ANTR 350 - Unit 1

Timing of Epiphyseal Union

"EHAKWS" Elbow Hip Ankle Knee Wrist Shoulder - The final epiphysis to close is the medial clavicle

In anatomy classes, anatomy research, and clinical practice:

"Leg" only refers to the area from the knee to the ankle "Thigh" is from the hip to the knee "Arm" refers only to the area from the shoulder to elbow "Forearm" is from elbow to wrist "Trunk" is the large central portion of the body - The limbs, head, and neck attach to the trunk - Includes the thoracic, abdominal, pelvic, and perineal regions of the body

The "Typical" Adult Human Skeleton

- 206 separate bones, some are paired (R&L copy), some are unpaired (usually in midline) - Axial Skeleton = 80 bones, the central axis of the body. Skull and associated bones, ribs, sternum, and vertebral column - Appendicular Skeleton = 126 bones (all paired). Pectoral girdle, upper limb, pelvic girdle, and lower limb

Composition of Bone Tissue

- 70% inorganic: hard, brittle calcium mineral salts, 98% of body's calcium. Accounts for 2/3 of bone weight - 30% organic: osteoid is a newly formed bone matrix prior to calcification, 90% is collagen, very flexible. Cells of Mature Bones - account for only 3% weight of bone tissue. Three types include: a) Osteocytes - mature bone cells; command centers. Old osteoblasts that became trapped in the osteoid b) Osteoblasts - build/deposit new bone by secreting osteoid c) Osteoclasts - destroy/resorb old bone

Paranasal Sinuses

- A paranasal sinus is a hollow space within the skull that is lined by a mucous membrane. - Bones that contain the sinuses: frontal, maxillae (paired), ethmoid, sphenoid

Ventral (Anterior) Body Cavity

- All subdivisions of the Ventral Cavity are lined by serous membranes 1) Thoracic Cavity: Found in the chest, bounded by the chest wall and inferiorly by the diaphragm a) Mediastinum: a connective tissue partition between the right and left pleural cavities, contains the esophagus, trachea, major blood vessels and nerves, heart and pericardium. The pericardial cavity surrounds the heart b) Right Pleural Cavity: surrounds right lung c) Left Pleural Cavity: surrounds left lung 2) Abdominopelvic Cavity: Contains the peritoneal sac and two cavities a) Abdominal Cavity: most of digestive tract, kidneys, and pancreas b) Pelvic Cavity: bladder, reproductive organs and rectum

Anatomical Position

- Body erect - Eyes forward - Upper limbs and hands to the side - Palms facing forward (supinated) - Fingers extended anteriorly and thumbs point to the side (most lateral) - Feet flat with toes pointed forward - Left vs right is always from your patient's perspective

Sesamoid Bones

- Bones that develop within a muscle tendon; generally variable in number - Examples: patella and misc. bone in wrist/feet

Short Bones

- Boxlike, shell of cortical bone surrounding spongy bone - Examples: wrist bones (carpals) and ankle bones (tarsals)

Irregular Bones

- Complex, irregularly shaped bones with combined characteristics of other bone types - Examples: vertebrae and facial bones

Bone Remodeling

- Continous process of "turning over bone" through lifetime - Osteon (a.k.a. Haversian systems) are the functional unit of bone, microscopic - Resorption - osteoclasts destroy old bone - Deposition - osteoblasts make new bone - Remodeling maintains structural integrity - Influenced by hormones and physical activity -Average osteon has a life span of 15 years -BMU's (basic multicellular units) result in Haversian systems, bone remodels on a regular basis. Haversian systems (a.k.a. osteons) are the end result of bone remodeling. Older bone is resorbed in particular areas, and new bone fills in these areas

Wormian or Sutural Bones

- Islands of bone that develop within cranial sutures - variable

Long Bones

- Longer than they are wide, tubular, all limb bones are long bones. -Diaphysis (shaft) - mainly compact bone -Metaphysis - flared region that grows as we get older - Epiphysis - proximal and distal ends; contains spongy bone in adults. -physis = growth; epiphyseal plate - Periosteum - outer covering of bone cortex. 2 layers, fibrous for support and cellular for growth (osteoblasts) - Endosteum - inner lining of hollow bones, cellular function (osteoclasts) - Medullary cavity (marrow cavity) - hollow center of long bones. a) Red marrow b) Yellow marrow - Nutrient foramen - openings in the cortex for blood vessels

