AP Psych Unit 7 Key Terms, AP Psych Unit 6 Key Terms, AP Psych Unit 2 Key Terms, AP Psych Unit 1 Key Terms, AP Psych Unit 5 Key Terms, AP Psych Unit 4 Key Terms, AP Psych Unit 3 Key Terms
Informed Consent
Ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
Environment
Every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to people and things around us.
Culture
Everything shared by a group and transmitted across generations.
Frontal Lobes
Execute functioning, speaking, voluntary muscle movements, making plans and judgements, problem solving, personality, intelligence, memory
Cingulate Gyrus
Experiencing emotions (b/t limbic system and prefrontal cortex).
G. Stanley Hall (1846-1924)
-Established the first psychological laboratory at Johns Hopkins University in the 1880s. -Was appointed as the first president of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1892.
Positive Correlation
2 sets of scores tend to rise or fall together
Personality Inventory
A questionnaire (often with T-F or A-D items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits. (objective--> doesn't guarantee validity)
Mutation
A random error in gene replication that leads to a change (or new gene combos)
Self-Serving Bias
A readiness to perceive oneself favorably.
evolutionary psychology
A relatively new specialty in psychology that sees behavior and mental processes in terms of their genetic adaptations for survival and reproduction Someone working from the evolutionary perspective might analyze how anger facilitated the survival of our ancestors' genes
Skewed Distribution
A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value / way-out scores (picture the whale tail). Measure of Central Tendency
Experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variables. [isolate cause and effect]
Random Sample
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. Picking people from the population
Stereotype Threat
A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. This doesn't fully account for the black-white aptitude score difference.
Scientific Method
A self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis. Hypothesis, experiment, analysis, theory
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
Multiple Intelligences
A theory of intelligence that differentiates it into specific categories, rather than seeing intelligence as dominated by a single general ability.
Pitch
A tone's exponential highness or lowness; depends on frequency
Gender Typing
Acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.
Population
All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.
Reflex
Automatic responses to stimuli. Ex: Hand jerks away from flame before the brain receives and responds to info that causes you to feel pain.
Aggression
Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.
Preconscious
Area we can retrieve thoughts into conscious awareness.
Association Areas
Areas of cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. Interpret, integrate, and act on sensory information and link it with stored memories. -Found in all 4 lobes -Prefrontal cortex -Phineas Gage -Also math + spatial reasoning, recognizing faces, acquisition/development/use of language
Subliminal
Below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness. Can subtly influence people. ●We can evaluate stimuli even when we aren't aware of it. ●When stimulus triggers synchronized activity in several brain areas does it reach consciousness.
Plasticity
Brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or building new pathways based on experiences. Diminishes later in life.
psychometrics
Branch of psychology devoted to studying the measurement of our abilities, attitudes, and traits.
Motor Neurons
Carry information from the brain/spinal cord to the body's tissues/muscles/glands.
Cell Body
Cell's life-support center.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
Complex molecule containing genetic info that makes up the chromosomes.
Intelligence
Concept of success in one's own time and culture + the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
Somatic Nervous System
Controls the voluntary movement of the body's skeletal muscles + the things you think about doing (all the info coming in thru your senses).
Habituation
Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
Cochlear Implant
Device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea (restore hearing)
Placebo Effect
Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
experimental psychology
Explore behavior and thinking with experiments
social psychology
Exploring how we view and affect one another.
Validity
Extent to which a test measures or predicts what it's supposed to.
Validity
Extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it's supposed to.
Content Validity
Extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest.
Reliability
Extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on 2 halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting.
Representative Sample
Group of people that accurately represents a large group of people. Best basis for generalizing is from this.
Mental Age
Measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance.
Interneurons
Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between sensory inputs and motor outputs (have most complexity)
Hippocampus
Processes conscious memories (long term memory storage)
Cornea
Protects eye and bends light to provide focus.
Denial
Refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities.
Split-Half Reliability
Relating to or denoting a technique of splitting a body of supposedly homogeneous data into two halves and calculating the results separately for each to assess their reliability.
Empirically Derived Test
Relying on information from observation or experimentation like the MMPI.
Replication
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.
Negative Correlation
Scores relate inversely, one set going up as the other goes down.
Evolutionary Psychology Today
Second Darwinian revolution: Application of evolutionary principles to psychology.
Myelin Sheath
Some axons are encased in this: a layer of fatty tissue that insulates axons + speeds their impulses.
IMPORTANT!
Study Tables 59.1 and 59.2
SQ3R study skills
Study method: -Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, Review -Distribute your study time -Learn to think critically -In class, listen actively -Overlearn -Be a smart test-taker
Psychophysics
Study of relationships between physical characteristics of stimuli, such as intensity, and our psychological experience of them.
educational psychology
Studying influences on teaching and learning.
Predictive Validity
Success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (criterion of future performance) (intelligence tests)
Reaction Formation
Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites.
Normal Curve (Normal Distribution) (Figure 7.3 On Module 7)
Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near mean (68%; one standard deviation) and fewer and fewer near the extremes
Normal Curve (Figure 61.2)
Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.
IMPORTANT
Table 60.1 (Comparing Theories of Intelligence)
Social Identity
The "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I" that comes from our group memberships. [like culture, peers]
psychodynamic psychology
The clinical viewpoint emphasizing the understanding of mental disorders in terms of unconscious needs, desires, memories and conflicts Someone working from the psychodynamic perspective might view an outburst as an outlet for unconscious hostility
nature-nurture issue
The controversy over the relative contributions of biology and experience. Do our human traits develop through experience, or are we born with them?
Independent Variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. (What is changed)
Priming
The implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus.
Dependent Variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable; effect of one or more I.V. on some measurable behavior. (What is measured)
Random Selection
The subjects are randomly chosen to be a part of the experiment so people have an equal chance of being in the experiment or not. The picking of participants is not biased.
Menopause
The time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to biological changes a woman experiences as her abiliyu to reproduce declines (around 50).
Amygdala
Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters that are linked to strong emotions. (aggression, fear)
Transgender
Umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex. (gender expression; transsexual)
Repression
Underlies all other defense mechanisms. The basic mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing impulses and enables other defense mechanisms.
Hans Eysenck & Sybil Eysenck
We can reduce many of our normal individual variations to 2-3 dimensions, including extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability. These factors are genetically influenced. Created Eysenck personality inventory (empirical)
Social Learning Theory
We learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.
Conception
When a woman's ovary releases a mature egg. Sperm release digestive enzymes that eat away egg's protective coating. They then fuse. ●Woman: Eggs= from birth ●Men: Sperm= from puberty
Neo-Freudians
Young, ambitious physicians who formed an inner circle around Freud / pioneering psychoanalysts / accepted Freud's basic ideas. Soon broke off.
Self-Actualization
Living up to your full potential.
cognitive psychology
To explore scientifically the ways we perceive, process, and remember information. Someone working from the cognitive perspective might study how our interpretation of a situation affects our anger and how our anger affects our thinking.
Sublimation
Transferring of unacceptable impulses into socially valued motives.
Adolescence
Transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence (time of validity).
Chromosomes
●Get 23 by mom, 23 by dad (coiled chain of DNA) ●2 strands of DNA connected in a double helix
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
-1859 wrote On the Origin of Species which explained this diversity of life by proposing the evolutionary process of natural selection -Natural selection shapes behaviors + bodies. -Variation + Adaptation + Evolution -Nature vs. Nurture issue
psychiatry
-A medical specialty dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders -Medical doctors licensed to prescribe drugs and otherwise treat physical causes of psychological disorders.
Dorothea Dix (1802-1887)
-A teacher, nurse, humanitarian, and social reformer for the mentally ill -Campaigned across the nation. -Worked to reform American prisons: called the penitentiary movement.
Aristotle (384-322 bc)
-Ancient Greek + Plato's student -Prescientific Psychology -Had a love of data -Focused on logic and systematic observation -Knowledge is not preexisting but grows from the experiences stored in our memories -There is nothing in the mind that does not first come in from the external world through the senses -Placed emphasis on the power of reason
clinical psychology
-Assess & treat mental, emotional, and behavior disorders -Administer and interpret tests, provide counseling and therapy, and sometimes conduct basic and applied research.
The Big Five Personality Factors (Table 58.1) (empirical)
-Conscientiousness -Agreeableness -Neuroticism (emotional stability vs. instability) -Openness -Extraversion
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
-Developed the influential psychoanalytic theory of personality -Emphasized the ways emotional responses to childhood experiences and our unconscious thought processes affect our behavior.
John B. Watson (1878-1958)
-Dismissed introspection and redefined psychology as "the scientific study of observable behavior." -Studied how consequences shape behavior. -Behaviorist -Championed psychology as the science of behavior -Worked with Rayner and demonstrated conditioned responses in a baby who became famous as "Little Albert." -Classical conditioning
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
-Dismissed introspection and redefined psychology as "the scientific study of observable behavior." -Studied how consequences shape behavior. -Behaviorist -Skinner Box
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
-Established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1879 -Birth of psychology at Leipzig in 1879 with Wundt and 2 helpers: Reaction time experiment; psychology's 1st experiment -Measure "atoms of the mind"—the fastest and simplest mental processes. -Teacher of Edward Bradford Titchener -Inner sensations, images, and feelings. -Structuralism -Psychology is the science of mental life -Based his research on the scientific method.
natural selection
-From among chance variations, nature selects the traits that best enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment. -Shapes behaviors as well as bodies.
William James (1842-1910)
-Functionalist -Focused on evolutionary or adaptive views of behavior. -He tutored Calkins alone. -Engaged in introspective examination of the stream of consciousness and of emotion. -Psychology should explain how people adapted-or failed to adapt-to everyday life outside the laboratory. -Published "The Principles of Psychology" in 1890, Psychology's first textbook.
