AP Euro Chapter 18 People

Maximilien Robespierre

"Reign of Terror"; contributed to French Revolution

Tycho Brahe

"something divine that men could know the motions of the stars so accurately that they were able a long time before hand to predict their places and relative positions."; Danish; astronomer; aided by generous grants from the king of Denmark, he built the most sophisticated observatory of his day; agreed with Copernicus; his assistant was Johannes Kepler

John Maynard Keynes

20th century economist who called Newton "last of the magicians"

Lavater

A Christian zealot who challenged Moses Mendelssohn to accept Christianity or to demonstrate how the Christian faith was not "reasonable"

Pierre Bayle

A French Huguenot who despised Louis XIV and found refuge in the Netherlands; a teacher and a crusading journalist; wrote "Historical and Critical Dictionary"; developed skepticism

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

A brilliant and difficult Swiss thinker who began to attack the Enlightenment's faith in reason, progress, and moderation; appealing but neurotic individual; born into a poor family of watchmakers; powerful impact on child psychology, modern education, and the romantic movement; wrote "The Social Contract"; general will and popular sovereignty

Emelian Pugachev

A common Cossack soldier who sparked a gigantic uprising of serfs in 1773, similarly to Stenka Razin; proclaimed himself the true tsar; issued decrees abolishing serfdom, taxes, and army service; later captured and savagely executed; his rebellion was a decisive turning point in Catherine's domestic policy

The international scientific community

A new and expanding social group; their rise went hand in hand with the rise of modern science; members of this community were linked together by common interest and shared values as well as by journals and the learned scientific societies founded in many countries in the later 17th and 18th centuries; their primary goal was the expansion of knowledge

René Descartes

A true genius who made his first discovery in mathematics; served in 30 Years' War; saw direct correspondence between geometry and algebra; devolved "Cartesian dualism"; believe one must doubt everything; deductive, mathematical reasoning; analytical geometry

Peter the Great (aka Peter I)

Abolished hereditary succession of tsars so that he could name his successors and thus preserve his policies; his youngest daughter, Elizabeth, came to the Russian thrown in 1741

Polish Diet

All important decisions continued to require the unanimous agreement of all nobles elected to this

The Public

All the French and European economic and social elite, many of which were joined together in the 18th century concept of the educated or enlightened public

Austria

Allied with France and Russia during Seven Years' War

John Calvin

Also condemned Copernicus

Jews

An oppressed group in Prussia; confined to tiny overcrowded ghettos; excluded by law from most business and professional activities

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Austrian prodigy; played his own composition at an "English tea" given by the Princess de Conti near Paris when he was 7 years old; produced a vast range of symphonies, operas, and chamber music

Dennis Diderot

Began his career as a hack writer; wanted the "Encyclopedia" to "change the general way of thinking"

Catholics and Protestants

Believed that religious truth was absolute and therefore worth fighting and dying for; believed that a strong state required unity in religious faith

Johannes Kepler

Brahe's brilliant young assistant; mathematician and astronomer; German; formulated three famous laws of planetary motion; the orbits around the sun are elliptical rather than circular; planets do not move at a uniform speed in their orbits; the time a planet takes to make its complete orbit is precisely related to its distance from the sun

Johnny Witherspoon

Brought Scottish philosophy to Princeton University in America

King Charles II

Brought together the Royal Society

Prussia, Russia, and Austria

By far the most influential of the new style monarchs were here

German scholars

Called the time period in Europe accompanied by increase literature/reading a "reading revolution"

Peter III

Came to the Russian throne in 1762 and called off the attack against Frederick whom he greatly admired

Denmark

Carried out an extensive and progressive land reform in the 1780s that practically abolished serfdom and gave Danish peasants secure tenure on their farms

Russian nobility

Catherine westernized their thinking

John Harrison

Clock-making genius who won a princely prize - offered from Parliament - for being the first person to solve the longitude problem; created an amazingly accurate time piece that permitted precise calculation of longitude at sea; created the world's best shipboard clock

King of Sweden and Catherine the Great of Russia

Corresponded with Madame Geoffrin

Martin Meytens

Court painter who painted Maria Theresa and her husband with 11 of their 16 children at Schönbrunn palace

Maria Theresa

Daughter of King Charles VI; inherited the Habsburg dominions; she was forced to cede almost all of Silesia to Prussia; her sons were Joseph II and Leopold II; a remarkable but old-fashioned absolutist; emerged from the long War of the Austrian Succession; introduced measures aimed at limiting the papacy's politically influence in her realm; sought to improve the lot of agricultural population