Growth and Development of Skeletal System

- Osteogenesis: production of new bone - Calcification: process of deposition and hardening of calcium salts in bone and teeth - Ossification: the replacement of cartilage or mesenchymal (embryonic) tissue with bone. This is the growth and development of the skeleton. Two general types of ossification are: Intramembranous ossification and Endochondral ossification

Dorsal (Posterior) Body Cavity

- Protects the central nervous system 1) Cranial Cavity: Contains brain, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 2) Spinal Cavity: Contains spinal cord, meninges, and CSF

Flat Bones

- Spongy bone sandwiched between two layers of cortical bone - Examples: skull bones, ribs, sternum

Sternal Angle (of Louis)

- The sternal angle is the location of aortic arch and trachea bifurcation - The sternal angle is an important palpable clinical landmark (ridge). It is the location of the manubriosternal joint (joint connecting the manubrium and the body of the sternum), and location of anterior attachment of rib #2. - Location of rib #2 is an important landmark for listening to heart valves

The Thoracic Cage

- The thoracic cage is composed of T1-T12 vertebrae, 24 ribs (12 pairs) and the sternum - Functions: a) Protect thoracic and some abdominal viscera b) Aid in respiration by movements of ribs c) Provide attachment of the pectoral girdle of the upper limb - clavicle attaches to sternum d) Provide surface area for muscle attachment - Respiration, back, abdominal, and limb muscles

Basic Human Synovial Joint Motions

1) Abduction vs Adduction - Moving away from midline vs adding it back to midline - Angular motion 2) Flexion vs Extension - Reduces joint angle vs increasing joint angle - Angular motion 3) Circumduction - Moving body in large circular loop; cone in space. Arm and leg circles - Angular motion 4) Rotation, Pronation, Supination - Shaking no, palm backwards, palm forward - Rotational movement 5) Plantarflexion vs Dorsiflexion - On tip toes (heel off floor) vs heel on floor with toes up 6) Inversion vs Eversion - Sole of foot turning inward (held by little toes) vs sole of foot turning outward (held by big toe) 7) Elevation vs Depression - Shrugging shoulders vs sagging shoulders 8) Protraction vs Retraction - Moving head anteriorly (forward) vs posteriorly (double chin) 9) Opposition - Touching tip of thumb to tip of pinky

Skeletal Muscle Actions

1) Agonist (a.k.a. prime mover): the primary muscle whose contraction produces a specific allowable motion at a joint, e.g., contracted biceps 2) Synergist ("helper muscles"): helper muscles to agonists. Fixators stabilize a joint while agonist is active 3) Antagonist: the muscle would produce the opposing motion of the agonist. This muscle is passively stretching while agonist is actively contracting, e.g., triceps relaxed

Bone Fractures

1) Bleeding then fracture hematoma (big pooling of blood) forms, lots of swelling 2) A fibrocartilaginous (soft) callus forms 3) A hard (bony) callus forms from fibrocartilage 4) The bone is remodeled; callus swelling eventually disappears and starts to look like the rest of the bone around it

Anatomy of a "Typical" Vertebra

1) Body (anterior) - Block of bone, for weight-bearing; therefore, they increase in size from superior to inferior 2) Neural (vertebral) arch (posterior) - R/L pedicle - "little foot"; attaches to body - R/L lamina - "thin layer"; R&L fuse at midline 3) Processes (projections) - There are 7 bony processes that project from the neural arch of a typical vertebra a) Spinous process (1) - projects posteriorly from midline (where the R&L laminae fuse) b) Transverse process (2) - project laterally from the junction of the pedicle and lamina c) Superior articulating process (SAP) and facet (2) - The SAP's project superiorly from the junction of the lamina and pedicle d) Inferior articulating process (IAP) and facet (2) - The IAP's project inferiorly from the junction of the lamina and pedicle 4) Vertebral foramen - Each vertebra has one in the center. When multiple vertebrae are stacked together, their vertebral foramina form the vertebral canal 5) Vertebral canal - The sum total of all foramina from all vertebra - Vertebral canal contents: spinal cord, spinal meninges (CT coverings), and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 6) Intervertebral foramen - Located between adjacent vertebrae. Formed by superior vertebral notch and inferior vertebral notch. Allows the passage of spinal nerves

Components of the Skeletal System

1) Bones - composed of all four primary tissue types, thus an organ 2) Cartilage - located between bones at joints 3) Ligaments - connects bones 4) Nerves and vessels - nourish and maintain bone tissue