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)
-Gestalt psychologist -Argued against dividing human thought and behavior into discrete structures. -Examine a person's total experience (whole experience is often more than the sum of the parts of the experience) -Relevant in the study of Sensation and Perception
counseling psychology
-Help people to cope with challenges and crises (including academic, vocational, and marital issues) and to improve their personal and social functioning. -Administer and interpret tests, provide counseling and therapy, and sometimes conduct basic and applied research.
Ethical Considerations for Animals
-Humane treatment and care -Minimize illness, infection, and pain -Adequate justification for pain -Obtain animals legally -Natural Living Conditions
E.B. Titchener (1867-1927)
-Introduced the early school of structuralism -Aimed to discover the structural elements of mind. -Engage people in self-reflective introspection (looking inward) -Founded the organization of experimental psychologists -Inner sensations, images, and feelings.
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)
-James admitted her into his graduate seminar and the other students (all men) dropped out. -James tutored her alone. -She finished requirements for Harvard Ph.D. Harvard denied her the degree, offering her instead a degree from Radcliffe College. She refused the degree. -Distinguished memory researcher and American Psychological Association's (APA's) 1st female president in 1905.
behavioral psychology
-Look strictly at observable behaviors and what reaction organisms get in response to specific behaviors. -Emphasis on environmental influences. Someone working from the behavioral perspective might attempt to determine which external stimuli trigger angry responses or aggressive acts
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
-Pioneer of humanistic psychology with Abraham Maslow -Rebelled against Freudian psychology (psychoanalytic) and behaviorism. -Emphasized the importance of current environmental influences on our growth potential, and the importance of having our needs for love and acceptance satisfied. -Client-centered therapy.
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
-Pioneer of humanistic psychology with Carl Rogers -Rebelled against Freudian psychology (psychoanalytic) and behaviorism. -Emphasized the importance of current environmental influences on our growth potential, and the importance of having our needs for love and acceptance satisfied. -Hierarchy of needs.
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
-Pioneered the study of learning -Behavioral perspective -Classical conditioning When dogs heard the bell, that meant they got food. He taught the dogs to salivate at the sound of the bell even if they didn't get food.
René Descartes (1596-1650)
-Prescientific Psychology -Existence of innate ideas (nature) and mind's being "entirely distinct from body" and able to survive its death. -Human sensations and behaviors were based on activity in the nervous system. -Nature vs. Nurture issue -Knowledge does not depend on experience -Cartesian Dualism Mind and body are in constant interaction. Essence of the mind is thought. Mind is a substance distinct from the body. Believed only humans have minds.
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
-Prescientific Psychology -His ideas led most directly to the view known as empiricism -One of the founders of modern science -Fascinated by the human mind and its failings -Foresaw research findings on our noticing and remembering events that confirm our beliefs
Ethical Considerations for Humans
-Protection from harm/discomfort -Informed consent -Confidentiality -Debriefing -Justify experiment
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) [MAN]
-The last century's most influential observer of children -Described developmental stages of childhood and adolescence -Most famous cognitive psychologist
levels of analysis
-The various ways of observation in psychology -Biological, cognitive, and sociocultural
Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939)
-When Harvard denied Calkins the claim to being psychology's 1st female psychology Ph.D., this woman because the 1st. -Functionalist -Synthesized animal behavior research in The Animal Mind. -2nd female APA president in 1921. -She was barred from joining the organization of experimental psychologists.
Rosalie Rayner (1899-1935)
-Worked with John B. Watson -Demonstrated conditioned responses in a baby who became famous as "Little Albert."
John Locke (1632-1704)
-Wrote An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, in which he famously argued that the mind at birth is a tabula rasa—a "blank slate"—on which experience writes. -Nothing is innate or in-born. -Nature vs. Nurture issue (believed in nurture) -This helped form modern empiricism
Goals for Tests of Mental Abilities
1) Benefits from early intervention 2) Intelligence test scores--> Misinterpreted to be measure of worth or potential 3) Intelligence test is important, but practical and emotional intelligence matter too / creativity, talent, character
Debate on Intelligence
1) One aptitude or many? 2) Linked to cognitive speed? 3) Neurologically measurable?
Criticisms of Evolutionary Perspective
1. Starts with and effect and works backward to propose an explanation. 2. Social consequences (genetic determinism) 3. Blurs line between genetics and culture/traditions Evolutionary psychologists respond with: understanding our predispositions can help us overcome them.
Developmental Psychology
A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span, with a focus on three major issues: ●Nature and Nurture -Interaction b/t gene combination from mom/dad + experiences -Bio, psych, and social-cultural forces interact ●Continuity and Stages -Experience/learning = slow, continuous development -Biological = developmental stages/steps (everyone passes through the stages in the same order) ●Stability and Change [both are a factor] -Temperament is stable -Cannot predict all our eventual traits based on the early years of life -Changes can occur w/o changing a person's position relative to others of the same age.
Operational Definition
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. (measures)
Schema
A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.
Confounding Variable
A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.
Sampling Bias
A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample. (statistics vs. biased)
Scatterplot
A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter=high correlation)
structuralism
A historical school of psychology devoted to uncovering the basic structures that make up mind and thought-sought to find the "elements" of conscious experience
functionalism
A historical school of psychology that believed mental processes could best be understood in terms of their evolutionary adaptive purposes and functions
gestalt psychology
A historical school of psychology that sought to understand how the brain works by studying perception and perceptual learning. Believed that percepts consist of meaningful wholes
Test Retest Reliability
A measure of reliability obtained by administering the same test twice over a period of time to a group of individuals. The scores from Time 1 and Time 2 can then be correlated in order to evaluate the test for stability over time.
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other. Help us predict and uncover naturally occurring relationships.
Perceptual Set (top-down)
A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. Schemas help with this.
Intelligence Test
A method for assessing an individuals mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.
Antagonist
A molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response.
Agonist
A molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response (mimic neurotransmitter or block reuptake).
Neuron
A nerve cell; basic building block of the nervous system.
Reuptake
A neurotransmitter reabsorption by the sending neuron (recycle of neurotransmitters).
Temperament
A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.
Personality
A person's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
Correlation Coefficient
A statistical index of the relationship b/t two variables (from -1.0 to +1.0). How well either one predicts the other and reveals extent to which 2 things relate. The closer to -1 or +1, the stronger the connection
Statistical Significance
A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. Observed difference is probably not due to chance variation between samples. Proof means not making much of a finding unless the odds of its occurring by chance are less than 5%. Reliable large difference. Indicates the likelihood that a result will happen by chance. But this does not say anything about the importance of the result.
Cocktail Party Effect
Ability to attend to only 1 voice among many.
Depth Perception
Ability to see objects in 3-D although the images that strike the retina are 2-D; allows us to judge distance (partially innate).
Gustav Fecher
Absolute Threshold
Pupil
Adjustable opening the center of the eye where light enters.
Teratogens
Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.
Neural Communication
All animals' nervous systems and brains operate similarly.
Cognition
All mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
Self-Concept
All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
Intensity
Amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness/loudness--> determined by wave's amplitude.
Temporal Lobes
Auditory areas (hearing): each receive information from the opposite ear, memory, understanding speech
Double-Blind Procedure
An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. Researchers eventually find out.
Theory
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
Gestalt
An organized whole. These psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. -In perception, the whole may exceed the sum of its parts -Our brain does more than register information about the world
Case Study
Analyses of special individuals. A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. Individual cases can suggest fruitful ideas + describes behavior. Study of one particular specialized person, not representative
Surveys and Interviews
Asking people questions. Looks at many cases in less depth; technique for ascertaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group, usually by questioning a random sample Can get a lot of info, small amount of time spent with participants, people can lie, all about interpretation of ?
Achievement Tests
Assesses what a person has learned.
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups. Controls for possible confounding variables. Experiment only
Correlational Methods (Table 6.3 On Module 6)
Associate different factors, or variables.
Motion Perception
Assumption that shrinking objects are retreating and enlarging objects are approaching. Large objects appear to move more slowly than small ones.
Fixation
At any point in these stages, strong conflict could _______ the person's pleasure-seeking energies in that stage.
Pruning Process
At puberty, used neural connections strengthen, and unused neural pathways weaken.
Acceptance (Unconditional Positive Regard)
Attitude of total acceptance and support of another person. Non-judgemental: values us even knowing our failings.
Internal Locus Of Control
Base their success on their own work and believe they control their life.
Social-Cognitive Perspective
Behavior is influenced by interaction between peoples traits and their social context. (mental processes)
Retinal Disparity
Binocular cues for perceiving depth: by comparing images from the retinas in the 2 eyes, the brain computes distance- the greater the difference between the 2 images, the closer the object.
Figure 15.1: Biopsychosocial Approach to Individual Development
Biological Influences -Shared human genome -Individual genetic variations -Prenatal environment -Sex-related genes, hormones, and physiology Psychological Influences -Gene-environment interaction -Neurological effect of early experiences -Responses evoked by our own personality, gender, etc. -Beliefs, feelings, and expectations Social-cultural Influences -Parent Influences -Peer Influences -Cultural attitudes and norms -Cultural gender norms *All lead to individual development
Sexual Development
Biology may influence gender differences: differing sex chromosomes (genetics) and differing concentrations of sex hormones (physiological)
Primary Sex Characteristics
Body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.
Intersex
Born with intermediate or unusual combinations of male and female physical features.
Feedback system
Brain --> Pituitary --> Other Glands --> Hormones --> Body and Brain (NS directs endocrine secretions, which affect NS)
Context Effects (physical and emotional; top-down)
Brain can work backward in time to allow a later stimulus to determine how we perceive an earlier one.
Stroboscopic Movement
Brain perceives continuous movement in a rapid series of slightly varying objects.
basic research
Builds psychology's knowledge base.
Nerves
Bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
Charles Darwin
Came up with a principle called natural selection.
Pop-Out
Can see distinct stimuli.
Collective Unconscious
Carl Jung's belief that we have a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history--> spiritual concerns are deeply rooted, dif. cultures share certain beliefs. (discounted in modern world)
Sensory Neurons
Carries messages from body's tissues and sensory receptors inward to the brain and spinal cord for processing.
