AP ENGLISH LANG

Snob Appeal

Qualities that seem to substantiate social or intellectual pretensions. "Coffee is the think drink." "Quick Kick is the National League thirst quencher." "Four Roses Whiskey is for men of distinction." "Sony. Ask anyone."

Coherence

Quality of a piece of writing in which all the parts contribute to the development of the central idea, theme, or organizing principle. See "The Gettysburg Address," for a speech with great coherence.

Voice

Refers to the total "sound" of an author's style. The author's unique way of expressing himself or herself. May also refer to the relationship between the sentence's subject and verb (active and passive voice)

Abstract Diction

Refers to words that describe concepts rather than concrete images (ideas and qualities rather than observable or specific things, people, or places.) These words do not appeal imaginatively to the reader's senses. Abstract words create no "mental picture" or any other imagined sensations for readers. Abstract words include: Love, Hate, Feelings, Emotions, Temptation, Peace, Seclusion, Alienation, Politics, Rights, Freedom, Intelligence, Attitudes, Progress, Guilt, etc.

Alliteration

Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words that are close to one another Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.

Consonance

Repetition of identical consonant sounds within two or more words in close proximity, as in boost/best. Note: It can also be seen within compound words, such as fulfill and ping-pong.

Assonance

Repetition of vowel sounds between different consonants Early in the dAy, the nEIghs began to fAde.

Inversion

Reversing the customary order of elements (SVO) in a sentence or phrase. Usually this is used to emphasize the sentence element that appears first.

Tricolon

Sentence consisting of three parts of equal importance and length. Government of the people, by the people, for the people...

Contrast

Showing how two or more texts, ideas or objects are different.

Comparison

Showing how two or more texts, objects or ideas are similar.

Comic Relief

Something said or done that provides a break from the seriousness of the text. "The hair was yellow like that of a circus kewpie doll, the face heavily powdered and rouged as though to form an abstract mask, the eyes hollow and smeared a cool blue, the color of a baboon's butt."—Ralph Ellison

Evidence

Something that furnishes proof in a reasoned argument. This includes personal experience, anecdotes, expert testimony, comparisons/analogy, facts, statistics, examples, charts/graphs/diagrams, concrete details, quotations, reasons, and definitions.

Lyrical

Songlike; characterized by emotions, subjectivity, and imagination.

Discourse

Spoken or written language, including literary works; the four traditionally classified modes of discourse are description, exposition, narration, and persuasion.

Punctuation

Standardized marks or signs in written matter to clarify the meaning and separate structural units, including the period, comma, dash, colon, semicolon, and parentheses.

Rhetoric

THE ART OF USING WORDS EFFECTIVELY IN WRITING OR SPEAKING SO AS TO INFLUENCE OR PERSUADE; rhetoric focuses on the interrelationship of invention, arrangement, and style in order to create felicitous and appropriate discourse.

Implication

The act of suggesting or hinting

Explication

The art of interpreting or discovering the meaning of a text. Explication usually involves close reading and special attention to figurative language.

Personification

The attribution of human qualities to a nonhuman or inanimate object. Ideas and abstractions can also be personified. It is a metaphorical representation. [Describing Buck, the dog] "He had lived the life of a sated aristocrat; he had a fine pride in himself, was ever a trifle egotistical."—Jack London "If the engine whistles, let it whistle till it is hoarse for pain."—Henry David Thoreau

Tone

The author's implied attitude toward its subject (angry, sarcastic, loving, didactic, etc.).

Theme

The central idea or "message" of a literary work. Must be stated in a complete sentence, e.g. NOT love, but Love is an elusive dream which can never be fully realized.

Occasion

The context that prompted the writing; the time and the place of the piece. • The larger occasion is the environment of ideas, attitudes, and emotions that swirl around a broad issue. • The immediate occasion is an event or situation that catches the author's attention and triggers a response.

Larger Occasion

The environment of ideas, attitudes, and emotions that swirl around a broad issue.

Rhythmic Diction

The euphonic pattern or flow of sound or cadence created by the placement and choice of words.

Ambiguity

The expression of an idea in such a way that more than one meaning is suggested. A text that is rich in patterns of imagery, symbolism, and multiple meanings (created through suggestive, connotative language) is said to be a layered text and filled with ambiguity. Note: All AP passages have some ambiguity. To get the highest scores, students have to make reference to the multiple meanings seen in the passages.

Syntax

The grammatical structure of a sentence; the arrangement of words in a sentence. Syntax includes both the length of the sentence as well as the kind of sentence (loose, periodic, freight-train, convoluted, simple, complex, compound, compound/complex, interrogative, exclamatory, declarative, imperative, rhetorical question, parallelism, chiasmus, antithesis, etc.).

Audience

The group of reader or listeners to whom this piece is directed

Moral

The lesson drawn from a fictional or nonfictional story. It can also mean something that conforms to a standard of righteous behavior.

Argument

The logical (facts, statistics, hard evidence, etc.) and non-logical ideas or reasons a person uses to convince a specific audience.

Thesis

The main idea of a text. It presents the author's assertion or claim. The rest of the piece should develop and support the thesis.

Subject

The main idea or topic of the text. Also, the element of a sentence that usually comes before the verb in a declarative sentence and after the operator in an interrogative sentence.

Motif

The main thematic element or subject of a work that is elaborated on in the development of the piece; a repeated pattern or idea.

Organizational Strategy

The method of organizing a paragraph or an essay. Typical strategies include concession, refutation, cause/effect, chronological ordering, classification, general to particular, particular to general, order of importance, problem/solution, and spatial.

Direct Object

The object that receives the direct action of the verb

Either/Or Fallacy (reductio ad absurdum)

The oversimplification of an issue into a choice between only two outcomes or possibilities

Verb Phrase

The part of a sentence containing the verb and any direct or indirect object, but not the subject. Have you been sitting in my chair? Verb Phrase: Have been sitting

Point of View

The perspective from which a story is presented; common points of view include: • First person: a narrator referred to as "I," who is a character in the story and relates the actions through his or her own perspective • Third person omniscient: a narrator who is able to see into each character's mind and understands all the action • Third person limited: a narrator who reports the thoughts of only one character and generally only what that character sees • Third person objective: a narrator who only reports what would be visible to a camera; thoughts and feelings are only revealed if a character speaks of them.

Description

The picturing in words of something or someone through detailed observation of color, motion, sound, taste, smell, and touch; one of the four modes of discourse.

Informal Diction

The plain language of everyday use. It often includes idiomatic expressions, slang, colloquialisms, contractions, and many simple, common words.

Proposition

The point to be discussed or maintained in an argument usually stated in sentence form near the outset.