Bone Surface Features

1) Bony projections/processes (bumps) - Function: attachment sites for tendons and ligaments - Categories include: a) Trochanter - large, rough projection b) Tuberosity - smaller, rough projection c) Tubercle - small, rounded projection d) Spine - pointed projection e) Line - low ridge f) Crest - prominent ridge 2) Bone openings and depressions - Openings allow the passage of vessels and nerves - Depressions house/protect a structure like the pituitary gland, and allows a full range of motion at a joint like the olecranon fossa of the elbow - Categories include: a) Foramen (pl. foramina) - a hole which transmits vessels or nerves b) Fossa (pl. fossae) - a shallow, rounded depression where something sits or projects into c) Groove/sulcus - a long, narrow depression d) Canal - a longer enclosed passageway through a bone which transmits vessels or nerves e) Alveolus - the socket into which a tooth fits (found only in the maxilla and mandible) 3) Articular features (where a joint is at) - These features are associated with joints - Categories include: a) Facet - a small, flat articular surface; where two or more bones touch b) Condyle - a smooth, rounded articular process; at the ends of some of the long bones c) Head - expanded articular region of a bone; for example the femur and humerus d) Neck - a constricted region that separates the head from the major portion of the bone

Naming Skeletal Muscles

1) By location: body regions. Brachialis, biceps brachii, external abdominal oblique, rectus femoris 2) By function: flexor carpi radialis, aductor magnus, supinator 3) By shape: deltoid (triangle), pronator teres (round), pronator quadratus (rectangle), trapezius (trapezoid) 4) By number of heads (-cep = head): biceps (two heads), triceps (three heads), quadriceps (four heads) 5) By fiber direction: rectus abdominus (rectus = straight), internal abdominal oblique (oblique = at an angle) 6) By attachment points: sterno cleido mastoid, brachio radialis, ilio costalis 7) By size: gluteus maximus (biggest), adductor brevis (brevis = short)

Atypical Cervical Vertebrae

1) C1 (atlas) - The atlas is ring-shaped, and does not have a body or a spinous process. The atlas articulates with the occipital condyles of the skull forming the atlanto-occipital joint - "yes" movement 2) C2 (axis) - The dens (odontoid process) of the axis projects superiorly, and articulates with the anterior arch of C1. Dens acts like the body for C1 - The axis forms the median atlanto-axial joint, for the "no" movement - The spinous process of C2 is very large and is palpable in the median furrow of the neck 3) C7 (vertebral prominens) - C7 has the longest spinous process of all the cervical vertebrae and closely resembles T1 in size and shape, with one exception: The SP of C7 can be seen and felt (palpated) as a prominent bump at the base of the neck-midline

Vertebral Column Regions

1) Cervical (neck) - 7 vertebrae (C1, C2, C3-C7) 2) Thoracic (rib cage) - 12 vertebrae (T1-T12) 3) Lumbar (lower back) - 5 vertebrae (L1-L5) 4) Sacral - 1 sacrum with 5 fused vertebrae (S1-S5) 6) Coccygeal (tailbone) - 1 coccyx with 4 fused vertebrae (Co1-Co5)

Joints of the Thoracic Cage

1) Costovertebral joints - located between the head of a rib and a vertebral body - Ribs 2-9 articulate with 2 vertebral bodies - Gliding-type joints (synovial) 2) Costotransverse joints - located between the tubercle of a rib and the transverse process of a thoracic vertebra - Gliding-type joints (synovial) - Floating ribs (11 & 12) do not have costotransverse joints 3) Sternocostal joint - located between the sternal end of the costal cartilage and the sternum - The first (rib #1) sternocostal joint is a synchondrosis; the rest (rib #2-#7) are synovial, gliding-type joints. 4) Manubriosternal joint - located between the manubrium and body of the sternum at the sternal angle - In adults, this is a symphysis joint. Allows hinge-like movements that are important in respiration, during inspiration and expiration 5) Costochondral junction - located where each rib (1-10) attaches to its costal cartilage - This is a primary (hyaline) cartilaginous joint with no allowed movement (synarthrosis) - We have costal cartilages rather than solid bone all the way to the sternum because of flexibility. If it was all bone, we couldn't breathe. It allows for movement for respiration

Functions of the Skull

1) Encasement & Protection - Brain - Beginning of respiratory and digestive tracts - Contains the special sense organs for taste, smell, hearing, balance, and vision 2) Provides surface area for muscle attachments 3) Allows passage of blood vessels/nerves in and out of skull - Cranial nerves