Life-Span Perspective
Development is lifelong.
Middle Ear
Chamber between eardrum and cochlea containing malleus, incus, and stapes that concentrate vibrations of eardrum on cochlea's oval window.
Trait
Characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.
Psychosexual Stages
Childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.
Parenting or Temperament (Nature)?
Children's anxiety over separation from parents peaks at 13 months, then gradually declines.
Intellectual Disability
Condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life.
Down Syndrome
Condition of mild to severe Intellectual Disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.
Split Brain
Condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's 2 hemispheres by cutting the fibers (corpus callosum) connecting them.
3 Layers of the Mind
Conscious, Preconscious, Unconscious
biopsychosocial approach
Considers the influences of biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors
Nucleus
Contains genetic master code for the body.
Nucleus
Contains the genetic material in the form of chromosomes.
Transduction
Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret. ●Receive sensory stimulation, often using specialized receptor cells. ●Transform that stimulation into neural impulses. ●Deliver the neural info to our brain.
Social Clock
Culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
Standardization
Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.
Monocular Cues
Depth cues available to either eye alone (only 1 eye). ●Relative motion -Objects in front move backward -Farther an object from fixation point = faster it seems to move
Binocular Cues
Depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of 2 eyes.
Descriptive Methods (Table 6.3 On Module 6)
Describe behaviors, often by using case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations.
Rorschach Inkblot Test
Designed by Hermann Rorschach, a set of 10 inkblots; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots. (most widely used, but discredited)
David Wechsler
Developed the most widely used individual intelligence test called the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS).
Hue
Dimension of color that is determined by wavelength of light.
Sensory Adaptation
Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. -Our eyes are always moving unconsciously -Freedom to focus on informative changes in our environment without being distracted by background chatter.
Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke
Discovered specialized language brain areas called Broca's Area and Wernicke's Area.
Projection
Disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.
Wavelength
Distance from peak of one light or sound-wave to the peak of the next (in hertz). E.M. wavelengths vary from short blips of cosmic rays to long pulses of radio transmission.... determines its hue. ●Short Wavelength= high frequency (bluish colors; high-pitched sounds) ●Long Wavelength= low frequency (reddish colors; low-pitched sounds) ●Great Amplitude (bright colors; loud sounds) ●Small Amplitude (dull colors; quiet sounds)
Central Sulcus
Divides frontal and parietal lobes.
Lateral Sulcus
Divides temporal and frontal lobes.
Controlling Pain
Drugs, surgery, acupuncture, placebo, distractions, etc.
Adulthood: Physical Development
Early Adulthood ●Physical abilities begin to decline in mid-20s Middle Adulthood ●Physical + fertility decline / sexual activity lessens ●Menopause Late Adulthood ●Strength and stamina: decreasing muscle strength, reaction time, stamina -Exercise slows aging ●Sensory Abilities: decreasing visual sharpness, distance perception, adaptation; decreasing smell and hearing ●Health: weakening immune system; accumulation of antibodies--> people over 65 suffer few short-term ailments ●The Aging Brain: More time to react, solve puzzles, remember names; slower neural processing; high accident risks; decreasing memory--> loss of brain cells and frontal lobe (neurocognitive disorder / dementia) -Telomeres wear down -Longevity-supporting genes, low stress, and good health = better health
Environmental Influences
Early Environmental Influences ●Neglect v. care (impoverished v. wealthy)-> Among impoverished, environmental conditions can depress cognitive development. ●You can slow down intelligence, but can't speed it up ●Schooling and Intelligence -Genes/experience weave intelligence fabric -Intelligence is changeable
Defense Mechanisms
Ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.
humanistic psychology
Emphasized the importance of current environmental influences on our growth potential, and the importance of having our needs for love and acceptance satisfied. Someone working from the humanistic perspective (a historically important approach) might have been interested in understanding how angry feelings affect a person's potential for growth and personal fulfillment.
Prefrontal Cortex
Enables judgement, planning, and processing of new memories.
Culture
Enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. Our shared biological heritage unites us as a universal human family.
Vision
Eyes receive light energy and transduce it into neural messages that our brain processes into what we consciously see.
Change Blindness
Failing to notice changes in the environment.
Inattentional Blindness
Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed towards another stimuli.
Non-Empirically Derived Test
Faith or theory-driven.
David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel
Feature Detectors
Spermarche
First ejaculation in boys (age 14)
Menarche
First menstrual period in girls (age 12.5)
human factors psychology
Focus on the interaction of people, machines, and physical environments.
Evolutionary Psychology
Focus on what makes humans so alike.
Selective Attention
Focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus. Lose our awareness of time and surroundings. ●Senses take in 11 million info per second--> consciously process 40 ●Accidents: Demanding situation= full attention / Texting & phone= more likely to crash or be distracted
Repress
Forcibly block from our consciousness.
Axon Terminal / Terminal Branches
Form junctions with other cells.
Neurogenesis
Formation of new neurons (natural promoters= exercise, sleep, stimulating but nonstressful environment).
Gender Schema
Framework for organizing boy-girl characteristics.
Psychoanalysis
Freud's theory of personality + associated treatment techniques (unconscious motives)
Perceiving Loudness
From number of activated hair cells.
Phineas Gage
Frontal lobes were damaged by iron rod. Could sit up and speak but personality changed and he was less inhibited.
Gender and Racial Differences in Intelligence
Gender: ●Gender dif. helped survival of our ancestors (evolutionary) ●Experience/Biology/Social/Cultural ●Men and women tend to have same avg. intelligence scores. ●Boys: Outperform girls at spatial ability and related mathematics, though girls outperform boys in math computation. Boys also outnumber girls at the low and high extremes of mental abilities. ●Girls: Better spellers, more verbally fluent, better at locating objects, better at detecting emotions, and more sensitive to touch, taste, and color. Race: ●Racial groups differ in average intelligence scores ●High-scoring ppl and groups are more likely to attain high levels of education and income ●Nature or nurture?--> Heredity contributes to individual differences in intelligence, but group difference in a heritable trait may be entirely environmental ●Under the skin, the races are remarkably alike ●Race is not a neatly defined biological category. ●Intelligence test performance of todays better-fed and educated population exceeds that of the 60s-70s-- by a greater margin that the intelligence test score of average white today exceeds that of the average black ●When B & W have/receive the same pertinent knowledge, they exhibit similar info-processing skill. ●Schools + culture matter ●In different eras, different ethnic groups have experienced golden ages- periods of remarkable achievement
Mental Aptitude
General capacity that shows up in various ways.
Individualism
Giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications. (Table 59.3) (Need to belong)
Egocentrism
Have difficult perceiving things from another's point of view.
Hermann Rorschach
He designed the Rorschach Inkblot Test, a set of 10 inkblots; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots. (most widely used, but discredited)
3 Parts of Personality
Id, Ego, Superego (Human personality arises from a conflict b/t impulse and restraint--> from our efforts to resolve this basic conflict)
Separated Twins
Identical twins reared apart are just as similar as identical twins raised together (not the same as fraternal twins).
Multiple Sclerosis
If the myelin sheath on an axon degenerates.
Phi Phenomenon
Illusion of movement created when 2 or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.
Experimental Group
In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. If a behavior changes when we vary an experimental variable, then we infer the variable is having an effect.
Control Group
In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
Self
In contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality and the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, + actions.
Kenneth Clark & Mamie Phipps Clark
In making its historic 1954 school desegregation decision, the US Supreme Court cited the expert testimony and research of these psychologists. These psychologists reported that, when given a choice between black and white dolls, most African-American children chose the white doll, which seemingly indicated internalized anti-Black prejudice.
Behavioral Approach
In personality theory, this perspective focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development (how the environment controls us).
Free Association
In psychoanalysis, this is a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing. Used to retrace line to troubled past.
Perceptual Adaptation
In vision, ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or inverted visual field.
Body Contact
Infants prefer body contact with parents who are soft, warm, rock, feed, and pat than with parents who provide nourishment.
Embodied Cognition
Influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preference and judgements
Top-Down Processing
Info processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.
Inner Ear
Innermost part of ear containing cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
Cognitive Neuroscience
Interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (perception, thinking, memory, language). The mind is what the brain does.
personality psychology
Investigating our persistent traits.
Synapse
Junction between axon top of sending neuron and dendrite/cell body of receiving neuron. Tiny gap= synaptic cleft
Repolarization
K+ gates open and K+ floods out of the cell. Initially results in hyperpolarization (more negative than the RMP).
Social Intelligence
Know-how involved in successfully comprehending social situations.
Visual Cliff
Lab device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals. (Gibson/Walk)
Corpus Callosum
Large band of axon fibers connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres. Allows hemispheres to communicate and carry messages between them.
Retina
Light-sensitive inner surface of eye, containing receptor rods and cones & layers of neurons that begin processing of visual information. ●Rods and Cones (convert light energy into neural impulses) 1. Light entering eye triggers photo-chemical reaction in rods and cones at back of retina 2. Chemical reaction in turn activates bipolar cells 3. Bipolar cells activate ganglion cells, the axons of which converge to form the optic nerve. O.N. transmits info to visual cortex (via thalamus) in brain
James Randi
Magician who exemplifies skepticism. He has tested and debunked supposed psychic phenomena.
Experimental Methods (Table 6.3 On Module 6)
Manipulate variables to discover their effects.
Harry McGurk
McGurk Effect: See one syllable, hear another
Brain-Computer-Interfaces
Microelectrodes can detect thoughts to enable people to control events.
dualism
Mind separate from body
Object Permanence
More than 6-8 months: awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) (empirical)
Most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.
Does correlation/association mean causation/cause-effect?
NO! It indicates the possibility but doesn't prove it.
Similarity
Nearness or proximity of two mental representations.
Optic Nerve
Nerve that sends neural impulses from eye to visual cortex in the brain via the thalamus.