Unity

The quality of a piece of writing. (see coherence)

Purpose

The reason behind the text. In rhetoric, the purpose is to inform, explain, or persuade the audience to believe a certain idea(s) or to persuade the audience to act in a certain way.

Anaphora

The repetition of introductory words or phrases for effect. This creates a rhythm and establishes a pattern, giving the reader a contextual framework for understanding the ideas. "And so, let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania. Let freedom ring from the snowcapped mountains of Colorado. Let freedom ring from the curvaceous peaks of California..."—Martin Luther King, Jr, "I Have a Dream"

Epanalepsis

The repetition of the first word of one clause at the end of the clause "Common sense is not so common."—Voltaire "Nothing can be created out of nothing."—Lucretius "Bold was the challenge as he himself was bold."—Spenser

Anadiplosis

The repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the next clause I lift up mine eyes unto the hills, from whence cometh MY HELP. MY HELP cometh from the Lord which made heaven and earth. Psalms 121:1

Epistrophe

The repetition of the same word or groups of words at the ends of phrases, clauses, or sentences. If thou hast any sound, or use of voice, Speak to me. If there be any good thing to be done, That may to thee do ease and grace to me, Speak to me.—Shakespeare, Hamlet

Jargon

The special language of a profession or group. The term usually has pejorative associations, with the implication that jargon is evasive, tedious, and unintelligible to outsiders.

Assertion

The starting point of an argument; the rhetorical stance; a general statement of belief or judgment that can be supported with specific evidence and examples: The death penalty is a form of legalized murder. A "for or against" stance is also called a proposition. "Racists and segregationists use the press skillfully to project an image of the Black man as criminal."—Malcolm X

Binary Classification

The task of classifying the members of a given set of objects into two groups on the basis of whether they have some property or not. Some typical binary classification tasks are • medical testing to determine if a patient has certain disease or not (the classification property is the disease) • quality control in factories; i.e., deciding if a new product is good enough to be sold, or if it should be discarded (the classification property is being good enough) • deciding whether a page or an article should be in the result set of a search or not (the classification property is the relevance of the article - typically the presence of a certain word in it)

Narrative/Personal Experience

The telling of a story in fiction, nonfiction, poetry, or drama; one of the four modes of discourse.

Foreshadowing

The use of a hint or clue to suggest a larger event that occurs later in the work.

Euphemism

The use of a word or phrase that is less direct, but that is also less distasteful or less offensive than another "He is at rest" is a euphemism for "he is dead."

Symbolism

The use of symbols or anything concrete that is meant to be taken both literally and as representative of a higher and more complex/abstract significance.

Onomatopoeia

The use of words that sound like what they mean, such as "hiss," "buzz," "slam," and "boom." "He did not steal for the joy of it, but because of the CLAMOR of his stomach."—Jack London

Predicate

The verb and any of its objects or complements in a clause. The chef is a young man with a broad experience of the world. The fate of the land parallels the fate of the culture.

Speaker

The voice of a work; an author may speak as himself or herself or a fictitious persona.

Subject Complement

The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it (the predicate nominative) or (2) describing it (the predicate adjective). These are defined below: (1) the predicate nominative - a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence. Example: Julia Roberts is a movie star. movie star = predicate nominative, as it renames the subject, Julia Roberts (2) the predicate adjective -- an adjective, a group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject. Example: Warren remained optimistic. optimistic = predicate adjective, as it modifies the subject, Warren

Antecedent

The word for which a pronoun stands. "Answers successfully arrived at are solutions to difficulties previously discussed and one cannot untie A KNOT if he is ignorant of IT."—Aristotle

Moderate

To make less extreme or intense

Compound Sentences

Two or more independent clauses (simple sentences) joined by a coordinating conjunction: CANADA IS A RICH COUNTRY, but IT STILL HAS MANY POOR PEOPLE

Imply

Understood though not directly stated or expressed; past tense—implied. (see Inferences)

Quotations

Use of another author's words to add support or validity to one's writing (see appeal to authority).

Satire

Use of ridicule, sarcasm, irony, etc. to expose vices, abuses, etc.

Academic Diction

Use of scholarly words or terms "Kennedy employs many rhetorical strategies in his speech, namely chiasmus, parallelism, allusion, and pathos."

Pedestrian Diction

Use of words that are commonplace and unimaginative.

Parenthesis

Used by the author to whisper a witty aside to the reader or to embed additional information in a sentence. "...in order that they might live, (That is, to keep comfortably warm) and die in New England at last."—Henry David Thoreau

Inferences

Using prior knowledge and textual information to draw conclusions, make critical judgments, and form unique interpretations from text.

Pairing

Using two loaded or emotionally charged words together for increased emphasis on each and a stronger effect. "Nor does it mean bureaucracy and regulation."—Tony Blair

Charts/Graphs/Diagrams

Visual representations of data to display information and assist reasoning.

Conclusion

What must result or follow given the premises of an argument.

Syllepsis

When a single word that governs or modifies two or more others must be understood differently with respect to each of those words. A combination of grammatical parallelism and semantic incongruity, often with a witty or comical effect. In the rhetorical sense, syllepsis has to do with applying the same single word to the others it governs in distinct senses (e.g., literal and metaphorical) "His boat and his dreams sank." "Rend your heart, and not your garments."—Joel 2:13 "Rend" governs both objects, but the first rending is figurative; the second, literal: "You held your breath and the door for me."—Alanis Morissette "Fix the problem, not the blame." —Dave Weinbaum The verb "fix" governs both "problem" and "blame." In its first instance, "fix" means "solve," but this verb shifts its meaning when applied to its second object, where the understood "fix" = "assign."

Emotional Appeal (Pathos)

When a writer appeals to readers' emotions to excite and involve them in the argument

Strawman Fallacy

When an author argues against a claim that nobody actually holds or is universally considered weak. Setting up a strawman diverts attention from the real issues.

Red Herring

When an author raises an irrelevant issue to draw attention away from the real issue.

Anticipating and addressing counter-arguments

When making the argument, the author, aware of what points his or her opponents will likely take exception to, anticipates these objections and then addresses them in his or her argument, thus strengthening his or her position. Refutation and concession are examples of this type of organizational strategy. Mr. Hammond, I am writing to you because you have handled our account on many occasions. While I realize your sales representative is new, I feel she misrepresented the quality of the Z690s. I also feel that she has been unhelpful in addressing my claim. (concession)

Pacing

Where a passage speeds up or slows down; this is achieved through sentence structure (syntax), repetition, and punctuation.

Coordinating Conjunction

Words that can, with a comma, link two independent clauses. FANBOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So.

Determiner

Words that introduce noun phrases (the, a, an, this, that, these, those, my, our, your, his, her, its, their, what, which, whose, whatever, whichever, whosoever, some, any, no, enough, every, each, either, neither). Some people have left. I need more money. All those other problems just went away. You may borrow this pencil.

