AP Euro Chapter 17
Copernican Hypothesis implications
enormous scientific and religious implications stars apparent nightly movement simply a result of the earth's rotation -destroyed the main reason for believing in crystal spheres capable of moving the stars around the earth suggested a universe of staggering size. destroyed the basic idea of Aristotelian physics -the earthly world was quite different from the heavenly one making no room for heaven or the throne of God
18th century philosophers
extended the use of reason from the study of nature to the study of human society wished to bring the same progress to human affairs as their predecessors had brought to the understanding of the natural world created concepts of human rights, equality, progress, universalism, and tolerance but also created supportive evidence from new thought to support racism and male chauvinism
1616 Catholic reaction to discoveries
the Holy Office placed the works of Copernicus and his supporters, including Kepler, on a list of books Catholics were forbidden to read
One of the keys to the achievement of a new worldview in the seventeenth century was
the development of better ways of obtaining knowledge about the world.
Kepler's other contributions
the field of optics: the first to explain the role of refraction within the eye in creating vision, and he invented an improved telescope. furnished the basis for integral calculus and advances in geometry.
Experimental method sparked
the idea that no longer should one rely on established authority. A new method of learning and investigating was being developed, one that proved useful in any field of inquiry
New Science
the search for precise knowledge of the physical world based on the union of experimental observations with sophisticated mathematics natural philosophers performed experiments and relied on increasingly complex mathematical calculations 17th century
Scientific revolution was first and foremost
an intellectual revolution its greatest impact was on how people thought and believed.
Two important thinkers
Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes -influential in describing and advocating for improved scientific methods based, respectively, on experimentation and mathematical reasoning.
1500s natural philosophy
based primarily on the ideas of Aristotle brought into harmony with Christian doctrines ~Heliocentrism (with heaven being after the last planet)
Galen's four humors
blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. Illness was believed to result from an imbalance of humors
enlightened absolutism
Term coined by historians to describe the rule of eighteenth-century monarchs who, without renouncing their own absolute authority, adopted Enlightenment ideals of rationalism, progress, and tolerance.
Experimental method
The approach, pioneered by Galileo, that the proper way to explore the workings of the universe was through repeatable experiments rather than speculation.
Galileo applied experimental method to astronomy
-discovered first four moons of Jupiter provided new evidence for the Copernican theory
Francis Bacon (1561- 1626)
And English philosopher regarded as the father of empiricism and of experimentation in science. Wrote "The Advancement of Learning" (1695), "Novum Organum" (1620), and "The New Atlantis" (1627). Bacon attacked the belief that most truth had already been discovered and only required explanation. Championed innovation and change by urging 17th century Europeans to look to the future for knowledge rather than looking to the Ancients in the past.
rationalism
A secular, critical way of thinking in which nothing was to be accepted on faith, and everything was to be submitted to reason.
empiricism
A theory of inductive reasoning that calls for acquiring evidence through observation and experimentation rather than reason and speculation.
Cartesian dualism
Descartes's view that all of reality could ultimately be reduced to mind and matter. "i think therefore I am"
natural philosophy
An early modern term for the study of the nature of the universe, its purpose, and how it functioned; it encompassed what we would call "science" today.
public sphere
An idealized intellectual space that emerged in Europe during the Enlightenment, where the public came together to discuss important issues relating to society, economics, and politics.
reading revolution
The transition in Europe from a society where literacy consisted of patriarchal and communal reading of religious texts to a society where literacy was commonplace and reading material was broad and diverse.
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
An astronomer who agreed with Copericus established himself as Europe's leading astronomer with his detailed observations of the new star of 1572 was supported financially by the king of Denmark which helped him build the most sophisticated observatory of his time Brahe acquired a new patron in the Holy Roman emperor Rudolph II and built a new observatory in Prague
Bacon's and Descartes's faults
Bacon: inability to appreciate the importance of mathematics and his obsession with practical results clearly showed the limitations of antitheoretical empiricism Descartes: demonstrated the inadequacy of rigid, dogmatic rationalism
William Harvey (1578-1657)
Modern physiology dates from his research on the cardiovascular system; "On the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals"; blood recycled, pumped out of the heart via arteries which were somehow connected to veins and returned to the heart (capillaries weren't visible).