Volley Principle
Neural cells can alternate firing. Combined frequency= above 1000 waves per second (detects intermediate pitch sounds).
Limbic System
Neural system (including hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, and thalamus) located between the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.
Axon
Neuron extension that passes messages away from cell body thru it's terminal branches to other neurons or muscles/glands.
Accommodation
Process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.
No Correlation
No relationship between the points
Secondary Sex Characteristics
Non-reproductive sexual traits, such as females breasts/hips, male voice quality, and body hair.
Nontaster/Supertaster
Nontaster ●A person with a genetic inability to taste certain substances Supertaster ●A person who experiences the sense of taste with far greater intensity than average. Has a larger amount of taste buds per square mm.
Modern Unconscious Mind
Not as seething passions and repressive censoring, but as cooler information processing that occurs without our awareness. Defense Mechanisms: need to protect self-image. ●Freud's Accepted Ideas: We have limited access to all that goes on in our mind (unconscious), unconscious defense mechanisms, unconsciously defend ourselves against anxiety. ●Problems w/ Freud's Theories: Developmental focus on childhood (so much sex and aggression)? Defense Mechanisms? Falsifiability? Use of case studies?
Frequency
Number of complete wavelengths that can pass a point in a given time & depends on the wavelength.
Frequency
Number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (EX: per sec)
Inferential Statistics
Numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data that probability of something being true of a population. 1. Representative samples are better than biased samples 2. Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable. 3. More cases are better than fewer
Descriptive Statistics
Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.
Rationalization
Offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons for one's actions.
Self-Efficacy
One's sense of competence and effectiveness.
Genuineness
Open with their own feelings, drop their facades, and are transparent and self-disclosing.
Ewald Hering
Opponent Processing Theory
Fluid Intelligence
Our ability to reason speedily and abstractedly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.
Crystallized Intelligence
Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.
Consciousness
Our awareness of ourselves and our environment (gives us a reproductive advantage, long-term interests, ability to read others' minds).
Gender Identity
Our sense of being male or female.
Spotlight Effect
Overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders. Fewer people notice than we presume.
Projective Test
Personality test, like the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics. (subjective)
Choice Blindness
People are blind to their own choices and preferences.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
People express their inner feelings/interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes. (hope, desires, fears)
External Locus Of Control
People who attribute their success or failure to outside influences.
Figure-Ground
Perceive any object (figures) as distinct from its surroundings (ground); organization of visual field
Perceptual Constancy (top-down)
Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, brightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change.
Emotion and Motivation (top-down)
Perceptions are also influenced by these.
Imprinting
Process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early life critical period (Konrad Lorenz).
Parietal Lobes
Physical sensations, reading and written language, general intelligence
Plato & Socrates (428-347 b.c.e.) and (469-399 b.c.e.)
Plato: -Student of Socrates -Teacher of Aristotle -Humans possess innate knowledge: origins of what would later be referred to as the "nature" side of the "nature vs. nurture" debate. Socrates: -Teacher of Plato -Knowledge: awareness of one's own ignorance. -Virtue: focus on self-development, not on accumulating possessions. Both: -Ancient Greeks -Prescientific Psychology -Concluded that mind is separable from body and continues after the body dies, and that knowledge is innate—born within us. -Descartes agreed with them -Dualists (mind separate from body)
Identification
Process by which children incorporate their parent' values into their developmental superegos.
Blind Spot
Point where O.N. leaves the eyes--> no receptor cells are located there.
Hazel Markus
Possible selves: Include your visions of the self you dream of becoming and the self you fear of becoming. Motivate us by laying out specific goals and calling forth the energy to work toward them.
Debriefing
Post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
Signal Detection Theory
Predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
Figure 45.3
Prenatal development: (a) The embryo grows & develops rapidly. At 40 days, spine is visible and the arms and legs are beginning to grow. (b) By the end of the second month, when the fetal period begins, facial features, hands, and feet have formed. (c) As the fetus enters the fourth month, its 3 ounces could fit in the palm of your hand.
Frequency Theory
Rate of neural impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch (detects low pitch sounds).
Longitudinal Study
Research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period.
Id
Reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives/desires. Operates on pleasure principle: demanding immediate gratification. Eat, reproduce, kill--> animalistic.
Occipital Lobes
Responsible for vision.
Cones
Retinal receptor cells concentrated near the center of the retina and function in daylight or well-lit conditions. Detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
Rods
Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.
Regression
Retreating to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated.
Right vs. Left Hemisphere in the Brain
Right Hemisphere ●Perceptual tasks: make inferences, modulate speech, orchestrate sense of self, visual perception + emotion Left Hemisphere ●Speaks, calculates, language 90% of people are right-handed, 10% are left-handed
Iris
Ring of muscle tissue that forms colored portion of eye around the pupil and controls the size of pupil opening.
Vestibular Sense
Sense of body movement and position, including sense of balance.
Body Position and Movement/Kinesthesis
Sense of position and movement of body parts.
Role
Set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.
X Chromosome
Sex chromosome found in males and females. Females have 2 X chromosomes, men have 1. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.
Y Chromosome
Sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an x-chromosome from the mom, it produces a male child.
Empathy
Share and mirror others' feelings and reflect their meanings.
Displacement
Shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person.
Gender
Socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female.
Locating Sounds
Sound waves strike one ear sooner and more intensely than the other. Brain analyzes minute different in sounds received by the 2 ears and computers the sound's source.
Cochlea
Sound waves traveling through cochlear fluid trigger neural impulses in inner ear.
Independent and Dependent Variable Operational Definitions
Specify procedures that manipulate Independent Variable
Factor Analysis
Statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.
Factor Analysis
Statistical procedure used to identify clusters of test items that tap basic components of intelligence.
Mean
The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. Measure of Central Tendency
Lateralization
The belief that the right and left hemispheres serve different functons.
Range
The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution (crude estimate of variation). Measure of Variation
Median
The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it. Measure of Central Tendency
Difference Threshold
The minimum difference between 2 stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. We experience this as a just noticeable difference (jnd). Increases with the size of the stimulus
Absolute Threshold
The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.
Mode
The most frequently occurring scores in a distribution. Measure of Central Tendency
Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship where none exists. When we notice random coincidences, we may forget that they are random and instead see them as correlated. We can easily deceive ourselves by seeing what is not there.
Connectedness
The perception of uniform or linked spots, lines, or areas as a single unit.
introspection
The process of reporting one's own conscious mental experiences
biological psychology
The psychological perspective that searches for the cause of behavior in the functioning of genes, the brain and nervous system and endocrine system -Natural selection of adaptive traits -Genetic predispositions responding to environment -Brain mechanisms -Hormonal influences Someone working from a biological perspective might study brain circuits that cause us to be "red in the face" and "hot under the collar," or how heredity and experience influence our individual differences in temperament.
developmental psychology
The psychology perspective emphasizing changes that occur across the lifespan.
social-cultural psychology
The psychology perspective emphasizing the importance of social interaction, social learning and a cultural perspective. How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures. -Presence of others -Cultural, societal, and family expectations -Peer and other group influences -Compelling models (such as in the media)
psychology
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes and emotional state
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
behaviorism
The theory that human and animal behavior can be explained in terms of conditioning, without appeal to thoughts or feelings, and that psychological disorders are best treated by altering behavior patterns. Someone working from the behavioral perspective might attempt to determine which external stimuli trigger angry responses or aggressive acts.
empiricism
The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation
Terror-Management Theory
Theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death. Death anxiety increases contempt for others + esteem for oneself.
Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga
These two scientists divided brains of cats and monkeys at the corpus callosum. Also did split brain visual studies on the human brain. Said there are "two separate minds". Roger Sperry: Mind and brain are a holistic system. The brain creates and controls the emergent mind, which in turn influences the brain.
Critical Thinking
Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. It is informed by science and helps clear the colored lenses of our biases. It recognizes multiple perspectives. Actively processing information, analyzing, asking ?
industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology
Use psychology's concepts and methods in the workplace to help organizations and companies select and train employees, boost morale and productivity, design products, and implement systems.
applied research
Use the knowledge developed by experimental psychologists to solve human/practical problems.
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
Used a beeper to sample the daily experiences of American teens. Found them unhappiest when alone and happiest when with friends.
Psychodynamic Theories
View our behavior as emerging from the interaction b/t conscious and unconscious mind, including associated motives and conflicts.
Naturalistic Observation
Watching and recording the natural behavior of many individuals. Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. Describes behavior. Perspective, no control
Cross-Sectional Study
Where people of different ages are compared with one another.
Personal Control
Whether we learn to see ourselves as controlling, or as controlled by, our environment.
Stanford-Binet
Widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test [nature]
materialism
You are your stuff
Blindsight
●Act as if you can see. ●Vision= dual processing
Parasympathetic Nervous System
●Calms the body, conserving its energy. Homeostasis after activity ●Involuntary, body activating to deal with environment
Is Intelligence Neurologically Measurable?
●.33 correlation b/t brain size and intelligence ●Frontal and parietal lobes (high gray matter [neural cell bodies] and white matter [axons]) ●Frontal Lobe: Verbal/spatial questions ●Speed of perception + neural processing (processing speed and intelligence correlate b/c they share an underlying genetic influence)
Oral
●0-18 months ●Pleasure centers on the mouth- sucking, biting, chewing ●Formation of Id
Anal
●18-36 months ●Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control
Spinal cord
●2-way information highway connecting the PNS and the brain. Info travels to and from brain by way of this. ●Sensory info ascends to brain and motor-control info descends into body. They communicate through interneurons.