Skeletal Muscle Anatomy

1) Endomysium: surrounds each skeletal muscle fiber (cell), endo=inside and is smallest 2) Perimysium: surrounds a group of skeletal muscle cells (fibers), peri=around. A fascicle is a group of skeletal muscle fibers which will be covered by perimysium 3) Epimysium: deep investing fascia; surround entire skeletal muscle 4) Tendon: connects muscles to bones. All three of the previous CT converge to form a tendon 5) Aponeurosis: a thin, sheet-like tendon that attaches a skeletal muscle to another skeletal muscle 6) Muscle belly: fleshy part of the skeletal muscle, part that pops out of your arm

Endochondral Growth

1) Fetal hyaline cartilage model developed (8-12 weeks in utero) 2) Cartilage model calcifies forming a bone collar around diaphysis of bone - outer layer of cartilage is invaded by osteoblasts and becomes periosteum - cartilage cells become larger and lose their nutrients and die, creating a space inside the model which becomes hollow 3) Primary ossification center forms in diaphysis - capillaries and osteoblasts form a periosteal bud that extends into the cartilage shaft - calcified cartilage acts as a template for new bone cells - starts at center of diaphysis and moves out in both directions 4) Secondary ossification centers appear - hyaline cartilage in epiphysis calcifies, replaced with bone cells - in the diaphysis, the medullary cavity forms and compact bone develops 5) Bone replaces most of the cartilage - cartilage is present at articular surfaces and epiphyseal plates to allow for growth 6) Fusion of primary and secondary centers, growth in length stops - most epiphyseal plates fuse between 10-25 years - once fusion occurs there is no more growth in length!

Anatomical Features of a Typical Rib

1) Head - articulates with thoracic vertebral body 2) Neck - between head and shaft 3) Tubercle and facet - articulates with the transverse process of thoracic vertebrae 4) Body (shaft) - curved, flat portion, distal to the tubercle 5) Costal groove - a groove along the inferior border of a rib, on the internal surface. This shelters and protects the intercostal vein, artery, and nerve 6) Angle - where the rib changes direction and begins to curve anteriorly and angle downward

Abdominal Wall Muscles

1) Linea Alba - a band of connective tissue that runs along the midline of the anterior abdominal wall extending from the xiphoid process to the pubic symphysis - EAO, IAO, and TA all attach to the linea alba via their aponeuroses

Basic Types of Joint Movements

1) Linear motion - gliding/sliding, rolling. ex: joints in spine - Plane (gliding) joints in flat articular surface 2) Angular motion - bending at a joint, circumduction in elbow and knee - Hinge joints 3) Rotational motion - spinning, ex. shaking head "no" - Pivot joints

Splenius Muscles

1) Location: back neck - superficial layer 2) Actions: a) Bilateral contraction extends head and neck b) Unilateral contraction produces same side rotation and same side flexion of the head

Sternocleidomastoid (SCM)

1) Location: neck, superficial to large vessels/nerves of neck 2) Actions: a) Bilateral contraction flexes the neck and head b) Unilateral contraction produces contralateral rotation to the opposite side c) Unilateral contration also produces ipsilateral flexion (bending) to the same side d) Also an accessory muscle of respiration

Functions of Skeletal Muscle

1) Motion: via skeletal muscle shortening (contraction-when muscle is active), move skeleton and produces movement at joints 2) Support: maintain posture, balance, and support soft tissue and abdominal visceral organs 3) Thermoregulation: produce heat via shivering when body is cold; a by-product of muscle contraction 4) Glucose homeostasis: uptake and storage of glucose, but cannot release glucose into bloodstream between meals like liver can do

Centers of Ossification

1) Primary centers - First part of the bone to ossify - Located in the middle of shaft 2) Secondary centers - Develop after birth anywhere from 2 months to 18 years - These secondary centers are the "epiphyses" - Most bones have multiple secondary centers

Anterolateral Abdominal Wall Muscles

1) Rectus Abdominus - anterior; midline; "6 pack". Helps to compress abdomen. Contributes to bilaterally flexing trunk. Covered by the rectus sheath (a fibrous sheath) formed from the aponeuroses of the three lateral muscles (EAO, IAO, TA) 2) External Abdominal Oblique - superficial layer, "hands in pockets" fiber direction. Helps to bilaterally flex trunk. Helps unilaterally to rotate trunk to opposite side, and lateral flexion to same side 3) Internal Abdominal Oblique - middle layer, up and in fiber direction. IAO helps to bilaterally flex trunk and unilaterally rotate trunk to opposite side and same side lateral flexion 4) Transversus Abdominis - deepest layer, fibers run horizontal.