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
challenged all old ideas of motion From Florentine and became fascinated by math during his time at the university elaborated and consolidated the experimental method formulated the law of inertia a devout Catholic who sincerely believed that his theories did not detract from the perfection of God
Science and religion
depending on the region, science was either wholeheartedly accepted and worked to develop various parts or was controlled by the religious community as it was a major part of the government
Copernican hypothesis
developed from 1506 to 1530 but wasn't published until 1543 at his death because of fear of being ridiculed The idea that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the universe.
Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
english scientist united the experimental and theoretical-mathematical sides of modern science but also loved alchemy and intensely religious
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
led the first great departure from the medieval system noted how professional astronomers still depended for their most accurate calculations on the work of Ptolemy felt that Ptolemy's cumbersome and occasionally inaccurate rules detracted from the majesty of a perfect creator preferred an ancient Greek idea: that the sun was at the center of the universe wrote On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543)
Descartes's vision during 30 Years' War
saw that there was a perfect correspondence between geometry and algebra and that geometrical spatial figures could be expressed as algebraic equations and vice versa used mathematics to elaborate a highly influential vision of the workings of the cosmos.
philosophes
A group of French intellectuals who proclaimed that they were bringing the light of knowledge to their fellow creatures in the Age of Enlightenment.
the law of inertia
A law formulated by Galileo that states that motion, not rest, is the natural state of an object, that an object continues in motion forever unless stopped by some external force. proved Aristotelian physics wrong.
Robert Boyle (1627-1691)
Anglo-Irish chemist; Boyles Law states that the volume of a gas under compression is inversely proportional to the amount of pressure; the first to make a clear distinction between a chemical element and a chemical compound; clearly defined the nature of a chemical reaction
The law of universal gravitation
Newton's law that all objects are attracted to one another and that the force of attraction is proportional to the object's quantity of matter and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. unified in one coherent system supported by his religious faith, as well as his alchemical belief in the innate powers of certain objects
salons
Regular social gatherings held by talented and rich Parisian women in their homes, where philosophes and their followers met to discuss literature, science, and philosophy.
Paracelsus (1493-1541)
Swiss alchemist; became a physician; conducted experiments designed to extract particular metals; taught that all matter was composed of combinations of salt, sulfur, and mercury; said that each disease has its own cause, which could be diagnosed and remedied; prescribed indigestion of chemicals as cures instead of bloodletting or sweating
Haskalah
The Jewish Enlightenment of the second half of the eighteenth century, led by the Prussian philosopher Moses Mendelssohn
The term science
came into use in the nineteenth century
Women and the scientific community
Women were also very much involved in informal scientific communities, attending salons, participating in scientific experiments, and writing learned treatises.
Aristotle's Views on Physics and Motion
distinguished sharply between the world of the celestial spheres and that of the earth—the sublunar world. The spheres consisted of a perfect, incorruptible "quintessence," or fifth essence. The sublunar world, however, was made up of four imperfect, changeable elements. fit with Christian doctrines. It established a home for God and a place for Christian souls. It put human beings at the center of the universe and made them the critical link in a "great chain of being" that stretched from the throne of God to the lowliest insect on earth.
Kepler's contribution to astronomy
proved mathematically the precise relations of a sun-centered (solar) system uniting for the first time the theoretical cosmology of natural philosophy with mathematics
The New Astronomy (1609)
published by Kepler and explained the first two laws of his theory of planetary motion
Andreas Vesalius (1516-1564)
studied the anatomical work of the ancient Greek physician Galen. He published On the Fabric of the Human Body (1543), which is concerned the first great work of modern science and became the foundation of modern biology.