Conjunction

Words that link units of equal status (coordinating conjunctions) or introduce subordinate clauses (subordinating conjunctions).

Didactic

Writing whose purpose is to instruct or to teach. A didactic work is usually formal and focuses on moral or ethical concerns. Didactic writing may be fiction or nonfiction that teaches a specific lesson or moral or provides a model of correct behavior or thinking.

Polysyndenton

a sentence which uses and or another conjunction to separate the items in a series. Polysyndeton appear in the form of X and Y and Z, stressing equally each member of a series. It makes the sentence slower and the items more emphatic than in the asyndeton. It suggests a piling up of detail or creates a fluid, continuous sentence. Because this device appears a great deal in the Bible, its use can suggest the solemn, reverential cadences of the holy text. "My sheep hear my voice, and I know them, and they follow me: And I give unto them eternal life; and they shall never perish." John 10:27 "No sense of direction, though, and the field seemed to sick him under, and everything was black and wet and swirling, and he couldn't get his bearings, and then another round hit nearby, and for a few moments all he could do was hold his breath and duck down beneath the water."— Tim O' Brien, The Things They Carried

Parts of Speech

adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, interjections, nouns, pronouns, prepositions, verbs

Cumulative Sentence Structure

see Loose sentence structure

Colloquial Diction

words or phrases (including slang) used in everyday conversation and informal writing which is usually inappropriate in formal writing e.g. y'all, ain't, guys, stuff, kind of, etc..

Argumentation

writing that attempts to prove the validity of a proposition or an idea by presenting reasoned arguments; persuasive writing is a form of argumentation.

Irony

• Verbal irony: a method of expression, often humorous or sarcastic, in which the intended meaning of the words is the opposite of their usual meaning: e.g. saying that a cold, windy, rainy day is "lovely." • Situational irony: when something happens as a result of or in reaction to something else in a way that is contrary to what would be expected or acceptable. A great difference in the purpose of an action and its result. It usually includes a cruel twist, emphasizing that human beings are enmeshed in forces beyond their comprehension and control, showing that there is a larger purpose or force at work.

Concrete Diction

(compare to abstract diction) Words that describe specific, observable things, people, or places, rather than ideas or qualities. • Abstract: Even a large male gorilla, unaccustomed to tourists, is frightened by people. • Concrete: A four-hundred-pound male gorilla, unaccustomed to tourists, will bolt into the forest, trailing a stream of diarrhea, at the mere sight of a person.

False Dilemma

(see Dilemma) a fallacy of logical argument which is committed when too few of the available alternatives are considered, and all but one are assessed and deemed impossible or unacceptable A father speaking to his son says, "Are you going to go to college and make something of yourself, or are you going to end up being an unemployable bum like me." The dilemma is the son's supposed limitation of choice; either he goes to college or he will be a bum. The dilemma is false, because the alternative of not going to college but still being employable has not been considered.

Passive Voice

(see active voice) A sentence in which the subject does not perform the action stated in the verb, but is acted upon. They sometimes contain a by-phrase to indicate who is performing the action, but not always. Passive: Jane is loved by John. Active: John loves Jane. Passive: The crime is being investigated. Active: The FBI is investigating the crime.

Defend

(see challenge and qualify) the author agrees with a given assertion.

Denotation

(see connotation) the literal or obvious meaning of a word (dictionary definition).

Challenge

(see defend and qualify) the author disagrees with a given assertion.

Connotation

(see denotation) implied or suggested meaning of a word because of its association in the reader's mind. These are often classified as negative, neutral, or positive: Strong-willed (positive) Pig-headed (negative)

Periodic Sentence Structure

(see loose/cumulative sentence structure) a simple sentence with details added to the beginning or interrupting the simple sentence. Simple sentence: John gave his mother flowers. Periodic sentence: John, the tough one, the sullen kid who scoffed at any show of sentiment, gave his mother flowers. Simple sentence: The cat scratched Sally. Periodic sentence: Suddenly, for no apparent reason, the loveable cat scratched Sally. Simple sentence: Love is blind. Periodic sentence: Love, as everyone knows except those who happen to be afflicted with it, is blind.

Qualify

(see moderate, defend, and challenge) the author accepts a theory or proposition, but only under certain conditions or with certain modifications Abortion should be illegal except in cases of rape or mortal danger to the mother.

Loose/Cumulative Sentence Structure

(see periodic sentence structure) a simple sentence with a string of details added to it. Simple sentence: Bells rang. Loose sentence: Bells rang, filling the air with their clangor, startling pigeons into flight from every belfry, bringing people into the streets to hear the news. Simple sentence: The teacher considered him a good student. Loose sentence: The teacher considered him a good student, steady if not inspired, willing if not eager, responsive to instruction and conscientious about his work.

Allusion

A brief or indirect reference to a person, place, event, or passage in a work of literature or the Bible assumed to be sufficiently well known to be recognized by the reader. Allusions add depth and universal significance to a passage. "I am Lazarus, come from the dead."—T.S. Eliot (referencing Christ's raising of Lazarus from the dead in the New Testament)

Aphorism

A brief saying embodying a moral; a concise statement of a principle or precept given in pointed words. "Imitation is suicide."—Ralph Waldo Emerson "A man is God in ruins."—Ralph Waldo Emerson

Epigram

A brief, clever, and usually memorable statement. "We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow, Our wiser sons, no doubt, will think us so."—Alexander Pope

Stereotype

A character who represents a trait that is usually attributed to a particular social or racial group and who lacks individuality; a conventional patter, expression, or idea. "Our youngsters are spending all their time at the movies; they're a mess."—E.B. White "The other Chinese girls did not talk either, so I knew the silence had to do with being a Chinese girl."—Maxine Hong Kingston

Adverbial Clause

A clause that has an adverb-like function in modifying another clause. REFLECTING ON THE PAST THREE YEARS, she wondered whether she could have made better choices.

Independent Clause

A clause which can stand by itself as a grammatically correct sentence.

Analogy

A comparison between two things in which the more complex is explained in terms of the more simple. "Last year's profile of the stock index looks like a roller-coaster ride at your local amusement park."

Subordinate Conjunction

A conjunction which introduces a subordinate clause. Common subordinating conjunctions include after, although, as, as long as, because, before, except that, if, since, that, till, unless, until, when, where, and while.

Statement

A definite or clear expression of something in speech or writing (see assertion and proposition)

Subordinate Clause

A dependent clause beginning with a subordinating conjunction. "If it is boyish to believe that a human being should live fee, then I'll gladly arrest my development and let the rest of the world grow up."—E.B. White

Slippery Slope

A fallacy in which a person asserts that some event must inevitably follow from another without any argument for the inevitability of the event in question. In most cases, there are a series of steps or gradations between one event and the one in question and no reason is given as to why the intervening steps or gradations will simply be bypassed. "We have to stop the tuition increase! The next thing you know, they'll be charging $40,000 a semester!" "The US shouldn't get involved militarily in other countries. Once the government sends in a few troops, it will then send in thousands to die."