Properties of Bone

1) Strong - difficult to break, but also lightweight a) Poor tensile strength: tolerates some stretching and some twisting; from collagen b) High compressive strength: withstands compression but NOT stretching and twisting; from mineral salts 2) Rigid - resists compression (bending) but not stretching/twisting 3) Highly vascular - good blood supply 4) Impermeable - substances do not diffuse through bone tissue; must travel through vascular channels

Functions of the Skeletal System

1) Support and movement - contracts 2) Encasement and protection - of organs; heart, lungs, brain, eyes, sense of taste, skull, vertebral column, rib cage, pelvis 3) Hemopoiesis - production of blood cells in bone marrow, typically red bone marrow 4) Lipid storage in bone marrow - fat storage, yellow bone marrow 5) Mineral balance and storage - balance levels of calcium by hormone action and physical activity a) Calcitonin hormone released from thyroid gland - production of new bone b) PTH hormone released from parathyroid glands - destruction of bone 6) Two main types of bone tissue a) Cortical bone - composed of compact bone or Haversian bone. Relatively dense, forms the outer layer of all bones. Arranged in concentric layers within Haversian systems b) Spongy bone (trabecular bone) - very porous, found inside bones, on the ends of long bones. Arranged in a lattice-like system. Affected by osteoporosis. Contains red bone marrow

Planes Creating 9 Abdominopelvic Regions

1. Left and Right Midclavicular Planes: Parasaggital planes that pass through the middle point of the clavicles (collar bones) 2. Subcostal Plane: Horizontal plane that passes through the inferior margin of the 10th rib. "Costal" = rib 3. Supracristal Plane (SCP): Horizontal plane that passes through the iliac crest

Spacial Orientation

1. Medial vs Lateral 2. Proximal vs Distal 3. Anterior (ventral) vs Posterior (dorsal) 4. Superior (cranial) vs Inferior (caudal) 5. Median (midline - divides body into equal L & R halves) 6. Central vs Peripheral 7. Orad (direction toward mouth) vs Aborad (direction away from mouth) 8. Superficial vs Deep

Types of Muscle Tissue

1. Skeletal 2. Cardiac 3. Smooth

Eye Orbit Bones

7 bones make up the eye orbit - Frontal - Sphenoid - Zygomatic - Maxilla - Lacrimal - Ethmoid - Palatine

Ligaments

A ligament is a synovial joint that connects bones to bones. Function is to limit or restrict movement and stabilize the joint - Extrinsic ligaments (a.k.a. accessory ligaments) - ligaments that are separate from and outside the joint capsule - Intrinsic ligaments (a.k.a. capsular ligaments) - localized thickenings of the fibrous joint capsule, they blend into the capsule

ALL Synovial Joints have:

ALL synovial joints have three things in common. 1) Joint capsule composed of two layers: a) Fibrous capsule - outer portion made of dense CT, connects the opposing bones together, extensively innervated with sensory nerves (pain, stretch, and proprioception), and innervated by the same nerves that supply the muscles that move the joint b) Synovial membrane - lines the inside of the fibrous capsule, and secretes synovial fluid - very watery fluid for lubrication of joint space (decrease in friction), nourishment of cartilage cells (chondrocytes), and shock absorption during movement 2) Joint (synovial) cavity - The space contained within the joint capsule. In order for a joint to be freely moveable, there must be a gap between the opposing bones. The joint cavity contains synovial fluid 3) Articular cartilage - Layer of articular cartilage that covers the ends of the articulating bones, similar to hyaline cartilage. It prevents the articulating bones from rubbing against each other, which would be very painful

In anatomical position, the sternum is _____ to the vertebrae.

Anterior

Clinical Correlate: Microscopic Age Determination

As age increases, so does the number of osteons/Haversian systems. It can be used by physical anthropologists to age skeletal remains. Also used to ID bone as human or nonhuman

Clinical Correlate: Osteopenia & Osteoporosis

Bone density decreases with age after 35 years old. Normal bone density is within 1 S.D. of mean bone mineral density of a 25 year old female 1) Osteopenia - normal age-related decrease in bone density (between 1 and 2.5 S.D. lower than mean) 2) Osteoporosis - pathological decrease in bone density. - 3 factors contribute to osteoporosis: Genetics, insufficient dietary intake of calcium and Vitamin D, insufficient weight-bearing physical activity (walking, resistance training, but NOT swimming) - Can predispose a patient to hip fractures, and wedge fractures of vertebra (leading to abnormal thoracic curvature "hunchback") - Medical treatments involve two strategies: slowing the rate of bone loss and attempting to stimulate new bone growth

Clinical Correlate: Bursitis

Bursa (bursae pl.) - Fluid-filled synovial sacs - Functions: protects structures from excessive friction. Found where tendons glide over a bone or between skin and bone - Bursitis is an inflammation of the bursa, which causes joint pain.

