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and archaeology

What is the theory of five sexes, and how do some societies account for more than two sexes?

Conceive of gender as based on only two categories of sex: male and female. Historically, our society has 1) insisted that gender is based on sex; 2) insisted that only 2 sexes existed. As a result, society forced people to identify themselves with a male or female category, regardless if they were "intersexuals" individuals who are born with a combination of male and female genitalia, gonads, and/or chromosomes. -Native American societies there is a "3rd gender" category that is often referred to as the "Two-Spirit." These individuals were also referred to as the "berdache," which is a French colonial label that had pejorative connotations to it in the 19th century.

How has the study of animals helped us to understand human sexuality?

In fact, as it turns out, human sexuality is unusual compared to sexuality in the animal kingdom. In short, it seems that humans have developed a sex life that is far outside the norm of the nature of other mammals.

How is culture created?

Culture is without a doubt invented by people. The reason this is important to understand is that some people believe that culture is "inherited," since we like to say that culture is 'passed down through the generations. However, culture is not inherited the way physical human traits are inherited (i.e., biologically), and is problematic to conceive of culture in this way. Once we start to assume that culture is "natural" because it is "inherited," we can easily begin to stereotype groups for possessing certain kinds of behaviors.

What is the relationship between sex and gender?

Despite the appearance that we live in a post-gender society (one where we accept the notion of gender equality), indeed, we have not achieved gender equality in our society, and no less, in the world. According to the United Nations, one of the reasons that inequalities persist is because poverty persists. 60% of the world's poorest people are women and girls; 2/3s of all children unable to attend school are girls; the chance of dying during pregnancy is 1 in 16 in Sub-Saharan African (versus 1 in 3,800 in a developed country). And women between 15-25 years of age being infected by HIV/AIDs 3x faster than men in the same age group. Less than 16% of the world's political leaders are women.....it is not hard to conclude from these statistics that females are disproportionately disadvantaged.

Why do people marry?

Different forms of marriage developed, some argue, due to different survival needs. For example, polygyny is said to have developed as a means for families to amass wealth and power -Again, while there are many different forms of marriage, exchanges are another universal aspect to the process of getting married. Exchanges, such as bridewealth and dowry are used to formalize and legalize relationships.

How do economic inequalities mark the globe?

Different life chances are afforded to people of different backgrounds, so prestige makes a difference in one's "class," and certainly, one can have a lot of prestige, but actually make less money than someone with little prestige. So, in essence, Weber helped broaden the notion of class to include social resources in addition to economic or material resources. For Weber, people of the same class share the same life chances and experiences as well as access to wealth.

Kinship, Family, and Marriage What are the set of tools that anthropologists use to study kinship in different cultures?

Early in the discipline, anthropologists created the system of symbols that we now use to chart the structures. Remember, the system of symbols and general labels used to map out relationships in a family, and to make these relationships understood regardless of the language one uses in one's own culture to describe the relationships are the "kin types." The words that are specific to kinship relationships within a particular culture are the "kin terms." See the chart below. Remember, in another culture, the kin terms for F,FB, MB, etc. would be different. In some societies, the word for F and FB are the same because the rights and responsibilities FBs are the same as Fs. -Anthropologists have their own ways of talking about cultural patterns. The "etic" refers to that which is the researcher's term for describing cultural patterns. The "emic" refers to that which is specific to a particular culture. Kin types are the etic, while kin terms are the emic.

What is a ritual and why is ritual important to understanding religion?

Equally important parts of the social institution of religion are rituals. Rituals are those formal, ceremonial activities centered on recognizing the sacred. When Christians receive Holy Communion, it isn't the same as eating a wafer of bread and drinking a glass of wine at home. They are treated as the sacred symbols of the body and blood of Jesus Christ and are the central ritual of Christianity. These rituals bind the members of various religious groups together.

What is ethnocentrism and relativism, and what kind of dilemmas do they produce for ethnographers?