Overgeneralization

A fallacy in which the author draws too general of a conclusion from the presented information or arguments. The author bases a claim upon an isolated example or asserts that a claim is certain rather than probable. Sweeping generalizations occur when an author asserts that a claim applies to all instances instead of some.

Oversimplification

A fallacy in which the author obscures or denies the complexity of the issues in an argument.

False Casualty

A fallacy of concluding that an event is caused by another event simply because it follows it

Ad Hominem Fallacy

A fallacy of logic in which a person's character or motive (Latin, literally "argument to the man") is attacked instead of that person's argument. In the political arena, this is called "mudslinging."man")

Circular Logic/Thinking/Reasoning

A fallacy which involves repeating assertions endlessly without real support. 1. the Bible is the infallible word of God 2. the Bible says that God exists. Therefore, 3. God exists. The REAL question of whether or not God exists has not been addressed.

Synecdoche

A figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent a whole, such as using "boards" to mean a stage or "wheels" to mean a car: All hands on deck.

Oxymoron

A figure of speech in which contradictory terms or ideas are combined "thunderous silence."

Metaphor

A figure of speech in which one thing is compared to another by being spoken of as thought it were that thing:"a sea of troubles." "Time is but a stream that I go a'fishing in."—Henry David Thoreau

Synesthesia

A figure of speech in which there is a blending of different senses in describing something. "The music was bright and colorful." Here music (sound) is described in terms of sight imagery (bright and colorful).

Metonymy

A figure of speech that replaces the name of an object, person, or idea with something with which it is associated The red, white, and blue came to save the day. (The red, white, and blue refers to the United States of America.) "The pen is mightier than the sword."—Edward Bulwer-Lytton (The pen refers to thoughts that are written with a pen; the sword refers to military action.) The IRS is auditing me? Great. All I need is a couple of suits arriving at my door. (Suits refers to men who wear suits, i.e. business men).

Simile

A figure of speech that uses like, as, or as if to make a direct comparison between two essentially different objects, actions, or qualities. "The sky looked like an artist's canvas." "There was a steaming mist in all the hollows, and it had roared in its forlornness up the hill, like an evil spirit, seeking rest and finding none."—Charles Dickens "She is always sad like a house on fire—always something wrong."—Sandra Cisneros The House on Mango Street

Labyrinthine Sentence

A finely crafted aggregation of words that weaves in and out, accruing information, riding rhythms of parallel sentence structure, tacking on phrase, clauses, and grammatical absolutes to form a sinuous sentence, perfectly suited for some things we might describe or discuss. Whenever I find myself growing grim about the mouth; whenever it is damp, drizzly November in my soul; whenever I find myself involuntarily pausing before coffin warehouses, and bringing up the rear of every funeral I meet; and especially whenever my hypos get such an upper hand of me, that it requires a strong moral principle to prevent me from deliberately stepping into the street, and methodically knocking people's hats off—then, I account it high time to get to sea as soon as I can. - Herman Melville, Moby Dick

Persuasion

A form of argumentation, one of the four modes of discourse; language intended to convince through appeals to reason or emotion.

Syllogism

A form of reasoning in which two premises are made and a conclusion is drawn from them. There is a major premise and a minor premise, from which a conclusion may be drawn using deductive or inductive reasoning.

Deduction (deductive reasoning)

A form of reasoning using syllogism where the author begins with a generalization, then applies the generalization to a specific case or cases; opposite to induction. 1. The picture is above the desk. 2. The desk is above the floor. 3. Therefore, the picture is above the floor.

Induction

A form of reasoning using syllogism, which works from a body of fact to the formulation or a generalization; opposite to deduction; frequently used as the principle form of reasoning in science and history. 1. Most of the jellybeans in my hand are red. 2. They were taken from this jar, and I mixed them up well before I took them out. 3. So most of the jellybeans in this jar are red.

Aristotelian Logic

A formal logical system using syllogism in which propositions are given to support a conclusion that can be proven either by deduction or induction. 1. All penguins are birds 2. No birds are mammals 3. Therefore, no penguins are mammals

Noun Cluster

A group of nouns listed together to add detail or ambiguity. "...a whippoorwill on the ridge pole, a blue jay screaming beneath the window, a hare or woodchuck under the house, a screech-owl or a cat-owl behind it, a flock of wild geese or a laughing loon on the pond..."—Henry David Thoreau

Dependent Clause

A group of words that contains a subject and a verb, but cannot be a grammatical sentence. It is dependent upon an independent clause (simple sentence) for meaning and context.

Conceit

A juxtaposition that makes a surprising connection between two seemingly different things. An elaborate, usually intellectually ingenious poetic comparison or image, such as an analogy or metaphor in which, say a beloved is compared to a ship, planet, etc. The comparison may be brief or extended. Oxymorons are also common, such as freezing fire, burning ice, etc.

Appositive

A noun phrase or clause which renames or describes another noun phrase or pronoun. "But they also felt A KIND OF GIDDINESS(noun phrase), A SECRET JOY(noun phrase), because they were alive...."—Tim O' Brien, The Things They Carried

Adjective

A part of speech that can modify a noun and usually can itself be modified by very; for example,(very) wise, (very) careful. The stupid girl fell for the abusive criminal. When asked to address the author's use of diction, look for any unusual adjectives used or any common adjectives used in uncommon ways. "The moth's ENORMOUS wings are VELVETED in a RICH, WARM BROWN, and EDGED IN BANDS OF BLUE AND PINK DELICATE AS A WATERCOLOR WASH"

Noun

A part of speech that indicates a person, place, thing, or idea. "The famous author said, 'Give me liberty, or give me death!'"

Verb

A part of speech that indicates action or state of being. "I should have been helping Todd last night."

Preposition

A part of speech that introduces a prepositional phrase. The preposition links the complement in the phrase to some other expression. Common prepositions include: about, above, across, after, against, among, around, as, at, because of, before, behind, below, beside, between, but, by, despite, down, during, for, from, in, in addition to, in spite of, inside, into, off, on, out, over, past, since, than, through, till, to, toward, under, until, up, with, and without.

Adverb

A part of speech usually ending in -ly that is used chiefly as a modifier of an adjective (She is EXTREMELY pale.), a modifier of another adverb (The storm came very SUDDENLY.), or as an adverbial (I visit my family FREQUENTLY).