Different Biases in Intelligence Testing
●3 Questions: Genetically disposed race difference in intelligence? / Socially influenced race difference in intelligence? / Race difference in test scores, but tests= inappropriate/biased? ●Two Meanings of Bias 1) [Biased]: Detects not only innate differences in intelligence but also performance differences caused by cultural experiences. [class and race] -Some groups have unequal experiences 2) [Unbiased]: Hinges on a test's validity- on whether it predicts future behavior only for some groups of test-takers. ●Stereotype Threat
Phallic
●3-6 years ●Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings ●Formation of superego ●Oedipus Complex
Latency
●6-puberty ●A phase of dormant sexual feelings
Standard Deviation
●A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score (more useful). ●Measure of Variation ●Includes large numbers of data and a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve. ●√sum of (deviations)^2/number of scores ●Low= data points are close to mean / High = data points are spread out
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
●A disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests + repetitive behaviors. ●Impaired theory of mind (difficulty grasping others' states of mind) ●Genetics + testosterone influence ASD
General Intelligence (g)
●A general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test [general ability]. ●Most predictive in novel situations and don't correlate with skills in evolutionary familiar situations. ●A common skill set, the g factor, underlies all intelligent behavior
Hypothalamus
●A neural structure lying below the thalamus ●Survival drive controlled by hormones (fight/flight, eating, drinking, sex) ●Helps govern ES via the pituitary gland--> Turns on/off PG (hormones) ●Brain influences ES, which in turn influences the brain.
All-Or-None Response
●A neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not (like a gun). ●Has to reach threshold.
How Neurotransmitters Influence Us (Motions and Emotions)
●A particular brain pathway may only use 1-2 neurotransmitters. ●Particular neurotransmitters may affect specific behaviors/emotions. ●Neurotransmitter systems interact ●Drugs and other chemicals affect brain chemistry at synapses--> from outside body (agonists + antagonists)
CT (Computed Tomography) Scan / CAT Scan
●A series of X-ray photos taken from different angles and combined by a computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure. ●Shows brain anatomy / structural scan ●Can reveal brain damage
PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan
●A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task (shows each brain area's consumption of its chemical fuel) ●Shows brain function / functional scan ●Shows which brain areas are most active
Emotional intelligence
●Ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions. ●Socially and self-aware ●Unconscious processing of emotional information ●Could stretch concept of intelligence too far ●High personal and professional success
Embryo
●About 10 days after conception, zygote attatches to mom's uterine wall, beginning the process. Zygote's inner cells become this. ●Developed human organisms from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the 2nd month. (develops body organs) ●2-->9 weeks
Puberty
●Adolescence begins with this ●Period of sexual maturation where a person becomes capable of reproducing (physical differences) -Boys=taller ●Sequence of physical changes in _________ is far more predictable than their timing. ●About when we mature + how people react to it. ●Early Maturation -Boys: Mixed effects -Girls: Can be a challenge ●Frontal lobes develop / growth of myelin ●Maturation of frontal lobes lags behind emotional limbic system.
Lev Vygotsky
●Age 7: Children increasingly think in words + use words to solve problems ●How a child's mind grows through interaction with social environment ●Temporary scaffold where children can step to higher levels of thinking. ●Effective mentoring= When child is developmentally ready to learn a new skill. ●Zone of proximal development: Zone between what a child can and can't do (what a child can do with help) ●Children= apprentices
Genders: Alike and Different?
●Alike: 45 same chromosomes (unisex) ●Different -Gender and Aggression (men are more aggressive, women are more verbally aggressive) -Gender and Social Power (men are more dominant, forceful, independent / men= directive, women= democratic) -Gender and Social Connectedness (look at Carol Gilligan term [#11])
Older Brain Structures (Figure 11.11)
●All occur without any conscious effort ●Basic life functions and memory, emotions, drives -Brainstem -Medulla -Pons -Reticular Formation (RAS) -Cerebellum -Limbic System (Hippocampus, Amygdala, Hypothalamus, Thalamus)
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
●Amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. ●Shows brain function / functional scan ●Detect abnormalities related to the electrical activity of the brain.
Natural Selection and Mating Preferences
●Approach to sex: Women= relational, men= recreational ●Attractive in a mate? -Woman's youthful appearance, narrower waist than hips, peak fertility (increasing men's chances of spreading genes) -Men's stick-around likeliness. ●Humans are designed to prefer what worked for our ancestors in their environment.
Sympathetic Nervous System
●Arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. Fight or flight (adrenaline) ●Involuntary, body activating to deal with environment
Critical Period
●Attachments based on familiarity form during this. ●Optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development.
Conservation
●Before 6, children lack ●Principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.
Resting Potential
●Before a neuron fires when it is ready to fire. ●Outside of axon= positive (Na+), Inside= negative (K+)
Evolutionary Success Helps Explain Similarities (Our Genetic Legacy)
●Behavioral and biological similarities arise from our shared human genome. Genetic differences between two people of one group vs. another is greater than the average difference between the two groups. ●Humans have shared moral instincts. ●We are biologically prepared (from ancestors) for a world that no longer exists.
Howard Gardner
●Believed in Eight Intelligences (multiple intelligences) -Bodily-Kinesthetic -Intrapersonal -Interpersonal -Naturalist -Linguistic -Logical-Mathematical -Musical -Spatial ●Multiple abilities that come in different packages. ●Savant syndrome helped with his research. ●Strength: Intelligence is more than just verbal and math skills. Other abilities are equally important to our human adaptability. ●Weakness: Should all of our abilities be considered intelligences? Shouldn't some be called talents?
Robert Sternberg
●Believed in three intelligences (triarchic theory) (predict real-world success) -Analytical Intelligence (academic problem solving) -Creative Intelligence (novel ideas) -Practical Intelligence ●Strength: These three facets can be reliably measured. ●Weakness: May be less independent than Sternberg thought and may actually share an underlying g factor. Additional testing is needed.
Genes
●Biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes ●Segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins ●Provide code for creating protein molecules - our body's building blocks ●Active- expressed, or inactive
Sensory Interaction
●Brain blends inputs ●One sense may influence another, like food/taste -EX: Vision/hearing, Touch/visual/hearing, Tactile/social
Dendrites
●Branching fibers from cell body ●Receive info and conduct it toward cell body ●Receive messages from other cells
Aphasia
●Broca's Aphasia: Can't put words together to form complete sentences. Can understand others' speech. ●Wernicke's Aphasia: Can't understand in its written or spoken form. Can produce speech- only the most basic nouns and verbs.
Smell/Olfaction
●Chemical sense: molecules sent to receptor cells (embedded on surface of nasal cavity neurons) in the nasal cavity (respond selectively)--> olfactory nerve--> olfactory bulb--> thalamus--> smell cortex in temporal lobe--> limbic system (memory, emotion) ●No distinct receptor for each detectable odor (combination) ●Attractiveness of smell depends on learned associations (memory). ●Only sense not routed in thalamus
Amos Tversky
●Cognitive & mathematical psychologist and a figure in the discovery of systematic human cognitive bias and handling of risk. ●Focused on the psychology of prediction and probability judgment ●Worked with Kahneman to develop prospect theory, which aims to explain irrational human economic choices
Carol Gilligan
●Complains about the male centered psychology of Freud, Erikson, and Kohlberg ●Struggle of children to create an individual identity describes males more than females ●Females: Like making connections (interdependent) / small groups / face-to-face conversation / caring -Women are not inferior in moral thinking ●Changes in the stages: fueled by changes in the sense of self ●Today: her stage theories are discredited; say that men and women don't differ in their moral reasoning STAGES OF THE ETHIC OF CARE ●Preconventional: no age; goal is individual survival -Transition is from selfishness -- to -- responsibility to others ●Conventional: no age; self sacrifice is goodness -Transition is from goodness -- to -- truth that she is a person too ●Postconventional: maybe never; principle of nonviolence--> do not hurt others or self
Genome
●Complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosome (our common genetic profile). ●Common sequence within human DNA ●Many genes act together -Our genetic predispositions help explain both our shared human nature and our human diversity.
Stability of Intelligence over Life Span (Figure 62.3, 62.4) [Dynamics of Intelligence]
●Consistency of scores over time increase with age of child (starting at age 4, and by 11= stable) ●More intelligent children/adults live healthier and longer.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
●Consists of the brain and spinal cord ●Body's decision maker ●Brain: Thinking, feeling, acting; neurons communicating ●Neural networks: Cluster of neutrons into a work group -Neurons network with nearby neurons where they can have short, fast, connections.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
●Contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests ●Includes: similarities, vocab, block design, and letter-number sequencing ●Scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing
Autonomic Nervous System
●Controls our glands and the muscles of our internal organs--> influences functions like glandular activity, heartbeat, and digestion (involuntary, self-regulating) ●Consists of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic NS
Cerebral Cortex
●Covers the hemispheres of the brain ●A thin surface layer of interconnected neural cells ●Control and info-processing center ●Wrinkles ●Brain hemispheres are filled with axons connecting this to brain's other regions. ●Our mental experience arises from coordinated brain activity
Gender Role
●Culture shapes these (nurture) ●Set of expected behavior for males or females
Walter Mischel
●Delay gratification: know there will be something better in the future ●Leads to better academic performace
Gordon Allport
●Described personality in terms of fundamental traits ●One of the founding figures of personality psychology ●Concerned less with explaining individual traits than with describing them
Identical (monozygotic) Twins
●Develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in 2 (don't always have same number of copies of DNA, most share a placenta) ●Same genes (genetically identical)
Fraternal (dizygotic) Twins
●Develop from separate fertilized eggs. Genetically no closer than brothers/sisters, but share a fetal environment. ●Different genes
Fetus
●Developed human organisms from 9 weeks after contraception to birth ●9 weeks--> birth ●Baby learns sound + language
Motor Development
●Developing brain enables physical coordination ●Motor development sequence is universal / maturing nervous system but individual difference in timing (sitting, standing, walking) ●Genes guide motor development
Symbolic Thinking
●Develops early ●Representing things with words and images
Adulthood: Social Development
●Difference b/t young and old adults: significant life events ●Adulthood's Ages and Stages -Middle Adulthood: Life is behind them *Trigger of midlife crisis= major event / life events trigger transitions to new life stages at varying ages. *Social Clock *Chance Events
Death and Dying
●Difficult separation from spouse ●When death is natural, grieving = short-lived ●When death is sudden, grieving = severe ●Reactions differ with culture (not predictable stages) ●Strong expressions of emotion may not purge grief, and bereavement therapy is not significantly more effective than grieving without such aid. ●Integrity: One's life has been meaningful (vs. despair)
Oedipus Complex
●During phallic stage ●Boys develop both unconscious sexual desires for their mother and jealousy and hatred for their father, whom they consider a rival. ●Boys experience guilt + lurking fear of punishment, maybe castration, from dad.