Ethnocentrism is is problematic, and we sometimes like to think that adopting a relativistic point of view toward another culture puts on safe ground. And Relativism refers to the idea of understanding a group's beliefs and practices within their own cultural context and without making judgments. Too much cultural relativism can actually be a problematic as too much ethnocentrism. This is because it overlooks basic human rights, and it also overlooks the reality that within a culture there isn't agreement about acceptable cultural norms—some folks want to change their own culture's practices, for sure. So, it is almost patronizing to simply say, "well, as unusual and abhorrent xzy cultural practice is, it is their culture."

How is it used to create opportunity?

Ethnologists is the opposite of genocide and it helps create opportunities for ethnicitys.

What are the different types of exchanges involved in marriage?

Exchanges, such as bridewealth and dowry are used to formalize and legalize relationships.

How is ethnicity used to exclude groups from opportunities?

Genocide, the systemic elimination of people.

How has globalization shaped definitions of sexuality in diverse cultures around the world?

Globalization is creating a new threat to sexual minorities. As Western discourse grows, 'yan daudu are being forced into a box. Power is being consolidated as well as the international discourse of gay rights is unifying Muslim fundamentalists, Christian orthodox, and evangelical groups on the anti-gay side. Globalization is homogenizing varied expressions of human sexuality.

What was E.E. Evans-Pritchard's contribution to the study of magic and religion?

He argued that the religion of the Azande (witchcraft and oracles) can not be understood without the social context and its social function. Witchcraft and oracles played a great role in solving disputes among the Azande. -Apart from the Azande, Evans-Pritchard, also studied the neighbouring, but very different Nuer people.The Nuer had had an abstract monotheistic faith, somewhat similar to Christianity and Judaism, though it included lesser spirits. They had also totemism, but this was a minor aspect of their religion and hence a corrective to Durkheim's generalizations should be made. Evans-Pritchard did not propose a theory of religions, but only a theory of the Nuer religion.

What is hegemony and human agency and how do they relate to the concept of culture?

Hegemony is the ability of a dominant group to create consensus and agreement within a population without the use of threat or force. Human Agency is a capacity to contest and change norms, values, mental maps of reality, symbols, institutions, and structures of power. It helps relate to the concept of culture because culture changes, but sometimes these changes are slow going. -Anthropologists are very interested in the mechanisms that change culture as well as the magnitude of power that is involve in prompting changes.

How does this term come into play in Phillip Bourgois' article "Office Work and the Crack Alternative"?

His research became very influential among policy-makers in the U.S., and resulted in the writing of a very famous report called "the Moynihan Report," written by Danie Patrick Moynihan and submitted to President Lyndon Johnson. In this report, Moynihan argued that the Negro family had developed cultural patterns of hopelessness and dysfunctionality due to the experiences of Jim Crow and segregation laws. It led to the creation of an "underclass" that was characterized by individuals with a propensity for crime, welfare dependency, and more dysfunctional family life. In short, what started off as an important observation (that there may be patterns to the experience of living in poverty which mainstream society would benefit from knowing about) turned into pathologizing poor and black people in the U.S., and creating stereotypes and policies that would not address the real root of poverty.

How do different societies organize themselves to produce food and survive?

Hunters and Gatherers, Horticulteralists, Intensive Agriculture.

How is femininity and masculinity socially constructed?

It is important to think of gender as something that is performed, a ritual of sorts because this reminds us that gender is not biological. Indeed, as Guest points out, one can perform their masculinity or femininity differently in different social settings.

How is the perspective of anthropologist different than the perspective of other disciplines?

Its more Holistic and they take into consideration everything else. That is, culture is conceived as a holistic phenomenon, as some type of object that is made of various parts that are woven together such as an economic system that overlaps with a political system that overlaps with a religious system that overlaps with a kinship system, and so on and so on

How is sexuality performed, according to Donald Kulick in the article "No" and by Antioch college students who were concerned about sexual violence?