Participal Phrase

A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. Since they function as adjectives, participles modify nouns or pronouns. There are two types of participles: present participles and past participles. Present participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n, as in the words asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen. A participial phrase includes a participle and its accompanying modifiers that function as objects. Knowing Carol, I am sure you can trust her. When captured, he refused to give his name. Janie, giving her all to the cause, showing the temerity of her soul, sacrificed her life.

Pun

A play upon words based upon the multiple meanings of words. "Men have become the tools of their tools."—Henry David Thoreau [After buying a hot-buttered yam from a vendor, the narrator replied] "I yam what I yam."—Ralph Ellison

Premise

A proposition antecedently supposed or proved as a basis of argument or inference; the first two propositions of a syllogism from which the conclusion is drawn

Colon

A punctuation mark that is used: • to formally or emphatically introduce lists or long quotations (see current entry for example). • to separate an explanation, rule, or example from a preceding independent clause. After a sleepless night, the senator made her decision: she would not seek re-election. • to introduce an explanation or definition (see current entry for example). • after the salutation of a business letter. To Whom it May Concern: • in the hading of a business memo. To: Re: • between the hour and the minutes. 5:30 p.m. • between the chapter and verse in the Bible, in citations for some literary works, and between the volume and number of some publications. Genesis 1:18-20 Part 3:121 Vol.2:34 • as part of a title Grey Power: A Practical Survival Handbook for Senior Citizens). • in a Works Cited entry between the place of publication and the name of the publisher. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1966.

Period

A punctuation mark used at the end of a declarative or imperative sentence. It is also used in some abbreviations (5:30 p.m. and Dr. Johnson).

Dash (em-dash)

A punctuation mark used to denote an abrupt break, pause in a sentence, or hesitation in an utterance. "This holds for forms of behavior, as well as design—the mantis munching her mate, the frog wintering in the mud, the spider wrapping a humming bird, the pine professionally straddling a thread."—Annie Dillard

Comma

A punctuation mark used to separate the structural elements of sentences into manageable segments. It generally indicates that a pause should be taken when reading the text aloud. The usages that follow are the traditional usages; however, in certain rhetorical contexts and for specific purposes, these rules may be broken.

Semicolon

A punctuation mark used: • to join independent clauses in compound sentences that do not have coordinating conjunctions and commas as connectors. Words like "however," "moreover," "thus," and "therefore" are often used as connectors in these sentences. There was no running or shouting; therefore all the children will get a treat. • to separate long or complicated items in a series which already includes commas. The speakers were Dr. Judith Cornwell, English; Dr. Peter Mortrude, biology; Dr. Shirley Enders, history; and Dr. Charles Viceroy, mathematics. • To separate two long or complex independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction if confusion would result from using a comma. Ishmael, the narrator in Moby-Dick goes to sea, he says, "whenever it is a damp, drizzly November" in his heart and soul; but Ahab, the captain of the ship, goes to sea because of his obsession to hunt and kill the great white whale, Moby Dick.

Statistics

A quantity (as the mean of a sample) that is computed from a sample; specifically an estimate based on a sampling. Statistics can be deceiving or manipulating if not compiled correctly. It is important to verify who is generating the statistical claims and how their sampling was obtained to know whether or not they are valid. Five out of every 100 young adults enrolled in high school in October 1999 left school before October 2000 without successfully completing a high school program. The percentage of young adults who left school each year without successfully completing a high school program decreased from 1972 through 1987. Despite year-to-year fluctuations, the percentage of students dropping out of school each year has stayed relatively unchanged since 1987.

Rhetorical Question

A question asked for rhetorical effect to emphasize a point, no answer being expected. Sometimes, an author will answer the question himself or herself in order to drive the point home even more forcefully. "Are fleets and armies necessary to a work of love and reconciliation? Have we shown ourselves so unwilling to be reconciled that force must be called in to win back our love? Let us not deceive ourselves, sir. These are the implements of war and subjugation; the last arguments to which kings resort."—Patrick Henry

Conundrum

A riddle whose answer is or involves a pun; it may also be a paradox or difficult problem: Which came first, the chicken or the egg?

Maxim

A self-evident or universally recognized truth. "It is an economic axiom as old as the hills that goods and services can be paid for only with goods and services."— Albert Jay Nock

Freight-Train Sentences

A sentence consisting of three or more very short independent clauses joined by conjunctions. Freight-Train: Over the Easter holidays, I went to the movies and then I went to my friend's house and then we went fishing and then we caught some fish and then we had them for tea with some chips. Corrected: Over the Easter holidays, I went to the movies. After that, I went to the river with my friend. We caught some fish and had them with some chips for tea.

Complex Sentence

A sentence containing one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses Although Canada is a rich country, IT STILL HAS MANY POOR PEOPLE. (The dependent clause is normal, and the independent clause is CAPITALIZED.)

Complement

A sentence element that is required, by the meaning of the verb, to complete the sentence. There are three complements of this kind: adverbial complement, subject complement, and object complement. • Adverbial complement: an element that conveys the same information as some adverbials but is require by the verb. I am now living in Manhattan. I put my car in the garage. • Subject complement: a necessary sentence element when the main verb is a linking verb (to be, to seem, to look, to sound, to taste, to smell, to turn, to become, and others). Subject complements are usually noun phrases or adjective phrases. Leonard is Mary's brother. Robert looks very happy. He seems satisfied. He will become a Jedi. • Object complement: Some transitive verbs (verbs that require a direct object to complete the sentence) require or allow an object complement to follow the direct object. The relationship between the direct object and the object complement resembles that between the subject and the subject complement. The heat has turned the milk sour. ("the milk" is the direct object; The milk turned sour.) I have made David my assistant. (David is the direct object; David is my assistant.) The sun has turned our curtains yellow. ("our curtains" is the direct object; Our curtains turned yellow).

Adverbial

A sentence element used to convey a range of information about the situation depicted in the basic sentence structure (how, when, where, to what extent, or under what conditions). Vietnamese veterans were demonstrating NOISILY OUTSIDE THE WHITE HOUSE. (both "noisily" and "outside the White House" are adverbials.

Negative-Positive Statement

A sentence that begins by stating what is NOT true, then ends by stating what IS true. "For the kingdom of God is not meat and drink; but righteousness, and peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost." Romans 14:17

Balanced Sentence Structure

A sentence that has parallel phrases or clauses used to stress similar ideas "Together let us explore the stars, conquer the deserts, eradicate disease, tap the ocean depths, and encourage the arts and commerce."—JFK

Clause

A sentence-like construction that is contained within a sentence or a simple sentence, usually containing a subject and a verb or verbal.