Mary Shelly

Daughter of Wollstonecraft

Immanuel Kant

Defined the "Enlightenment"; a professor in East Prussia and the greatest German philosopher of the age; argued that if serious thinkers were granted the freedom to exercise their reason publicly in print, then enlightenment would almost surely follow; suggested that precious Frederick the great was an enlightened monarch precisely because he permitted such freedom of the press

Evangelists Torticelli

Developed the barometer (measures air pressure)

Atheists

Did not believe in heaven or anything spiritual; ex "The Three Imposters"

Louis XIV

Died in 1715; absolute monarchy in France; brutally expelled the French Huguenots in 1685; his revocation of the Edict of Nantes was a major cause of the enlightenment

Physiocrats

Economists; think that we should have political science; thought that we should get rid of tariffs, guilles, etc; thought that progress/prosperity is grounded in agriculture

Dennis Diderot and Jean Le Rond d'Alembert

Edited the "Encyclopedia: The Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Crafts"; sought out to teach people how to think critically and objectively about all matters

Peter III

Elizabeth's nephew and Catherine's husband

Medici Grand Dukes of Tuscany

Employed Galileo in Florence

Francis Bacon

English politician and writer; the greatest early propagandist for the new experimental method; formalized the empirical method into empiricism; argued that scientific discoveries will bring riches and power; inductive experimentalism; advocated the experimental approach precisely because it was open-minded and independent of any preconceived religious or philosophical ideas

François Vierne

Established analytical trigonometry

Royal Society of London

Established as a result of the close tie between practical men and scientists from Gresham College; published scientific papers and sponsored scientific meetings

Peoples of China, India, Africa, and the Americas

Europeans were learning that they all had their own very different beliefs and customs

François Marie Arouet

Example of Diests/Anticlericals; wrote "Candide" and "Letter Concerning the English Nation"; his remains were placed in the Pantheon; the most famous and in many ways most representative philosophe; known by pen name Voltaire; died a millionaire because of shrewd business speculations; imprisoned in the Bastille in Paris for eleven months; all his life he struggles against legal injustice and unequal treatment from the law; met Madame du Châtelet; wrote that Newton was history's greatest man; "It is the man who sways our minds by the prevalence of reason and the native voice of truth, not they who reduce mankind to a state of slavery by force and downright violence... that claims our reverence and admiration."; wrote "Age of Louis XIV"; admired Frederick the Great as a free thinker and an enlightened monarch; "are very rarely worthy to govern themselves."; Catherine called him the "champion of the human race"

John Locke

Example of Moderate/Conservative; wrote "Essay Concerning Human Understanding"; published "Second Treatise of Civil Government"; rejected the prevailing view of Descartes; insisted that all people derived from experience; believed that the human mind was like a blank tablet "tabula rasa"; known as "the Newton of the mind"; contradicted idea of natural sin; shaped early stages of revolution in France

Elite women

Exercised an unprecedented feminine influence on artistic taste; developed rococo style which was popular in Europe in the 18th century; their influence went hand in hand with the emergence of polite society

Sir Thomas Gresham

Famous Elizabethan financier; left a large amount of money to establish Gresham College in London; 3/7 college professors had to teach science

Adam Smith

Father of Capitalism and modern economics; wrote "The Wealth of Nations"; free enterprise

Thomas Jefferson

Father of Declaration of Independence; perfect representation of European Enlightenment; interested in science, attitudes, ideas, and toleration in Paris; created Monticello

Galileo Galilei

Florentine scientist; became a professor of mathematics; elaborated and consolidated the experimental method; formulated the law of inertia; wrote "Two New Sciences"; discovered the first four moons of Jupiter; painted the moon; wrote "Siderus Nuncius"; published "Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World"; tried for heresy by the papal Inquisition; "renouncing and cursing"; "and yet it moves"

Isaac Newton

Formulated a new synthesis - a single explanatory system that would comprehend motion both on earth and in the skies; sought the elixir of life; known as "the last of the magicians"; intensely religious; wrote "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" aka the "Principia" (in Latin); law of universal gravitation; "If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants."; devout/unorthodox Christian who sought all of his studies as directed toward explaining God's message

Marie-Jean Caritat

French aristocrat; the marquis de Condorcet; transformed the Enlightenment into fanciful Utopianism; wrote "Progress of the Human Mind" in 1794 during the French Revolution; preferred death by his own hand than by the blade of a guillotine

Jean le Rond d'Alembert

French philosophe who characteristically made a sharp distinction between the "truly enlightened public" and "the blind and noisy multitude"; one of Europe's leading scientists and mathematicians