Kulick points out that this happens because in fact, men and women live in a society and within a grid of power whereby if a woman says "yes" to a sex act, she will be constructed as a loose and immoral. The possibility of being perceived this way hangs in the air and is so strongly felt that to protect their identities women feel they must say no, even when they mean yes.

How has the concept of culture developed over time?

Like anything else, ideas change with the times. Anthropologists' tools for research got refined as the world changed and people living in Western societies (where Anthropology originated) began to have new experiences. -When the concept of culture first came into existence it was called "unilineal cultural evolutionism." -There are a couple of problems with the concept of cultural evolution:Societies don't necessarily evolve in one direction. When environments change, some societies revert back to an earlier form of survival in the history of their development. It is ethnocentric to assume that cultures evolve into a cultural format that resembles Western society as the "pinnacle" form of development. Cultural Evolutionary theory was based on very little fieldwork. As you will soon come to know, the researchers in the early 1800s relied on travelers' notebooks, and reports from missionaries and colonial administrators to develop their understanding of culture.

Who are the Hijras?

a term used in South Asia - in particular, in India - to refer to trans women (male-to-female transsexual or transgender individuals). In other [which?] areas of India, transgender people are also known as Aravani, Aruvani or Jagappa.

what does the expression "nature vs nurture" refer to?

Nature means that your naturally born with this ability and nurture means that you learn this ability.

How do anthropologists conceive of gender?

Now, what I am explaining here is the sociobiological perspective on gender, which suggests that certain aspects of gender may in fact be innate and the result of processes of evolutionary adaptation. It is a biologically determined explanation for gendered behaviors. That said, Trivers and Pinker's writing are very controversial. Cultural constructionists argue that Trivers and Pinker view the nature of human reproduction through a gender-biased lens to begin with. Why do they, for example, conceive of human reproduction as an "investment" where males and females make contributions of differing value? Are women coy when mating because internally, their bodies want to protect their "investment"? Or, perhaps they are coy because they are often physically the smaller, weaker, and more vulnerable body in the mating process? notion that American society prefers to conceive of gender as based on only two categories of sex: male and female. Historically, our society has 1) insisted that gender is based on sex; 2) insisted that only 2 sexes existed. As a result, society forced people to identify themselves with a male or female category, regardless if they were "intersexuals" individuals who are born with a combination of male and female genitalia, gonads, and/or chromosomes.

Of British structural-functionalism?

One difference between British and American anthropologists at the time is that Americans felt that fieldwork should be "inductive" and somewhat exploratory. That is, they didn't always assume that they knew all of the different particular aspects of a culture before they arrived to their fieldsites and experienced it for themselves. They informed themselves as much as possible before going in to the field, but they largely assumed that they would discover the details of culture and describe them while they were in the field. They took a very exploratory, experimental approach to their research. British anthropologists preferred to conceive of culture as not quite the subject of an 'experiment," but as something that could be understand from a "deductive" approach. They assumed that culture was a type of living organism with various different "parts" (i.e., a kinship system, economic system, political system) which all worked together and maintained a certain level of equilibrium. They presumed that their job was to describe the parts—or "structures" and the way that they "function" (thus the name "structural functionalism" for their approach).

What are some of the universal features of language?

Phonology (and phoneme) Morphology (and morpheme) Syntax Semantics Grammar Kinesics Paralanguage

Race and Racism: How do anthropologists define race?

Race is not a biological truth. In general, humans are more biologically similar than different. A relatively small number of genes prompt the expression of physical features that we tend to assume signify a distinct "race" (e.g., skin color, hair type, facial features, etc.). The appearance of these features is called "phenotype"—the way genes are expressed in an organism's physical form as a result of genotype interactions with environmental factors.

What is racial ideology?

Racial ideology is a useful terms to be familiar with too. This is the set of popular beliefs about race that allows the discriminatory behaviors of individuals and institutions to seem reasonable, rational, and normal.