Joints can be classified in two different ways. What are they?

By Function = amount of movement allowed By Structure = what type of connective tissue holds the joint together

Carotid Canal

Carotid canal transmits the internal carotid artery, located in the temporal bone

Body Regions - Anterior

Cephalic - Head Frontal - Forehead Orbital - Eye Nasal - Nose Buccal - Cheek Oral - Mouth Mental - Chin Facies - Face Cervical - Neck Deltoid - Shoulder Sternal - Sternum Pectoral - Chest Axillary - Armpit Brachial - Arm Antecubital - Front of elbow Abdominal - Abdomen Umbilicus - Navel Antebrachial - Forearm Pelvic - Pelvis Coxal - Hip Inguinal - Groin Carpal - Wrist Pubic - Anterior pelvis Palmar - Palm Digital - Finger or toe Pollex - Thumb Femoral - Thigh Patellar - Kneecap Crural - Leg Tarsal - Ankle Pes - Foot Dorsum of the foot - Posterior surface of foot Hallux - Big toe Phalangeal - Fingers or toes

Cervical Vertebrae Characteristics

Cervical vertebrae (7) - Neck - Bodies are small and cup-shaped - They have relatively large vertebral foramen in proportion to their size - C2 thru C6 have a short, bifid (split) spinous process - Transverse processes have openings called transverse foramina that allow passage of the vertebral artery that supplies the brain - The SAPs and IAPs, when articulated, form a column of bone on each side of the body and allow for flexion/extension (these processes are oriented horizontally)

Coccygeal Vertebrae Characteristics

Coccygeal vertebrae (4 or 5 fused) - Tailbone - The coccyx is formed by 4 or 5 fused coccygeal vertebrae

Transversospinalis Muscles

Consists of 3 layers of muscle - deepest layer 1) Semispinalis - most superficial, span 4-6 vertebrae 2) Multifidus - span 2-4 vertebrae 3) Rotatores - deepest, span 1-2 vertebrae Actions: a) Stabilization of vertebral column b) Bilateral contraction - extension of head, neck and thorax c) Unilateral contraction - localized contralateral rotation to opposite side

Erector Spinae Muscles

Consists of 3 vertical columns of muscle - intermediate layer From lateral to medial "I Love Spaghetti" 1) Spinalis - most medial 2) Longissimus - intermediate location 3) Iliocostalis - most lateral Actions: a) Bilateral contraction - primary "extensors" of the vertebral column. They extend the VC. Can straighten a flexed VC and bend it posteriorly (extension). Important postural muscles - they help maintain an erect posture b) Unilateral contraction - lateral flexion (bending) the head and/or VC to the same side

Body Regions - Posterior

Cranium - Skull Occipital - Back of head Auricular - Ear Deltoid - Shoulder Thoracic - Upper trunk Vertebral - Spinal column Brachial - Arm Abdominal - Abdomen Olecranal - Elbow Lumbar - Lower back Sacral - Middle of buttock Antebrachial - Forearm Gluteal - Buttock Dorsum of hand - Posterior surface of hand Manus - Hand Femoral - Thigh Popliteal - Back of knee Sural - Calf Calcaneal - Heel of foot Plantar - Sole of foot

In anatomical position, the hand is ____ to the elbow.