Anecdote

A short entertaining account of some happening, frequently personal or biographical used to bring humor or to illustrate a particular characteristic or trait. Bill Gates' computer-geek image was established well before his days at Microsoft. Steven Ballmer, a college buddy who later became the company's president, recalled that Gates never put sheets on his bed and once left for vacation in the middle of a thunderstorm - with the windows and door to his room wide open." [As a student at Harvard, Gates frequently played poker until daybreak. He did not graduate.]

Parable

A short story from which a lesson may be drawn; Christ used the parable to teach his followers moral truths. The parable of the Sower and the Good Samaritan are examples of his parables.

Simple Sentence

A single independent clause

Impact Sentence

A statement made to end a train of thought that is intended to cause the audience to think more about the subject. "She was upset. She stood up and said, 'It can never be the same again, you do realize that don't you?'"—Louisa May Alcott "He looks at her, a tear falls down, and says 'Thus with a kiss I die'"—William Shakespeare

Non Sequitur

A statement that does not follow logically from what preceded it. In the following example, two premises are offered as the basis for the conclusion, but the conclusion cannot be drawn from the premises. A statement that does not follow logically from evidence. o All cows graze in fields o All cows see the moon at night o All cows can jump over the moon

Understatement/Litotes

A statement that says less than what it means. The opposite of hyperbole. It is a technique for developing irony and/or humor where one writes or says less than intended. "This is a novel type of warfare that produces no destruction, except to life."—E.B. White "We know that poverty is unpleasant."—George Orwell

Paradox

A statement which seems self-contradictory, but which may be true in fact. "The smile—again radiant, blatantly artificial—convincing."—F. Scott Fitzgerald "For whosoever will save his life shall lose it: and whosoever will lose his life for my sake shall find it."—Matthew 16:25

Position Statement

A straight-forward statement or declaration of the author's position on a particular topic or topics. Such statements usually are short and concise and do not include background information or discussion.

Apostrophe

A strategy in which an absent person, inanimate object (the sun, for example), or abstract being (Death) is addressed directly. "DEATH be not proud, though some have called thee/ Mighty and dreadful." -John Donne

Economy

A style of writing characterized by conciseness and brevity.

Submerged Metaphor

A submerged metaphor is one in which the vehicle is implicit. The reader deduces the nature of the vehicle from some aspect of the description of the tenor. For example, "my winged thought" is a submerged metaphor comparing my thought to a bird (because birds have wings).

Euphony

A succession of harmonious sounds used in poetry or prose; the opposite of cacophony.

Extended Metaphor

A sustained comparison. The extended metaphor is developed throughout a piece of writing.

Chiasmus

A syntactical structure by which the order of the terms in the first of two parallel clauses is reversed in the second. This may involve a repetition of the same words ("Pleasure's a sin, and sometimes sin's a pleasure" --Byron) or just a reversed parallel between two corresponding pairs of ideas. It is named after the Greek letter chi (x), indicating a "criss-cross" arrangement of terms. Adjective: chiastic. "Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country."—JFK

Diversion

A technique used to distract focus or divert attention away from key issues, usually by intensifying unrelated issues, or trivial factors. Diversion techniques include attacks on the personality and past of opposition figures rather than their relevant policies, appealing to the emotions - fears, hopes, desires - of the public rather than their reason, directing attention to the short-comings of the opposition rather than to one's own weaknesses, evasion of difficult topics, emphasis on superficialities or details rather than substance, and finally, jokes or other entertainment to distract attention.

Digression

A temporary departure from the main subject in speaking or writing.

Pedantic

A term used to describe writing that borders on lecturing. It is scholarly and academic and often overly difficult and distant.

Dilemma

A type of conflict in which both choices have some negative consequences. (see false dilemma) "Shouldn't I tell Frankie to run? Somehow the alternatives seemed impossible, I was committed to the Murphy brothers."—Peter Meinke

Genre

A type of literary work, such as a novel or poem; there are also subgenres, such as science fiction or sonnet, within the larger genres.

Interrogative Sentence

A type of sentence structure used chiefly for asking questions. The operator (first auxiliary verb) comes before the subject, or the sentence begins with an interrogative word (who, how, why) or an interrogative expression (on which day, for how long) Did you hear that noise? Why is Pat so annoyed? At which point should I stop?

Imperative Sentences

A type of sentence structure used chiefly for issuing a directive or command. The imperative verb has the base form and the subject is generally absent (the missing subject is understood to be you). Take off your hat. Make yourself at home. Let's go now. Let no one move.

Declarative Sentences

A type of sentence structure used chiefly for making statements. The sentence structure is usually Subject/Verb/Object (SVO). Sandra is on the radio. I'm not joking. The sea lashed out harshly, jabbing the shoreline. Much more work will be required to analyze the data before we can announce our conclusions.

Exclamatory Sentences

A type of sentence structure used chiefly to express strong feeling. Exclamatives begin with what or how. What is used with a noun phrase and how elsewhere: What a good time we had! (We had a very good time). How well she plays! (She plays very well.) "How impious is the title of sacred majesty applied to a worm, who in the midst of his splendor is crumbling into dust!"—Thomas Paine

Juxtaposition

A type of zeugma—putting together two contrasting elements that are so unlike that the effect is surprising, witty, or even startling: "Wealth and poverty, guilt and grief, orange and apple, God and Satan; let us settle ourselves and work and wedge our feet downward through the mud and the slush of opinion, and prejudice, and tradition, and delusion, and appearance..."—Henry David Thoreau

Phrase

A unit below the clause; it may consist of one word, or a word with many modifiers. • noun phrase: a phrase whose main word is a noun or a pronoun. an old quarrel, some long books on astronomy, all of us, all of us who go to school • verb phrase: a main verb with up to four auxiliary verbs. laugh, may laugh, have laughed, was laughing, may have been laughing • adjective phrase: a phrase whose main word is an adjective. happy, very happy, happy enough, extremely happy indeed, happy to see you, very happy that you could join us • adverb phrase: a phrase whose main word is an adverb. frankly, very frankly, frankly enough, very frankly indeed, surprisingly for her • prepositional phrase: a prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and its complement. Prepositional phrases can modify a noun "I took several courses in history," act as the complement of an adjective "I was happy with my grades last semester," or act as an adverbial "In actual fact, the economy was showing signs of improvement by 1985."

Infinitive Phrase

A verbal that consists of the word "to" and a verb in its stem form, which functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb. To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required. Everyone wanted to go. His ambition is to fly. He lacked the strength to resist. We must study to learn.

Gerund

A verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun (subject, complement, direct object, or object of a preposition). Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences. My cat's favorite activity is sleeping.

Invective

A verbally abusive attack

Tropes

A word or expression used in a figurative sense; a figure of speech.

Noun Phrase

A word or group of words that functions in a sentence as subject, object, or prepositional object.

Transition

A word or phrase that links one idea to the next and carries the reader from sentence to sentence and paragraph to paragraph.