Houdon

French sculptor who sculpted an impish Voltaire

Pope Urban VIII

Galileo's religious issues were presented to him; permitted Galileo to write about different possible systems of the world as long as he did not presume to judge which one actually existed

Duke of Orléans

Governed as regent until 1723; favored the nobility in France; restored the parlements; sanctioned a counterweight to absolute power

Gregory Orlov

He was selected as Catherine's new lover; tall, dashing young officer; with his four officer brothers, commanded considerable support among the soldiers stationed in St. Petersburg

Princess de Conti

Held an "English tea" where 7-year-old Mozart played his own composition

Madame Geoffrin

Held one of the most famous salons; known as the unofficial godmother of the "Encyclopedia"; developed a twice weekly salon that counted Fontenelle and Montesquieu among its regular guests; gave the encyclopedists generous financial aid and help to save their enterprise from collapse; corresponded with the King of Sweden and Catherine the Great of Russia

Deistic God

In Voltaire's eyes, the great Clockmaker who built an orderly universe and then stepped aside and let it run

The philosophes, the French Nobility, and the prosperous middle class

Intermingled and increasingly influenced one another at the salons

Moses Mendelssohn

Jewish thinker; urged that Jews be given freedom and civil rights; Frederick the great did not listen to him; wrote "On the Immorality of the Soul"; wrote about Socrates and the Greeks; pious Jew; Enlightenment teachings could complement Jewish thought/religion; came to Berlin "to learn"; Orthodox Jew and German philosophe

Leopold II

Joseph II's brother; was forced to cancel Joseph's radical edicts in order to reestablish order

Frederick the Great

King of Prussia; built masterfully on the work of his father, Frederick William the first; embraced culture and literature, even writing poetry and fine prose in French; also known as Frederick II; invaded Maria's rich and German province of Silesia; succeeded in the European War of the Austrian Succession; promoted tolerance, the advancement of knowledge, improving his country's schools, and permitting scholars to publish their findings; "I must enlighten my people, cultivate their manners and morals..."; "only the first servant of the state."

Joseph II

Known as the "revolutionary emperor"; a tragic hero whose lofty reforms were undone by the land owning nobility he dared to challenge; a talented ruler in Austria; son of Maria Theresa; controlled the established Catholic Church even more closely; granted religious toleration; abolished serfdom; brother of Leopold II

Parlement of Paris

Led the vigorous protest from many sides against Louis XV's new tax implications; often conflicted with the monarchy (Louis XV)

Louis XV

Louis XIV's great-grandson; succeeded Louis XIV when he was 5 years old; appointed a finance minister who decreed a 5% income tax on every individual regardless of social status; interested in his mistresses; "The magistrates are my officers... In my person only does the sovereign power rest."

Rene de Maupeou

Louis appointed him as chancellor and ordered him to crush the judicial opposition; a tough Carreras official

Felix Mendelssohn

Moses Mendelssohn's grandson; famous composer

Dorothea Mendelssohn

Moses Mendelssohn's novelist daughter

The ruler

Most enlightenment thinkers outside of England and the Netherlands believed that political change could best come from this person

Angels

Moved the crystals in circles

Orlov brothers

Murdered Peter III

Philosophes

One of history's most influential groups of intellectuals; attributed with the acceptance of many of the new ideas; proudly and effectively proclaimed that they, at long last were bringing the light of knowledge to their ignorant fellow creatures in an Age of Enlightenment; French word for philosopher; models for intellect; created the "Encyclopedia"; tried to reach/influence the public; wrote through multiple mediums - like novels and plays - because direct attacks would probably be banned/burned; distrusted "the people"

The baron de Montesquieu

One of the greatest philosophes; pioneered the use of several mediums to spread the philosophes' message; wrote "The Persian Letters"; used wit as a weapon against cruelty and superstition; member of the high French nobility; wrote "The Spirit of Laws"; promoted liberty and prevented tyranny; despotism could be prevented through a separation of powers; a strong independent upper class was important to him; "it is necessary that by the arrangement of things, power checks power."; adored the English balance of power

Catherine the Great of Russia

One of the most remarkable rulers who ever lived; the French Philosophes adored her; a German princess from Anhalt-Zerbst; her father commanded a regiment of the Prussian army; her mother was related to the Romanovs of Russia; intelligent and attractive; married Peter III (Elizabeth's nephew); endlessly read writers such as Bayle and Voltaire; wrote her own "Memoirs"; "I did not care about Peter but I did care about the crown."; selected as her lover Gregory Orlov; wanted to 1) westernize/bring sophistication to Russia 2)domestic reform 3)territorial expansion; "I have come back to live life like a frozen fly; I am gay and well."