Brain Maturation and Infant Memory
●Earliest memories: > 3.5 years old (infantile amnesia) ●Mature: capable of remembering experiences. Brain areas with memory mature. ● < 3.5: Brain was processing and storing information ●What the conscious mind doesn't know and can't express in words, the nervous system somehow remembers.
Adulthood
●Early Adulthood (20-30) ●Middle Adulthood (30-65) ●Late Adulthood (65-death)
Attachment
●Emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation. ●Early attachments form the foundation for adult relationships and motivation.
Sexual Orientation
●Enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homo), the other sex (hetero), or both sexes (bi). -Neither willfully chosen nor willfully changed. -Not an indicator of mental health -Men= less erotic plasticity (sexual variability) than women -Environment doesn't affect S.O. ●Proof of Biology/Difference in Sexual Orientation -Same-sex attraction in other species -Gay-straight brain differences *Hypothalamus cell cluster= reliably larger in hetero men than in women and homo men. (different development soon after birth) -Genetic Influences *Family studies--> evolutionary / maternal genetics *Twin studies--> same orientation *Fruit fly studies--> multiple genes *Prenatal influences--> exposure to hormone levels or mother's immune system (fraternal birth-order effect) -Gay-Straight Trait Differences (Table 53.1) *Traits fall midway between straight males and females
The Competent Newborn
●Equipped with automatic reflex responses (cries for nourishment) ●Habituation
Basic Trust
●Erik Erikson ●Sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers ●Formed with good, early parenting
*Norepinephrine (NE)
●Excitatory ●Used for arousal in the flight/fight response (alertness), modulation of mood, plays a role in learning and memory retrieval ●Effect of Deficit: Depression + other mental disorders ●Effect of Surplus: Anxiety
Glutamate
●Excitatory ●Works together with GABA ●Used in memory, learning, movement. Helps messages cross the synapse more efficiently ●Effect of Deficit: None ●Effect of Surplus: Too much glutamate (and too little GABA) is associated with epileptic seizures
Acetylcholine
●Excitatory, Released by motor neurons ●Enables muscle contraction, attention, memory, learning, and general thinking ●Messenger at every junction between motor neurons and skeletal muscles ●Effect of Deficit: Alzheimer's disease ●Effect of Surplus: Severe muscle spasms (involuntary)
Cerebellum
●Extends from the rear of the brainstem (called little brain) ●Balance, coordination, and motor memory
Zygote
●Fewer than half survive beyond the 1st 2 weeks ●The fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and development into an embryo. ●Conception--> 2 weeks
James Flynn
●Flynn Effect (college entrance aptitude scores were dropping in the 60's-70's but intelligence test scores were improving.) ●Rising performance in intelligence tests ●Standardization
Theory of Mind
●Forming in preschool ●People's ideas about their own and others' mental states - about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict. ●Others' thoughts can be different
Roy Baumeister
●Found that people tend to see their foibles and attitudes in others, which is called the false consensus effect: the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors. ●Experimented with the "dark side of high self-esteem."
Unconscious
●Freud: Reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. ●Modern: Info processing of which we are unaware.
Formal Operational Stage
●From 12--> adulthood ●Abstract thinking, systematic reasoning ●Apply new abstract reasoning tools to world around us
Preoperational Stage
●From 2--> 6,7 years ●Where a child learns to use language but doesn't comprehend mental operations of concrete logic. ●Conservation, symbolic thinking, egocentrism, theory of mind
Concrete Operational Stage
●From 6,7--> 11 years ●Stage of cognitive development where children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events (+ mathematical transformations and conservation) ●Cannot reason abstractly or test hypotheses systematically.
Sensorimotor Stage
●From birth--> 2 years ●Where infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impression and motor activities ●Object permanance
Reflections on Nature and Nurture
●Gender differences have diminished ●We are the product of nature and nature (Figure 15.1--> Biopsychosocial), but are also an open system. The stream of causation that shapes the future runs through our present choices. ●Everything psychological is simultaneously biological. The human brain gives rise to consciousness. Mind and brain is a holistic system (brain creates and controls the emergent mind, which in turn influences the brain).
Experience and Brain Development
●Genes dictate brain architecture, but experience fills in the details. Early experiences: enriched environment = heavier and thick brain cortex. ●Pruning Process ●Brain's development doesn't end with childhood
Biological vs. Adoptive Relatives
●Genetic relatives= biological parents and siblings ●Environmental relatives= adoptive parents and siblings ●Adoptees are more similar to biological parents than adoptive parents (no environmental effect mostly, stability of personality suggests a genetic predisposition)
Endocrine System
●Glands secrete chemical messengers called hormones which travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues, including the brain (influence interest in sex, food, and aggression--> in brain) ●Both the ES and the NS produce molecules that act on receptors elsewhere. ●ES= slow, effect lasts long / NS= fast, effect is short
Collectivism
●Group identifications provide a sense of belonging, a set of values, a network of caring individuals, and an assurance of security. (Table 59.3) ●Reflect what they presume others feel ●Polite, humility, respect
STD's
●HIV causes AIDS ●HPV ●Safe-sex practices (condoms) help prevent these ●Intercourse varies from culture to culture.
Savant Syndrome
●Helped with Howard Gardner's research ●Condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.
Pons
●Helps coordinate movements. ●Bridge between the spinal cord and the rest of the brain. ●Sleeping, dreaming
Accommodation
●How we use + adjust schemas ●Adjust our schemas to incorporate information provided by new experiences.
Assimilation
●How we use + adjust schemas ●Interpret new experiences in terms of out current understandings, or schemas.
Carl Rogers
●Humanistic psychologist ●Person-Centered Therapy ●People are basically good ●Self-Concept: A person's individual perception of oneself across multiple dimensions (Who am I?) ●"Growth-promoting Climate": "Core Conditions" ~ genuineness, acceptance (unconditional positive regard), empathy ●Self-Esteem: Person's overall evaluation or appraisal of his/her own self-worth (a continuum)
Abraham Maslow
●Humanistic psychologist ●Studied healthy and creative people ●Hierarchy of needs: have earlier, more important needs (Bottom) 1. Physiological needs 2. Safety needs 3. Belongingness and love needs 4. Self-Esteem needs 5. Self-Actualization needs (living up to potential) 6. Self-Transcendence needs (find meaning/identity beyond self)
Intimacy
●In Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood. ●Can be sexual or not sexual
How Much Credit or Blame Do Parents Deserve?
●In personality measures, shared environmental influences from the womb onward typically account of < 10% of children's differences ●Peer influence is more prominent -We seek to fit in with our groups and are influenced by them. Selection effect: Kids seek out peers with similar attitudes and interests -As we grow older, we form identities and pull away from parents / adolescence = growing peer influence -Heredity: temperament, personality / peers: the rest ●Parents and peers= complementary -Positive parent-teen relations = positive peer relations
Brain Development
●In the womb, developing brain formed nerve cells at 1/4 million per minute ●Developing brain cortex overproduces neurons ●From infancy on, brain and mind (neural hardware and cognitive software- develop together) [heredity + experience] ●Brain is immature at birth. Maturation= neural networks grow more complex. ●Frontal lobes (rational planning) than association areas (thinking, memory, language) develop
Self-Concept
●Infancy's major social achievement: attachment ●Childhood's major social achievement: positive sense of self ●Around Age 12: Self-Concept= All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?" (8-10 year: stable) (self-awareness)
Stranger Anxiety
●Infants prefer their caregivers ●8 months: Stranger anxiety (fear of strangers that infants commonly display) ●Brain, mind, and social-emotional behavior develop together
Splitting the Brain
●Information from the left half of the vision field goes to the right hemisphere. ●Information from the right half of the vision field goes to the left hemisphere (which controls speech).
*Serotonin
●Inhibitory ●Mood and emotional states / Hunger regulation of sleep and wakefulness (arousal) ●Effect of Deficit: Depression + Other mood disorders ●Effect of Surplus: Autism
*Endorphins
●Inhibitory ●Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain perception and positive emotions. ●Effect of Deficit: Pain ●Effect of Surplus: Body may not give adequate warning about pain + artificial highs
*Dopamine (DA)
●Inhibitory ●Pleasurable sensations involved in voluntary movement, attention, learning, and emotion ●Effect of Deficit: Parkinson's disease ●Effect of Surplus: Schizophrenia + Addictive Behaviors (Drug Addiction)
GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)
●Inhibitory ●Works together with glutamate ●Helps to offset excitatory messages and regulate daily sleep-wake cycles ●Effect of Deficit: Seizures, tremors, nausea, anxiety, insomnia ●Effect of Surplus: Sleeping/Eating disorders
Reticular Formation (RAS)
●Inside the brainstem between the ears ●Neurons network that extends from the spinal cord to the thalamus. Filters/prioritizes incoming stimuli and relays important information to other brain areas. ●Enables arousal (attention, awareness)
Reciprocal Determinism
●Interacting influence of behavior, internal cognition, and environment (person-environment) ●(Fig. 59.1 Triangle and Fig. 59.2)
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
●Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children causes by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head + abnormal facial features. ●Epigenetic effect
Adulthood's Commitments
●Intimacy + generativity (love + work) -Love: similar interests, emotional support, honesty *Marriage bonds (commitment) *Cohabit: high rates of divorce / less commitment to successful marriage + less marriage supporting *Conflict + affection (varying) *Love bears children (have equitable relationship) -Work: Fit your interests + gives you a sense of competence and accomplishment / sense of identity
Ego
●Largely conscious "executive" part of personality that mediates among demands of id, superego, and reality. ●Operates on reality principle: Satisfying id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain. ●Struggles to reconcile id and superego. ●Origin of consciousness
Cerebrum
●Left and right hemispheres of the brain (brain as a whole) ●Perceiving, thinking, and speaking
Extremes of Intelligence (Gifted, disabled, savant, down syndrome)
●Low Extreme: -Intellectual Disability -Comparable limitation in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual skills, social skills, and practical skills. -Savant Syndrome -Down Syndrome ●High Extreme: -Healthy, well-adjusted, academic -School "tracks" these children & separates them from other students. Self-fulfilling: live up to or down to others' perceptions and expectations. Widens the gap b/t low and high intelligence.