Repetition

A word or phrase used two or more times in close proximity. Repetition allows an author to hammer home an idea, image, or relationship, to force the reader or listener to pay attention. Repetition is used to reinforce a theme, to create parallel structure, to highlight the author's attitude (tone), to provide a transition between paragraphs, to maintain an idea of persistence, or to focus the reader's attention on a particular person, place, thing, or idea. "If you have an important point to make, don't try to be subtle or clever. Use a pile driver. Hit the point once. Then come back and hit it again. Then hit it a third time—a tremendous whack."—Winston Churchill

Verbal

A word that combines characteristics of a verb with those of a noun or adjective. (see gerund, infinitive, and participial phrase)

Absolutes

An adverbial clause that has a nonfinite verb or no verb at all (the clause is missing "was" or "were" or it is replaced by a verbal, making it dependent). The prisoners marched past, their hands above their heads. (The prisoners marched past. Their hands WERE above their heads.)

Immediate Occasion

An event or situation that catches the author's attention and triggers a response.

Idioms

An expression in the usage of a language that has a meaning that cannot be derived from the conjoined literal meanings of its elements. It takes on a meaning beyond itself that is known to members of the culture which uses them. ace in the hole easy as pie break someone's heart call it a day down in the dumps use some elbow grease

Allegory

An extended narrative in prose or verse in which characters, events, and settings represent abstract qualities and in which the author intends a second meaning to be read beneath the surface of the story; the underlying meaning may be moral, religious, political, social, or satiric.

Objectivity

An impersonal presentation of events and characters. It is an author's attempt to remove himself or herself from an subjective, personal involvement in a story. Hard news journalism is frequently prized for its objectivity, although even fictional stories can be told without an author rendering personal judgment.

Examples

An individual instance taken to be representative of a general pattern. Arguing by example is considered reliable if examples are demonstrably true or factual as well as relevant.

Assumption

An inference or conclusion, possibly based on some evidence. "She is a successful American, which is to say, an American."—Joyce Carol Oates

Order of Importance

An organizational strategy in which details are listed or presented according to their merit or importance to a particular topic or position.

Problem/Solution

An organizational strategy in which the author presents a problem to the reader and then gives possible solutions to the problem, evaluating each one for its merits or lack thereof.

Particular to General

An organizational strategy in which the author presents specific evidence to lead the audience to a general premise. This follows the inductive reasoning pattern.

General to Particular

An organizational strategy in which the author states a general premise then gives specific evidence to lead the audience to particular conclusions. This follows the deductive reasoning pattern.

Chronological Ordering

An organizational strategy where events or actions are organized according to their order of occurrence. "They have gills as larvae; as the grow they turn a luminescent red, lose their gills, and walk out of the water to spend a few years paddling around in damp places on the forest floor."—Annie Dillard

Spatial Ordering

An organizational strategy where information is organized using spatial cues such as top to bottom, left to right, etc.

Classification as a means of ordering it

An organizational strategy where objects are arranged according to class; e.g. media classified as print, television, and radio.

Situational Irony

An outcome that turns out to be very different from what was expected

Ellipsis

Any omitted part of speech that is easily understood in context, e.g. in the sentence from Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain, "And so he went on, and the people groaning and crying and saying amen:..." there is an omitted/understood "were" between "people" and "groaning." An ellipsis also refers to a rhetorical device in the narrative of a story, where the narrative skips over a scene. An ellipsis is a form of anachrony where there is a chronological gap in the text. A good example is the phrase "FOUR YEARS LATER," which fills the screen near the end of the movie Cast Away (2000). "The average person thinks he isn't."—Father Larry

Parallelism

Any structure which brings together parallel elements, be these nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, or larger structures to show that the ideas in the parts or sentences are equal in importance. Done well, parallelism imparts grace and power to a passage. It also adds balance, rhythm, and, most importantly, clarity to the sentence. "The prince's strength is also his weakness; his self-reliance is also isolation." "However our eyes may be dazzled with show, or our ears dazzled with sound; however prejudice may warp our wills, or interest darken our understanding, the simple voice of nature and of reason will say it is right."—Thomas Paine

Humor

Anything that causes laughter or amusement

Ethos

Appealing to ethics. An ethical appeal makes use of what an audience values and believes to be good or true. (Tries to convince the audience of the author's credibility)

Logos

Appealing to reason in a measured, logical way. Induction and deduction are both reasoned arguments. Other logical appeals include citing statistics, research, financial costs, authority figures, historical events, etc.

Pathos

Appealing to the emotions; e.g. "I remember when Grandma died of lung cancer. It was the first time I had ever seen you cry Dad. I remember that you also made me promise not to start smoking." Other examples could include language and/or images that are emotionally charged, such as detailing the pain of going through chemotherapy or using X-rays of diseased lungs or photos of cancerous gums. "[King George III of England] has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people."—Thomas Jefferson

Diction

Choice of words especially with regard to correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. When considering diction, bear in mind both the connotation as well as the denotation. For example to a friend you might say "a screw-up," to a child "a mistake," to the police "an accident," to an employer "an oversight." Diction is one of the primary elements to consider when determining the tone of a text "The difference between the almost-right word and the right word is really a large matter—it's the difference between the lightning bug and the lightning." —Mark Twain

Appeal to authority/expert testimony

Citation of information from people recognized for their special knowledge of a subject for the purpose of strengthening an author's arguments. As the notorious Mick Jagger says, "You can't always get what you want."

Indirect Object

Comes before the direct object. Tells to whom, for whom the action of the verb is done. (Claire threw JOSEPH the ball)

Asyndeton

Commas used (with no conjunction) to separate a series of words. The parts are emphasized equally when the conjunction is omitted; in addition, the use of commas with no intervening conjunction speeds up the flow of the sentence. This is a form of parallelism. "And now abideth faith, hope, charity, these three; but the greatest of these is charity." 1 Cor 13:13

Concession (Aristotlean Concession)

Conceding a point in an argument means actually agreeing with the opponent on a particular issue. This is not done as a sign of weakness, however, but in order to strengthen ethical appeal because the author comes across as a reasonable person who is willing to see more than one side of the argument. You admit that the opposing claim is valid; however, you demonstrate how it is possible to accept it without rejecting your whole argument.

Aristotelian Concession

Conceding a point in an argument means actually agreeing with the opponent on a particular issue. This is not done as a sign of weakness, however, but in order to strengthen ethical appeal because the author comes across as a reasonable person who is willing to see more than one side of the argument. You admit that the opposing claim is valid; however, you demonstrate how it is possible to accept it without rejecting your whole argument.

Hyperbole

Deliberate exaggeration in order to create humor or emphasis He was so hungry he could have eaten a horse.