Refelxivity

Reflexive anthropology means foregrounding the researcher and admitting that anthropology (or any knowledge) can never be completely objective.

What is the difference between reciprocity, redistribution, and market exchange?

Rep: The transfer of goods and services between two people or group of equal status; meant to create and reinforce social ties. Power to unify, antagonize, subjugate people Red:A form of exchange in which accumulated wealth is collected from the member of the group and reallocated in a different pattern. Potlach taxes Market Exchange;A system that facilitates the buying and selling of goods Involves an exchange medium Money Salt, precious stones, shells, livestock, gold, digital transfers

What is a rites of passage, and how does a rites of passage transform individuals?

Rites of Passage is the ritual ceremonies intended to mark the transition from one phase of life to another. It transforms individuals by facilitating these life course transitions, rites of passage hold considerable emotional importance for both the individual and society. To take on a new social identity, the former must negotiate an often-arduous status passage. Furthermore, society must assist individual members in accomplishing these rites and, when these occasions are complete, recognize the new standing of the initiate.

Uneven development

This concept refers to the unequal distribution of the benefits of globalization. There's a lot to be said for this concept. Some people want to believe that globalization is "good," as it brings jobs to developing countries. Others say it is "bad" because not all developing countries receive the same amount of opportunity.

What is the difference between "sacred" and "profane" and why are these concepts important to the definition of religion?

Sacred means that things and actions set apart as religious or spiritual which are entitled to reverence -Durkheim would term these things profane - those routine aspects of our day-to-day existence. We cannot deny that we consider some things as sacred; however, those things we set apart as extraordinary, inspiring awe and reverence. Driving in our car on the way to church is profane. Reading our favorite romance novel would be considered profane. Reading the Bible is sacred for Christians in the same way that Jewish people believe the Torah to be sacred and Muslims pay tribute to the Qur'an. Religion, then, is a social institution involving beliefs and practices based on recognizing the sacred.

Stratification

So post-1960s, anthropologist became very interested in analyzing the various forms of stratification—stratification and power dynamics in households, peer groups, neighborhoods, religious communities, schools, within nation-states, and among countries around the globe. -

Constructivism

Social constructivism maintains that human development is socially situated and knowledge is constructed through interaction with others. It is a sociological theory of knowledge that applies the general philosophical constructivism into the social.

What is the difference between an egalitarian society and a ranked society?

Some people argue that egalitarian societies are a natural part of human culture. The first societies on the planet were egalitarian—based on sharing resources to ensure success with a relative absence of hierarchy. Societies such as the Ju/Hoansi of the Kalahari (also known as the !Kung or San people), the Inuit of Canada (formerly referred to as "Eskimo"), the Hadza of Tanzania, the Agta of the Philippines , procure food cooperatively, share resources, and have very little internal hierarchy. VERSUS egalitarian and ranked societies are societies where economic resources (food, shelter, land) are somewhat evenly distributed. In ranked societies, social resources start to become stratified through cultural mechanisms such as the potlach (if you are familiar with the cargo system or "mayordormia" of Mexico, this is a similar type of mechanism). Often egalitarian and ranked societies are discussed with a bit of romanticism because they seem so different from the capitalist system that characterizes the society that we live in. Capitalism, as we'll explore in a minute, necessitates stratification.

Clifford Geertz

Symbolic anthropologist; believed that anthropologists should describe the world from the "native's" point of view. -Religion induces certain behavior, moods, and dispositions. -All cultural systems provide a means of organizing and making sense of the world -Gives meaning to human lives. -believed that anthropologists are individual creators of narratives with their own voice, -believed that cultures and people should speak for themselves, -believed that anthropologists should learn to converse with and interpret people from other cultures; THICK DESCRIPTION should be used by anthropologists to interpret symbols. -definition of culture: take culture to be those webs and the analysis of it to be therefore not an experimental science in search of law but an interpretive one in search of meaning.

How does language shape our ways of thinking?