An Evolutionary Explanation of Human Sexuality
●Men and women have adapted in similar ways. ●Gender differences in sexuality: Men are more sex-driven and have a greater sexual assertiveness.
Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.)
●Mental age/chronological age x 100 ●Worked well with children but not adults ●Terman: Intelligence tests would result in curtailing reproduction of the feeblemindedness ●About culture--> important
Causes of Teen Pregnancy
●Minimal communication about birth control ●Guilt related to sexual activity ●Alcohol use ●Mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity Help with sexual restraint: ●High intelligence, religious engagement, father presence, participation in service learning programs
Lawrence Kohlberg (Table 51.1)
●Moral reasoning guides moral actions (unconscious) ●Moral reasoning (thinking that occurs as we consider right and wrong) ●Moral Intuition (quick gut feelings or affectively laden intuitions) -Human morality is run by moral emotions / moral reasoning is pretending to be in control -Moral intuitions trump moral reasoning ●Moral Action (thinking, feeling, and doing the right thing; moral action feeds moral attitudes) ●Moral decisions are egocentric ●Changes in the stages: fueled by changes in cognitive capability STAGE THEORY ON MORAL DEVELOPMENT ●Preconventional Morality: Birth--> 9yrs; self-interest (obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards) -1) Avoid punishment -2) Gain Reward ●Conventional Morality: 9--> 20yrs; uphold laws to gain social approval or maintain social order. -3) Gain Approval & Avoid Disapproval -4) Duty & Guilt ●Postconventional Morality: 20+ or maybe never; actions reflect belief in basic rights + self-defined ethical principles -5) Agreed upon rights -6) Personal moral standards
Testosterone
●Most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates growth of male sex organs in fetus + development of male sex characteristics during puberty. ●4th-5th prenatal months: Sex hormones bathe fetal brain and influence its wiring (causes sexual differentiation)
Pituitary Gland
●Most influential gland / master gland ●Controls hypothalamus: regulates growth and influences hormone secretion by other endocrine glands. -Examples: Growth Hormone, Oxytocin
Sigmund Freud
●Mostly case studies ●Unconscious ●Psychoanalysis ●Layers of Mind: Conscious, Preconscious, Unconscious ●Parts of Personality: Id, Ego, Superego ●Psychosexual Stages ●Defense Mechanisms ●Repression
Motor Cortex
●Motor function ●An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements (issues orders to move body). Stimulating parts in the left or right hem. cause movements on the opposite side of the body. ●Body areas requiring precise control occupy the greatest amount of cortical space.
Maturation
●Nature ●Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience. (experience [nurture] adjusts it)
Behavior Genetics
●Nature and nurture shape development ●Study of our differences and weighing the effects + interplay of heredity and environment
Karen Horney
●Neo-Freudian ●Childhood is important but social, not sexual, tensions are crucial for personality formation. Childhood anxiety triggers our desire for love and security, fought for women's self-respect. ●Womb envy ●Self Help
Alfred Adler
●Neo-Freudian ●Childhood is important but social, not sexual, tensions are crucial for personality formation. Inferiority complex + conquer childhood inferiority ●Birth order is important in developing personality.
Carl Jung
●Neo-Freudian ●Freud's disciple-turned-dissenter -- placed less emphasis on social factors; unconscious exerts powerful influences; unconscious contains more than our repressed thoughts and feelings; unconscious is the source of creative impulse ●Collective unconscious (collection of memories from our history- archetypes)
The Tools of Discovery: Having Our Head Examined
●The body's right rise is wired to brain's left, and vice versa. ●Scientists can stimulate parts of the brain.
Action Potential
●Neurons transmit messages when stimulated by signals. In response, neurons fire an impulse, called this. ●Neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. ●Neurons generate electricity from chemical events. ●Ions= chemically charged atoms that are exchanged (axon's surface is selectively permeable) ●Direction of Electrical Impulse: Only one direction, away from cell body through axon to terminal
Daniel Kahneman
●Notable for his work on the psychology of judgment and decision-making, as well as behavioral economics. ●Challenged the assumption of human rationality prevailing in modern economic theory. ●With Tversky and others, established a cognitive basis for common human errors that arise from heuristics and biases and developed prospect theory
Today's Views on Piaget's Theory
●Object permanence unfolds gradually ●There are sequences of cognitive milestones, but development is seen as more continuous ●Piaget underestimated children's competence
G. Stanley Hall
●One of the 1st psychologists to describe adolescence. ●The tension between biological maturity and social dependence creates a period of "storm and stress" -Not supported by research
Self-Esteem
●One's feelings of high or low self-worth ●Good follows doing well
Angular Gyrus
●Only in left hemisphere (in parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes) ●Functions: Language, number processing, spatial cognition, memory retrieval, attention, theory of mind, reading words on a page
Broca's Area
●Only in left hemisphere in frontal lobe ●Named by Paul Broca, has to do with speech production and language processing.
Wernicke's Area
●Only in left hemisphere in temporal lobe ●Named by Carl Wernicke, has to do with understanding spoken language (language comprehension)
Person-Situation Controversy
●Our behavior is influenced by interaction of our inner dispositions with our environment. ●Consistent vs. changing personality? ●Average behavior is predictable
Identity
●Our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles. ●Try out different roles
Placenta
●Outer cells of embryo ●Life-link that transfers nutrients/oxygen from mom to embryo. ●Screens out many harmful substances, but some (like teratogens) slip by.
Thalamus
●Pair of egg-shaped structures and located on top of the brainstem ●Brain's sensory control center ●Receives and directs sensory signals to correct sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
Diana Baumrind
●Parenting Styles -Authoritarian: impose rules + expect obedience (totalitarian) -Permissive: submit to children's desires -Authoritative: both demanding and responsive (rules + open to reasons) -Neglectful ●Association b/t certain parenting styles and certain childhood outcomes is correlational
Lewis Terman
●Paris developed questions and age norms worked poorly with California schoolchildren. ●Extended Binet's test range from teens to "superior adults" ●The Stanford-Binet ●Nature (The innate IQ)
Heritability of Intelligence (Figure 63.1, 63.2)
●People who share the same genes (twins + siblings) share mental abilities ●Heritability ●Environment can also affect intelligence scores. ●Mental similarities b/t adopted children and adoptive family wanes with age (become more like their biological parents) (heritability of g increases from childhood to adulthood) ●Intelligence is polygenetic
Grouping
●Perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups. ●Proximity, continuity, closure, similarity, connectedness
Emerging Adulthood
●Period from late teens to mid-20s, bridging the gap b/t adolescent dependence and full independence/ responsible adulthood ●Sexual Maturity ●Finish school, leave home, financially independent, marry, have children ●Later independence = earlier sexual maturity (transition from adolescence to adulthood is taking longer)
Refractory Period
●Period of inactivity after a neuron has fired. (neuron pumps 3 Na+ outside and 2 K+ inside--> Na+/K+ pump) ●Neuron can't fire again, no matter how strong the stimulus.
Aging and Intelligence (Figure 62.1)
●Phase I: Cross-Sectional Evidence for Intellectual Decline (test and compare people of different ages) (older adults give less correct answers on intelligence tests than younger adults, but it was tested on people of different eras.) ●Phase II: Longitudinal Evidence for Intellectual Stability (cohort: a group of people from a given time period) (until late in life, intelligence remained stable) ●Phase III: It All Depends (Longitudinal Studies: those who survive to the end of studies may be bright and healthy) (intelligence is not a single trait) -Crystallized Intelligence: Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age -Fluid Intelligence: Our ability to reason speedily and abstractedly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.
Martin Seligman
●Positive Psychology ●Scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive. ●Positive well-being, health, neuroscience, and education ●Learned Helplessness
Alfred Binet
●Predicting school achievement ●Children with special needs ●All children follow same course of intelligence develpoment but some develop more rapidly. Measure each child's mental age. ●Nurture
Aptitude Tests
●Predicts a person's future performance (aptitude= capacity to learn) ●Aptitude and intelligence tests correlate
Developmental Periods
●Prenatal Period: In the womb ●Neonatal Period: Birth-1 month ●Infancy: 1 month- 18/24 months
Dual Processing
●Principle that, beneath the surface, unconscious info processing occurs simultaneously with consciousness on many parallel tracks (much of our brain work occurs out of sight). ●Perception, memory, thinking, language, and attitudes operate on two levels. ●The brain is ahead of the mind.
Heritability
●Proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on range of population and environment studies. ●Percent of variants among traits within a group of people that can be attributed to genetic dif.
Sigmund Freud
●Psychoanalytic theory about how personality develops= stage theory ●"The healthy adult is one who can love and work."
Genital
●Puberty on ●Maturation of sexual interests
Superego
●Represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgements (conscience) and for future aspirations ●Moral compass + ideal ●Being ashamed/guilt ●Oppose Id's demands ●Internalized rules in society ●Most of this is preconscious
False Consensus Effect
●Roy Baumeister ●Tendency to overestimate extent to which others share our beliefs/behaviors.