Distal

Spinal Cord

Each vertebrae has one vertebral foramen in the center. When multiple vertebrae are stacked together, their vertebral foramina form the vertebral canal. The vertebral canal contains the spinal cord, spinal meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid

Endochondral Ossification

Endochondral ossification - replace the cartilage with bone. Formation of bone within a cartilage model. Mesenchymal cells form a cartilaginous model and ossifies as bone replaces cartilage. Most bones of the body are formed by this process, especially long bones

Primary Tissue Types

Every muscle in the body is an organ and has all 4 primary tissue types - Epithelial - Connective - Muscular - Neural

Sex Determination from Skull

Female 1) General size: gracile 2) Nuchal lines and external occipital protuberance: less pronounced 3) Mastoid process: small 4) Supraorbital margin: sharp ridge, thin 5) Superciliary arches: smooth 6) Mental protuberance: more narrow Male 1) General size: robost 2) Nuchal lines and external occipital protuberance: more pronounced 3) Mastoid process: large 4) Supraorbital margin: thick, rounded, blunt border 5) Superciliary arches: large, rigid bump 6) Mental protuberance: more prominent, square jaw

Anatomical Planes: Frontal Plane

Frontal Plane (Coronal Plane) - Any plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior portions - Usually used in the context of discussing the cephalic region - Always parallel to the long axis of the body - Does not result in symmetrical portions

Classification of Joints: Functional

Functional - based on degree of mobility. How much movement is allowed 1) Synarthrosis (=synarthrodial joint) - No mobility, very stable and strong. Bones are held close to one another. Space filled by cartilage or fibrous connective tissue. Examples: cranial sutures; joint between epiphysis and diaphysis of a growing bone 2) Amphiarthrosis (=amphiarthrodial joint) - Limited mobility. Examples: pubic symphysis and intervertebral disc joints 3) Diarthrosis (=diarthrodial joint) a.k.a. Synovial joints - Highly mobile. Example: all major joints - shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee, and ankle

Anatomical Planes: Horizontal Plane

Horizontal Plane - Any plane that divides the body into superior and inferior portions - This plane is always parallel to the "horizon" - A transverse (cross-sectional) plane is often the same as a horizontal plane. However, a transverse always cuts perpendicular to the long axis of the body or sub-volume of the body - A transverse section of the hand is contained within a horizontal plane, whereas a transverse section of the foot is contained within a frontal plane

Spinal Nerves

Intervertebral foramen located between adjacent vertebrae, formed by the superior vertebral notch and inferior vertebral notch, allow the passage of spinal nerves

Intramembranous Ossification

Intramembranous ossification - replace the mesenchyme, more direct. Highly vascular membrane, spongy bone formed in membrane. Over time, compact bone forms on outer surface while spongy bone develops in the middle. Examples include flat bones of the skull.

Clinical Correlate: X-Ray

It is essential to know the age of an individual when interpreting X-rays, so that a line of fusion is not misinterpreted as a fracture or vice versa

In anatomical position, the thumb is _____ to the little finger.

Lateral

TRUNK Body Wall Layers

Listed SUPERFICIAL to DEEP 1) Skin (a.k.a. cutaneous membrane = epidermis + dermis) 2) Superficial Fascia (a.k.a. hypodermis or subcutaneous tissue) 3) Deep Investing Fascia (surrounds each skeletal muscle) 4) Internal Fascia (a.k.a. subserosa fascia) 5) Parietal Layer of Serous Membrane a) Pericardium b) Pleura c) Peritoneum

Lumbar Vertebrae Characteristics

Lumbar vertebrae (5) - Lower back - Lumbar vertebrae have very large, kidney bean shaped bodies - Broad and blunt spinous processes which point posteriorly - Short transverse processes which point laterally - The facets of the SAP and IAP are curved and lie in the sagittal plane, meaning that they face medial-lateral and allow for flexion and extension - Resembles a "moose" from a lateral view

Anatomical Planes: Oblique Plane

Oblique Plane - Any plane that is not parallel to any standard anatomical plane

Clinical Correlate: Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (a.k.a. degenerative joint disease, o.a.) - Degeneration of the articular cartilage with bony overgrowth around periphery of the joint, and eventual erosion of subchondral bone. - Most common form of arthritis. Has a multifactorial etiology, a component of which appears to be cumulative mechanical wear and tear, occupational stress. - Common sites: 1st carpometacarpal joint in hand (thumb) and in joints that support the body weight such as hips and knees. Also big toes and synovial joints in spine.