That said, it is hard to say just how much power language has to shape one's world view. Sapir and Whorf believed that language locked people into particular world views. We now feel that this is a somewhat over-exaggerated idea, mainly because it would not be possible to learn about other cultures if one was not able to transcend the rules and forms of one's native language.

Proletariat

The class of industrial wage earners who, possessing neither capital nor production means, must earn their living by selling their labor.

How is whiteness socially constructed in the United States?

The desire to favor native inhabitants over others helped to reinforce boundaries of whiteness (nativism). A pseudoscience called "eugenics" also attempted to use scientific methodologies to prove the separateness of races and the superiority of the white "race." And the racialization of groups (for example, giving a racial character to a group, like Middle Easterners who could pass as white), contributes to protecting whiteness in the U.S

Gender What is the difference between sex and gender?

The difference between Gender and sex is that one is more physical where the other is all mental.

How is race understood in Brazil and how is the case of race in Brazil similar and different from race in the United States?

The history of race in Brazil underscores this point. The system of racial classification, as we explored in class, is different from the system of classification in the U.S. And this has to do with the fact that when Brazil outlawed slavery, it had the biggest African population in the New World. It is fascinating to know that after Brazil's time as colony of Portugal (1500-1815), 40% of all Africans in the Atlantic slave trade were brought to Brazil to work on plantations and mines. It is also fascinating to realize that Brazil didn't outlaw slavery until 22 years after it had been outlawed in the U.S.

How did early trade and colonialism give rise to the global economy?

The pursuit of resources for economic growth (in the metropole) Social problems will be solved for natives if Europeans uplift the economy Natives will join civilization Colonies must emulate the metropole

What is the rule of hypodescent in the United States?

The rule of "one drop of blood," which results in labeling someone as black if they have even one black ancestor.

What is happening to the diversity of languages in the world as a result of globalization?

This gives us the idea that while globalization accelerates the homogenization of languages, it also has the potential to maintain the diversity of languages. That said, it is not always easy for minority communities to access the Internet or programs such as LiveAndTell. Thus, globalization creates the opportunity for diversity to be fostered, but whether or not resources are aligned with languages and communities that need protection is a different matter.

How did Karl Marx and Max Weber view religion?

The works of Karl Marx and Max Weber emphasized the relationship between religion and the economic or social structure of society. Contemporary debates have centered on issues such as secularization, civil religion, and the cohesiveness of religion in the context of globalization and multiculturalism. The contemporary sociology of religion may also encompass the sociology of irreligion (for instance, in the analysis of secular humanist belief systems).

What is cultural about human sexuality?

There are a great many forms of human sexuality, comprising a broad range of behaviors, and sexual expression varies across cultures and historical periods. Human sexual behavior is typically influenced, or heavily affected by, norms from the culture.

What is the difference between a state and a nation-state?

There is a difference between the terms nation, state, and country, even though the words are often used interchangeably. Country and State are synonymous terms that both apply to self-governing political entities. A nation, however, is a group of people who share the same culture but do not have sovereignty." State, Country, and Nation

What are ethnic boundary markers?

There is a long list of things that effectively mark an ethnic identity, such as food, dress, music, language, a common history, among other things. These things help to indicate the presence of a group and the criteria for membership.

How did the practice of fieldwork and ethnography change over time?

There was different styles of Fieldwork and Enthography like Salvage Ethnography then Arm chair Ethnography. The there was Bronislaw Malinoski who is considered to be anthropology's father of ethnographic fieldwork.

How did colonialism shape the practice of fieldwork?

This book points out that most ethnography forgets to situate culture in the context of a global perspective. Up until the time of the writing of this book, most ethnography is written as if the society were being examined is a bug in a jar. The books do not convey the sense that societies have connections to other societies, or have networks that extend the geographic regions in which they are situated. And this omission of information, by the way, contributes to the perspective that anthropological investigations are primarily made of small-scale societies (i.e., villages, and isolated communities).

what is informed consent?