Madame du Châtelet

Originally known as Gabrielle-Emilie Le Tonnelier Breteuil; met Voltaire; became his life-long companion; an intellectually gifted woman from the high aristocracy with a passion for science; studied physics and mathematics and published scientific articles and translations; perhaps the finest representative of a small number of elite French woman and the scientific accomplishments during the enlightenment; translated Newton's "Principia" into French; excluded from Royal Academy of Sciences; " I would reform and abuse which cuts off, so to speak, half the human race. I would make woman participate in all the rights of humankind, and above all in those of the intellect."

Peter Paul Reubans

Painted "The Four Philosophers" or "Les Quatres Philosophes"

Elizabeth

Peter the Great's youngest daughter; came to the throne in 1741; a shrewd but crude woman; named her nephew Peter III heir to the throne and chose Catherine to be his wife in 1744

Nicolaus Copernicus

Polish clergyman and astronomer; began the first great departure from the medieval system; theorized that the stars and planets (including Earth) revolved around a fixed sun; wrote "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres"

Giordano Bruno

Radical monk

Julie de Lespinasse

Received help from the salons; developed her own salon; epitomized the skills of the enlightenment hostess

Junker Nobility

Remained the backbone of the army and the entire Prussian State

Charles VI

Ruler of Austria; his daughter, Maria Theresa, inherited the Hapsburg dominion when he died in 1740

David Hume

Scottish philosopher; his carefully argued skepticism had a powerful long-term influence; argued that the human mind is really nothing but a bundle of impressions; wrote "The Treatise on Human Nature"

Paris, France

Set the example for conversations regarding Enlightenment ideas

Protestants

Sharply attacked the Copernican Hypothesis

Europeans

Shaved their faces and let their hair grow; men bowed before women to show respect

Turks

Shaved their heads and let their beards grow

Martin Luther

Spoke of Copernicus as "new astrologer who wants to prove that the earth moves round... The fool wants to turn the whole art of astronomy upside down."; "as the Holy Scripture tells us, so did Joshua bid the sun stand still and not the earth."

Louis XVI

Succeeded Louis XV; a shy 20-year-old with good intentions; "What I should like most is to be loved."; dismissed Maupeou

Poland

Suffered Great partition because of Catherine the Great

Aristotle

The Greek philosopher of the fourth century BC; traditional European ideas about the universe were still based primarily on his ideas; he believed a motionless earth was fixed at the center of the universe; geocentric

Saint Geneviere

The Pantheon was originally named after him

Minerva

The Roman goddess of wisdom; some intriguing ads for the latest works offers to put customers "Under the Protection of ..."

French tutors

The education of the rich and the powerful across Europe often lay in their hands, espousing enlightenment ideas

Democrats and nationalists

The general will appealed greatly to them

The people

The great majority of the population; common people; different from the public; the philosophes distrusted them

The Crimean Tartars

The last descendants of the Mongols; Catherine's armies subjugated them

Ptolemy

The last great ancient astronomer, who had lived in Alexandria in second century AD

Bernard de Fontenelle

The most famous and influential popularizer; a very versatile French man of letters; tried to make science witty and entertaining for a broad nonscientific audience; wrote "Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds"; "each star may well be a different world"; one of many who emphasized progress; was skeptical about absolute truth and cynical about the claims of organized religion; wrote "Eulogies of Scientists"

The parlements

The thirteen high courts in France; believed to be the frontline defenders of liberty against royal despotism by Montasquieu

Jesus, Moses, and Mohammed

The three imposters

France

Their cultural leadership was reinforced by the fact that it was still the wealthiest and most populous country in Europe

Bacon's followers

Their work during Oliver Cromwell's commonwealth helped solidify the neutrality and independence of science

The French Police

They did their best to stamp out underground literature

Siam men

Turned his back on a women when he met her because it was disrespectful to look directly at her

Francis Bacon and René Descartes

Two important thinkers who represented key aspects of this improvement in scientific methodology (development of better ways of obtaining knowledge around the world)

Prussia

Unquestionably tower above all the other German states and starred as a European great power; doubled its population to 6 million people in one stroke

Baron Paul d'Holbach

Wealthy German-born but French educated; wrote "System of Nature"; argued that human beings were machines completely determined by outside forces; deeply atheist and determinist; published works in the Netherlands

Wollstonecraft

Wrote "A Vindication of the Rights of Women"; her daughter was Mary Shelly

Hobbes

Wrote "Leviathan"; believed man was cruel and needed strict governmentt control; "nasty, brutish, and short"

Robert Boyle

Wrote "Origin of Forms and Quality"; Boyle's Law