Clinical Correlate: Pterion

Pterion - An H-shaped sutural region located on the lateral-anterior skull (temple), where the temporal, sphenoid, parietal, and frontal bones come together - Thinnest region of neurocranium - Marks location of middle meningeal artery inside skull - A blow to this area can tear an artery, epidural hematoma, brain compression, and ultimately loss of brain function

Clinical Correlate: Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid Arthritis - A chronic, autoimmune, systemic, inflammatory disorder that attacks synovial membranes - Highest incidence is in women age 20-50 years - Primarily affects all of the small joints of the hands and feet, not the weight-bearing joints like osteoarthritis

Ribs

Ribs - 12 pairs (24 total) - All ribs have a posterior attachment to thoracic vertebrae - True ribs (1-7) attach to the sternum (anterior) by individual costal cartilages - False ribs (8-10) attach to the costal cartilage of a superior rib - Floating ribs (11 & 12) have no anterior attachment

Sacral Vertebrae Characteristics

Sacral vertebrae (5 fused) - Sacrum - The sacrum is a large, triangular-shaped bone consisting of 5 fused sacral vertebrae - The sacrum articulates with the ilium of the hip bones (part of the lower appendicular skeleton) at the sacroiliac (SI) joint

Anatomical Planes: Sagittal Plane

Sagittal Plane - Any plane that divides the whole body into left and right portions. - Always parallel to long axis of body - The median (midsagittal) plane is the single sagittal plane that divides the body into EQUAL left and right halves - A parasagittal plane is any non-midsagittal plane that divides the body into UNEQUAL left and right halves

Clinical Correlate: Sinusitis

Sinusitis & tooth pain - Maxillary sinus contains upper molar roots

How many bone types are there?

Six types

Classification of Joints: Structural

Structural - based on how the bones are held together 1) Fibrous joint - Bones are held together by fibrous connective tissue. Mostly synarthrodial (no movement). Examples: cranial sutures between bones of the skull. Syndesmoses which are tight ligaments that hold together bones for example interosseous membrane between radius and ulna and between tibia and fibula. Gomphoses between tooth and its socket 2) Cartilaginous joint - Bones are held together by cartilage. Range from synarthrodial and amphiarthrodial - Primary Cartilaginous (a.k.a. synchondrosis): Synarthrodial; united by hyaline cartilage. Joint between epiphysis and diaphysis of a growing bone, and joint between costal cartilage of rib #1 and sternum. - Secondary Cartilaginous (a.k.a. symphysis): United by fibrocartilage - shock absorber. Amphiarthrodial with limited movement. Pubic symphysis and intervertebral disc joints. Joint between body of sternum and manubrium 3) Synovial joint - Mostly diarthrodial (lots of mobility).

In anatomical position, the lungs are _____ to the stomach.

Superior

Supine, Prone, and Lateral Decubitus

Supine = lying face UP ("sUPine") Prone = lying face down Lateral decubitus: Radiological term for a patient lying on his or her side during an x-ray imaging procedure

The Cranial Fossae

The cranial cavity is a fluid-filled chamber that supports and protects the brain Cranial Fossa - internal depressions that support brain - ACF (Anterior Cranial Fossa) - MCF (Middle Cranial Fossa) - PCF (Posterior Cranial Fossa)

Jugular Foramen

The jugular foramen is an opening for passage of the jugular vein and three cranial nerves, located in the occipital bone

The Facial Bones

The skull contains 14 total facial bones 1) Paired bones - Maxillae - Palatine - Nasal - Zygomatic - Lacrimal - Inferior nasal conchae 2) Single bones - Vomer - Mandible

Vertebral Artery

The transverse processes of cervical vertebrae have openings called transverse foramina that allow passage of the vertebral artery that supplies the brain

The Cranium

There are 8 bones of the cranium - Frontal - Parietal (2 - R&L) - Occipital - Temporal (2 - R&L) - Sphenoid - Ethmoid The calvarium or "skull cap" = frontal, parietals, and occipital

Abdominopelvic Quadrants

There are four abdominopelvic quadrants formed by a median plane (midsaggital plane) and transumbilical plane (horizontal plane that passes through the umbilicus). | Right upper quadrant | Left upper quadrant (RUQ) | (LUQ) _______________ | ________________ Right lower quadrant | Left lower quadrant (RLQ) | (LLQ) RUQ: R. kidney & R. suprarenal gland, R. lobe of liver LUQ: L. kidney & L. suprarenal gland, Spleen RLQ: Initial portions of the large intestine, Vermiform appendix LLQ: Distal portions of the large intestine

Thoracic Vertebrae Characteristics

Thoracic vertebrae (12) - Rib cage - Thoracic vertebrae have larger, heart-shaped bodies - There are facets (bony articulates) on the bodies and on the transverse processes for articulation with ribs - The facets of the SAP and IAP are oriented in the frontal plane, meaning that they face anterior-posterior and allow for rotation - The spinous processes are relatively long and inferiorly sloping - Resembles a "giraffe" from a lateral view