This is a key strategy for protecting informants. It is considered to be the researcher's responsibility to inform his/her subjects of the risks involved in participating in the study.

How are kinship roles defined in different ways. For example, how is motherhood defined in Brazil and how is this definition different from the definition of motherhood in other cultures?

What I want you to understand from these charts is that anthropologists mapped out the widest range of kinship relationships and when put together, they felt that the principles of family could be understand by 6 categories. These categories provide models of general principles that are found in many other societies. So, for example, the Crow model is there to describe the structure and set of patterns that are common among matrilineal societies. There are many societies in the world that are matrilineal, such as many in the South Pacific and Native America. Since they bare some similarity to the Crow society (a Native American society), they are grouped into the Crow category of classification. The stereotypic American family, let say like the Simpsons (bear with me here), would be classified as "Eskimo," because they share similar patterns: Only members of the nuclear family are given distinct terms. Aunts and uncles are distinguished from parents but not by side of the family, and all cousins are lumped together.

Race

a biological subspecies, or variety, that consists of a more or less distinct population with anatomical traits that distinguish it clearly from other races. The human "races" commonly assumed to exist are mostly socio-cultural creations rather than biological realities. They are ethnic groups that are defined on the basis of both physical and cultural characteristics.

Ethnicity

a category or group of people considered to be significantly different from others in terms of cultural (dialect, religion, traditions, etc.) and sometimes physical characteristics (skin color, body shape, etc.). Commonly recognized American ethnic groups include American Indians, Jews, Latinos, Chinese, African Americans ("blacks"), European Americans ("whites"), etc.

State

a culture that has a formal political organization with a central bureaucracy with the authority to employ legalized force.

essentialism

a doctrine that certain traditional concepts, ideals, and skills are essential to society and should be taught methodically to all students, regardless of individual ability, need, etc.

Class

a group of people thought of as a unit because they are similar in terms of social and/or economic factors. In America, for instance, a class distinction is commonly made between "white collar" well paid office workers and lower paid "blue collar" factory workers and manual laborers. In state level societies of the past, the most important class distinction was between the ruling elite and the commoners. Bands, tribes, and early chiefdoms did not have classes, though individuals were often ranked relative to each other.

Development

a nation or society that is relatively wealthy and usually industrialized. Most of the people in developed nations have adequate access to food, electricity, fossil fuels, education, and medicine with the consequence that their lives are materially more comfortable and their life spans are significantly longer than those in underdeveloped nations. The United States, Canada, most of Europe, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand are developed nations.

reciprocity

a relationship between people that involves a mutual exchange of gifts of goods, services, or favors. Inherent in reciprocal gift giving is the obligation to return a gift in a culturally appropriate manner. Failure to do so is likely to end the reciprocal relationship. Reciprocity requires adequacy of response but not necessarily mathematical equality. Reciprocity is a common way of creating and continuing bonds between people

habitus

a set of acquired patterns of thought, behavior, and taste.

Religion What is religion?

a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices pertaining to supernatural power

Gender ideology

a set of cultural ideas usually stereotypical, about the essential character of different genders that functions to promote and justify gender stratification

What is hegemony, and why is the concept relevant to understanding states?

hegemony, which as Guest points out, is the ability of a dominant group to create consent and agreement within a population without the use of threat or force. It is relevant to the United States because the States reinforce hegemony by promoting intense feelings of nationalism and the perception of the state as a unified entity. Hegemony makes people police their own behavior.

How are gender ideologies challenged?

humans apply their cultural frameworks to make sense of nature—in this case, we see gender ideology creeping into the discourse about nature; meanwhile, nature doesn't have a personality, attitudes, or dispositions. Nature is not socially alive in this sense....however, we perceive it to have agentive powers akin to human being, and this is wrong;

How are gender stereotypes produced and reproduced?

if gender stereotypes pervade our understanding of nature, what are we doing when we look to nature to understand the differences between the sexes??? We are basically reproducing stereotypes....we are getting stuck in a feedback loop of sorts where nature informs culture, and culture informs nature. For this reason, these seemingly harmless ways of characterizing male and female contributions to human reproduction may actually have very large and significant implications for perpetuating stereotypes.