Refutation

Deliberately, directly attacking an opponent's argument, point by point.

Anastrophe

Departure from normal word order for the sake of emphasis. Normal syntax is violated. "She looked at the sky dark and menacing." (Normal: She looked at the dark and menacing sky.)

Caricature

Descriptive writing that greatly exaggerates a specific feature of a person's appearance or a facet of personality; used for comic effect or criticism "One was a woman in a slim black dress, belted small under the armpits, with bulges like a cabbage in the middle of the sleeves, and a large black scoop-shovel bonnet with a black veil, and white slim ankles crossed about with black tape, and very wee black slippers, like a chisel, and she was leaning pensive on a tombstone on her right elbow, under a weeping willow..." Mark Twain

Exposition

Designed to convey information or explain what is difficult to understand through the use of facts, reasons, or examples; one of the four modes of discourse.

Bandwagon

Either saying that supporting a specific cause/stance would result in the rejection of peers or using the popular support of a cause/stance to persuade others to support it as well (fallacy) Everyone who goes to those parties drinks. If you don't drink, no one will invite you to anything.

Cause and Effect

Examination of the causes and/or effects of a situation or phenomenon; this can be an author's main organizational strategy, or it can be one paragraph used to support a point in an essay developed through another pattern. (A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another.)

Annotation

Explanatory notes added to a text to explain, cite sources, or give bibliographical data.

Rhetorical Modes

Exposition, description, narration, argumentation

Figure of Speech

Expressions, such as similes, metaphors and personifications, that make imaginative, rather than literal, comparisons or associations.

Begging the Question

Fallacy of logical argument that assumes the reader will automatically accept an assertion without proper support. "Lying is universal, we all do it; we must all do it. Therefore, the wise thing is for us to diligently train ourselves to lie thoughtfully, judiciously."—Mark Twain

Formal Diction

Formal diction consists of a dignified, impersonal, and elevated use of language; it follows the rules of syntax exactly and is often characterized by complex words and lofty tone. It is not necessarily presumptuous, but does have an educated, formal tone.

Explicit

Fully revealed or expressed without vagueness, implication, or ambiguity : leaving no question as to meaning or intent; stated directly

Cacophony

Harsh, awkward, or dissonant sounds used deliberately in poetry or prose; the opposite of euphony Player Piano My stick fingers click with a snicker And, chuckling, they knuckle the keys; Light footed, my steel feelers flicker And pluck from these keys melodies. My paper can caper; abandon Is broadcast by dint of my din, And no man or band has a hand in The tones I turn on from within. At times I'm a jumble of rumbles, At others I'm light like the moon, But never my numb plunker fumbles, Misstrums me, or tries a new tune. -John Updike-

Sarcasm

Harsh, caustic personal remarks to or about someone; less subtle than irony.

Figurative Language

How authors use literal meanings to suggest non-literal meanings, including metaphors, extended metaphors, submerged metaphors, similes, symbolism, and personification. Figurative language creates associations that are imaginative rather than literal.

Implicit

Implied

Parody

In contemporary usage, parody is a form of satire that imitates another work of art in order to ridicule it. Parody exists in all art media, including literature, music, and cinema. Weird Al Yankovich is a king of parody in music.

Active Voice

In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts. Active: The dog bit the boy. Passive: The boy was bitten by the dog.

Damning With Faint Praise

Intentional use of a positive statement that has a negative implication "Your new hairdo is so....interesting."

Verbal Irony

Irony in which a person says or writes one thing and means another, or uses words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of the literal meaning. (sarcasm)

Facts

Knowledge or information based on real occurrences or data; statements that can be verified as true

Rhetorical Stance

Language that conveys a speaker's attitude or opinion with regard to a particular subject (see assertion)

Reductio Ad Absurdum

Latin for "to reduce to the absurd." This is a technique useful in creating a comic effect and is also an argumentative technique. It is considered a rhetorical fallacy because it reduces an argument to an either/or choice (see false dilemma).

Stream of Consciousness

Like a first-person narrator, but placing the reader inside the character's head, making the reader privy to the continuous, chaotic flow of disconnected, half-formed thoughts and impressions in the character's mind.

Piling

Listing in quick succession "People know they face a greater insecurity than ever before: a new global economy; massive and rapid changes in technology; a labour market where half the workers are women; a family life that has been altered drastically; telecommunications and media that visit a common culture upon us and transform our expectation and behaviour."—Tony Blair

Imagery

Lively descriptions which impress the images of things upon the mind using one or more of the five senses; figures of speech. "The King of the jungle was sleeping, the spotted and black panthers were pacing their stinky cages like mad doctors. "The rhino was bathing in lukewarm mud, and the elephant and giant turtle were doing nothing."—Gary Soto

Convoluted Sentence

Long, complicated sentences that are often hard to follow because they are wordy and too many ideas are rolled together into one sentence. • CONVOLUTED: Freud's theory of personality development involves 5 stages, the oral period, the anal period, the phallic period, the latency period and the genital period, each of which the child must pass through in order to fully develop and if they do not pass through each stage successfully then they may become fixated, which can later be manifested as immature behavior. • SEPARATED: Freud's theory of personality development involves 5 stages. These are the oral period, the anal period, the phallic period, the latency period and the genital period. The child must pass through each stage in order to fully develop. If they do not pass through each stage successfully then they may become fixated, which can later be manifested as immature behavior.

Definitions

Making something clear or distinct; determining outline, extent or limits. Generally, these types of devices are used for defining: analysis, classification, comparison and contrast, details, examples and incidents, negation, origins and causes, and results, effects, and uses.

Antithesis

Opposition or contrast emphasized by parallel structure. "I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a DESERT STATE sweltering with the INJUSTICE AND OPPRESSION, will be transformed into AN OASIS OF FREEDOM AND JUSTICE."—MLK, Jr.

Pronouns

Parts of speech that are special types of nouns that take the place of another noun or noun phrase and refer back to it (known as the antecedent). There are several classes of pronouns, including: Personal (I, me, we, us, you, he, him, she, her, it, they, them) Possessive (my, mine, our, ours, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, their, theirs) Reflexive (myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, themselves) Demonstrative (this, that, these, those) Reciprocal (each other, one another) Interrogative (who, whom, whose, which, what) Relative (who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose, which, whichever, what, whatever, that) Indefinite (many, the other, several, one, no one, more, both, either, neither, half, a few, fewer, everybody, some, someone, somebody, something, any, anyone, anybody, anything, and numerals).

Ad Populum Fallacy (bandwagon appeal)

Popular appeal, or appeal to the majority. The fallacy of attempting to win popular assent to a conclusion by arousing the feeling and enthusiasms of the multitude. The two main forms of this appeal are "snob appeal" and "bandwagon."