Newly developed/perfected scientific instruments
telescope, barometer, thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope, and air pump ~led to important new knowledge
The key feature of the Newtonian synthesis
the law of universal gravitation
Newton's method of scientific inquiry
the need for scientists to first to enquire diligently into the properties of things, and to establish these properties by experiment, and then to proceed more slowly to hypotheses for the explanation of them
Response to Galileo publishing Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World (1632)
tried for heresy by the papal Inquisition. Imprisoned and threatened with torture he recanted
Long-term developments in Euro culture
-medieval university where pursued a body of knowledge and tried to arrange it meaningfully with abstract theories. Philosophy became a part of the curriculum besides law, medicine, and theology. *Developed critical thinking* -stimulated scientific progress (from Renaissance) Renaissance patrons played a role in funding scientific investigations, as they did for art and literature -printing press allowed ideas and debates to spread quickly -The navigational problems of long sea voyages in the age of overseas expansion perfected tables and scientific instruments -astrology sparked interest and exploration in the stars/planets -magic and alchemy believed that only a divine creator could infuse the universe with such meaningful mystery
Kepler's laws of planetary motion
1 - the orbits of the planets around the sun are elliptical rather than circular (1609) 2 - planets do not move at a uniform speed in their orbits (1609) (When a planet is close to the sun it moves more rapidly, and it slows as it moves farther away from the sun) 3 - the time a planet takes to make its complete orbit is precisely related to its distance from the sun (1619) (the idea of universal gravitation)
The Scientific Revolution
1540 - 1690 the real origin both of the modern world and the modern mentality new way of thinking about the natural world. It was based on careful observation and a willingness to question accepted beliefs
Other events that created doubt about traditional astronomical ideas
1572 - a new star appeared and shone brightly for two years and contradicted the idea that the heavenly spheres were unchanging and therefore perfect 1577 - a new comet suddenly moved through the sky, cutting a straight path across the supposedly impenetrable crystal spheres "the radical renovation of astronomy"
Philosophicae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy)
1687 a single explanatory system that could integrate the astronomy of Copernicus, as corrected by Kepler's laws, with the physics of Galileo and his predecessors laid down Newton's three laws of motion, using a set of mathematical laws that explain motion and mechanics.
René Descartes (1596-1650)
17th century French philosopher; wrote Discourse on Method; 1st principle "i think therefore i am"; believed mind and matter were completely separate; known as father of modern rationalism, invented analytic geometry, wrote in the vernacular, got in trouble with the catholic church and had to flee to Holland
rococo
A popular style in Europe in the eighteenth century, known for its soft pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental portraits, and starry-eyed lovers protected by hovering cupids.
Rudolfine Tables
Brahe created new and improved tables of planetary motions and dubbed it after the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II believed that all the planets except the earth revolved around the sun and that the entire group of sun and planets revolved in turn around the earth-moon system. completed in 1627 by his assistant Kepler
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
Brahe's assistant inspired by belief that the universe was built on mystical mathematical relationships and a musical harmony of the heavenly bodies. developed three new and revolutionary laws of planetary motion (was not just scientific but believed in fantasy, the musical harmony of the universe, and horoscopes) exemplifies the complex interweaving of ideas and beliefs in the emerging science of his day
Responses to Copernican's theory
Brought sharp attacks, especially from Protestants -it was counter to what the Bible said catholic response was a bit milder -Catholic Church never held to literal interpretations of the Bible, and not until 1616 did it officially declare the Copernican hypothesis false.
Why did Aristotelian teachings give way to new views about the universe?
The scientific revolution drew on long-term developments in European culture, as well as borrowings from Arabic scholars.
englightenment
The influential intellectual and cultural movement of the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that introduced a new worldview based on the use of reason, the scientific method, and progress
Natural Philosophy/Philosophers
The leaders of the fundamental new ways of understanding the natural world Field of study - natural philosophy 17th century
cameralism
View that monarchy was the best form of government, that all elements of society should serve the monarch, and that, in turn, the state should use its resources and authority to increase the public good.
Consequences of the rise of modern science
helped create the international scientific community science became competitive the new scientific community became closely tied to the state and its agendas -National academies of science were created under state sponsorship in London in 1662, Paris in 1666, Berlin in 1700, and later across Europe -developed a critical attitude toward established authority that would inspire thinkers to question traditions in other domains as well. raised barriers for women because the new academies that furnished professional credentials did not accept female members
Kepler's unorthodox brand of Lutheranism
led to his rejection by both Lutherans and Catholics