For example, how was culture defined within the framework of early evolutionism?

into existence it was called "unilineal cultural evolutionism." Early anthropologists felt that human cultures were also evolving and changing in response to the environments in which they were situated. They felt that Western cultures—highly industrial, technological, and in their view, socially progressive, reflected the most sophisticated forms of evolution. They considered these societies (indeed, their own societies), as representative of "civilization." Societies that were still hunting and gathering and using simple tools to do it, were "primitive" and "barbaric." They looked at the development of tools to primarily classify groups as representing different stages of evolutionary develop, and assumed that groups gradually changed from primitive/barbaric to complex/civilized societies. They assumed all societies followed this one line of development.

Nancy Scheper-Hughes

is a professor of Anthropology and director of the program in Medical Anthropology at the University of California at Berkeley - She is known for her writing on the anthropology of the body, hunger, illness, medicine, psychiatry, madness, social suffering, violence and genocide. -In 2009 her investigation of an international ring of organ sellers based in New York, New Jersey and Israel led to a number of arrests by the FBI. -was a study of madness among bachelor farmers, and won the Margaret Mead Award from the Society for Applied Anthropology in 1980. -She also discussed the challenges and ethics of ethnography, issues that are pushed to the fore as anthropologists increasingly work in communities that can read and critique their work. -She has worked as an activist and with social movements in Brazil (in defense of rural workers, against death squads, and for the rights of street children) in the United States (as a civil rights worker and as a Catholic Worker for the homeless mentally ill, against nuclear weapons research at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and internationally in defense of the rights of those who sell their kidneys.

Focal Vocabulary

is a set of words describing particular domains (foci) of experiences

Culture Poverty

is a social theory that expands on the cycle of poverty

neoliberalism

is as a particular set of ideas about economic policy. These ideas include the notions that markets are the best way of distributing goods and services across the economy, that markets work best when governments do not intervene in them, that the primary of function of governments is to protect private property rights, and that individuals interacting in markets constitute the only grounds for human freedom (Nonini 2008). A corollary to these ideas is that society, social forces, and social structures either do not exist, or are at best unimportant considerations in the design of political and economic policy.

Imagined Community

is different from an actual community in that it is not—and, for practical reasons, cannot be—based on everyday face-to-face interaction among its members. It is a concept coined by Benedict Anderson to analyze nationalism. Anderson believes that a nation is a socially constructed community, imagined by the people who perceive themselves as part of that group.

What is an imagined community?

is different from an actual community in that it is not—and, for practical reasons, cannot be—based on everyday face-to-face interaction among its members. It is a concept coined by Benedict Anderson to analyze nationalism. Anderson believes that a nation is a socially constructed community, imagined by the people who perceive themselves as part of that group.

How does an anthropological perspective of religion differ from a theological perspective?

is differentiated from theology and the many Eastern philosophical traditions by generally being written from a third party perspective. The scholar need not be a believer. Theology stands in contrast to the philosophy of religion and religious studies in that, generally, the scholar is first and foremost a believer employing both logic and scripture as evidence.

Who was Bronislaw Malinoski and what did he contribute to the practice of fieldwork?

is really considered to be anthropology's father of ethnographic fieldwork. Interestingly, he was stuck in the Trobriand Islands during World War I, and thus he dedicated himself to describing the culture in full detail. His book, Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922) is massive. One of the most famous parts of the book is the description of the "Kula Ring," which we'll talk more about later in the semester. But briefly ,this is a system of shell necklace and armband exchanges that involves inhabitants on all of the islands, and works itself out in a distinct clockwise and counterclockwise pattern. This and many other details about the Trobriand Islanders comprised the book that set the standards for ethnography and the use of participant-observation. (Malinowski)