Semicircular Canals/Vestibular Sacs
●SC: Biological gyroscope / directional balance ●VS: Contain fluid that moves when the head moves
Day Care
●Safe, healthy, stimulating environment ●More time spend in day care: higher aggressiveness and defiance
Well-Being Across the Life Span
●Satisfaction or regret / hope or dread ●Increased sense of identity, confidence, and self-esteem ●Life satisfaction decreases as death approaches -However, life satisfaction is unrelated to age ●Increased happiness as you get older / positive emotions increase and negative emotions decrease after midlife ●Figure 54.5: Biopsychosocial influences on successful aging
Positive Psychology
●Scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive. ●Positive well-being, health, neuroscience, and education
Lesion
●Scientists can selectively _______ (tissue destruction) tiny clusters of brain cells, leaving surrounding tissue unharmed. ●Brain _______: naturally/experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.
Adrenal Glands
●Secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine ●Increase heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar & slow digestion ●Fight-or-flight energy
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
●Sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body ●Gathers info and transmits CNS decisions to other body parts ●Consists of the Somatic and Autonomic NS
(Somato)sensory Cortex
●Sensory function ●Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes sensations of physical senses ●The more sensitive the body region, the larger the somatosensory cortex devoted to it (sensory homunculus)
Auditory Cortex
●Sensory function ●Process sounds you hear (listening, hearing) ●In temporal lobes ●Auditory information associated with activity on the brain's opposite side
Visual Cortex
●Sensory function ●Perceiving visual content ●In occipital lobes
Threshold
●Signals= excitatory (increased charge of neurons) or inhibitory (decreased charge of neurons) ●If excitatory signals exceed inhibitory signals by a minimum intensity called this (minimum level of stimulation/charge required to trigger a neural impulse) then an action potential is triggered.
Gene-Environment Interaction
●Similarity in humans: adaptive capacity ●Genes and environment work together (they interact) / Genes= self-regulating -Environment triggers gene activity and genetical traits evoke significant responses in others -Growing older, we select environment well suited to our natures.
Medulla (Oblongata)
●Slight swelling at the base of the brainstem; controls involuntary functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing.
Albert Bandura
●Social Cognitive Theory: Behavior is influenced by interaction between people's traits and their social context. ●Reciprocal Determinism: Why we don't always act according to our personality traits (Fig. 59.1 Triangle). ●Chance Events -EX: Book editor came to his lecture and married the woman who sat next to him.
Albert Bandura
●Social-Cognitive Theory: Behavior is influenced by interaction between people's traits and their social context. ●Reciprocal Determinism: Why we don't always act according to our personality traits (Fig. 59.1 Triangle) ●Self-Efficacy: Ability to get stuff done
Decibels
●Sound is measured in this ●0= absolute threshold ●Increasing 10 decibels is a tenfold increase in intensity
Jean Piaget (Table 47.1)
●Stage theory on cognitive development ●Studied when you become conscious + children's cognitive development. ●A child's mind develops through a series of stages ●The driving force behind our intellectual progression = an unceasing struggle to make sense of our experiences. ●Children= little scientists ●Maturing brain builds schemas ●Assimilation and Accommodation ●Stages: -Sensorimotor (object permanence) -Preoperational (conservation, symbolic thinking, egocentrism, theory of mind) -Concrete operational (conservation) -Formal operational
Erik Erikson (Table 52.1)
●Stage theory on psychosocial development ●Securely attached children approach life with a sense of basic trust ●Each stage of life has its own psychosocial task (crisis that needs resolution) / search for identity ●Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development: -Infancy; birth--> 1yr; trust vs. mistrust; needs met (hope) -Toddlerhood; 1yr--> 3yr; autonomy vs. shame & doubt; exercise will + do things themselves (will power) -Preschool; 3yr--> 6yr; initiative vs. guilt (purpose) -Elementary School; 6yr--> puberty; competence vs. inferiority; apply themselves or feel inferior (competency) -Adolescence; teen--> 20yr; identity vs. role confusion (fidelity) -Young Adulthood; 20yr--> 40yr; intimacy vs. isolation (love) -Middle Adulthood; 40yr--> 60yr; generativity vs. stagnation; contribute to world or lack of purpose (care) -Late Adulthood; 60yr--> death; integrity vs. despair; reflect on life= satisfaction or failure (wisdom)
Mary Ainsworth
●Studied attachment differences (temperament and parenting) ●Strange situation experiment (observed mother-infant pairs at home during the first 6m, then observed 1 yr olds in a strange situation [mother leaves the room--> how babies react to their return]) -60% showed secure attachment: mothers presence = comfortable; sensitive mothers -Some showed insecure attachment: anxiety + cling to mother + avoidant + anxious/ambivalent; insenstive mothers
Harry & Margaret Harlow
●Studied body contact ●Showed that infant monkeys were more attatched to a cloth mother than a wire mother with nourishment ●Cloth mother= secure base where infant monkey fed from nourishing mother.
Konrad Lorenz
●Studied imprinting ●Children don't imprint but do become attached during a sensitive period.
Biological Psychologists
●Study links between biological activity and psychological events. -Body is composed of cells -Nerve cells conduct electricity to one another by sending chemical messages across a tiny gap that separates them -Specific brain systems serve specific functions -We integrate information processed in these different brain systems to construct our experience of sights/sounds, meanings/memories, pain/passion. -Our adaptive brain is wired by experience. -We are a system composed of subsystems. (biopsychosocial)
Epigenetics
●Study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change (molecular mechanisms). ●Epigenetic mark: Organic methyl molecule attached to part of a DNA strand. Instructs cell to ignore any gene present in that DNA segment, thereby preventing the DNA from producing the proteins coded by that gene (from conception onward). ●NATURE VIA NURTURE
Phrenology
●Studying bumps on the skull to reveal a person's mental abilities and character traits (localization of function: various brain regions have particular functions) ●Discredited
Molecular Genetics
●Subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes (specific genes). ●Find some of the many genes that together orchestrate traits such as body weight, sexual orientation, and extraversion.
Glial Cells
●Support nerve cells, provide nutrients and insulating myelin, guide neural connections, mop up ions/neurotransmitters. ●Involved in learning and thinking
Nervous System
●Takes in information from the world / body's tissues, makes decisions, and sends back information and orders to body's tissues ●The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the CNS and PNS.
fMRI (functional MRI)
●Technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. ●Shows brain function / functional scan ●Investigate the brain mechanisms underlying psychological phenomena.
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
●Technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. ●Shows brain anatomy / structural scan ●Gives information about the structures in the body.
Brainstem
●The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for autonomic survival functions (respiration, blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, awareness, consciousness) ●Where most nerves to and from each side of brain connect with the body's opposite side.
Natural Selection
●The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. 1. Compete for survival 2. Increased reproduction and survival chances in certain environments. 3. Pass on genes 4. Population characteristics change
Charles Spearman
●Theory of general intelligence (g) ●A basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas. ●Strength: Different abilities, such as verbal and spatial, do have some tendency to correlate. Those who score high in one area typically score higher in other areas. ●Weakness: Human abilities are too diverse to be encapsulated by a single general intelligence factor.
L.L. Thurstone
●Theory of primary mental abilities ●56 different tests that measured clusters of: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory ●Was against Spearman, but his experiments kind of proved Spearman's theory of g: those who excelled in 1/7 usually scored well in others. ●Strength: A single g score is not as informative as scores for seven primary mental abilities. ●Weakness: Even Thurstone's seven mental abilities show a tendency to cluster, suggesting an underlying g factor.
Natural Selection and Adaptation
●Traits that are selected (naturally or otherwise) confer a reproductive advantage on an individual or a species and will prevail. ●Humans can adapt to environments / Fitness: ability to survive and reproduce.
Heritability
●Using twin and adoption studies, behavior geneticists can mathematically estimate the _________ (proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The _________ of a trait may vary, depending on range of population and environment studied) of a trait. ●Can't say x% was from ____________, y% was from environment (heritable individual differences don't imply heritable group differences. Explains why some people are taller, but not why they are taller than people from a century ago).
Brian Damage
●Usually severed neurons don't regenerate (brain functions are preassigned to specific areas) -However, tissue can reorganize or reassign--> If one hemisphere is damaged, the other can pick up its functions.
Isabel Briggs Myers & mom Katharine Briggs
●Wanted to describe important personality differences ●Jugian psychology ●Made Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, an introspective self-report questionnaire designed to indicate psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and make decisions. ●"Absence of proven scientific worth" (too general) ●Non-empirical
Francis Galton
●Wanted to measure human traits ●"Natural ability" and encourage those of high ability to mate ●"Intellectual Strengths" ●Simple intelligence measure ●1884: Experiment where he failed to measure this: no outscore or correlation ●Nature
Adulthood: Cognitive Development
●We remember some things well (teens, 20s) / early adulthood is a peak time for some types of learning and remembering / recalling new info (esp. meaningless) decreases, but recognized info is stable. -Increasing of people's capacity to learn + remember skills decreases less than verbal recall. ●Intelligence -Cross-sectional studies -Longitudinal studies -Terminal decline: decrease in cognitive abilities in the near-death drop
Culture and Child Raising
●Western: independence ●Asians/Africans: Emotional closeness/family self
Depolarization
●When a neuron fires, Na+ gates open and Na+ floods inside the cell called this. Keeps causing axon channels to open. ●Different sections of the axon become positively charged and push the charge across the axon.
Neurotransmitter
●When an action potential reaches terminals, it triggers the release of these (chemical messengers that cross synaptic clefts between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse). ●Ions flow in--> excite or inhibit an action potential. ●Produced inside the body
Humanistic Psychology
●When you are close to your ideal self, you are close to self-actualization (perceived vs. ideal vs. real self) ●Focuses on the ways people strive for self-determination and self-realization / through people's own self-reported experiences and feelings. ●Looks at whole person ●Accept who we are ●View of yourself is continually changing/growth process ●Bad: downplays human cruelty, concepts are vague and emotional
Deprivation of Attachment
●Withdrawn, frightened, speechless/resilient, attachment problems ●Abuse-breeds-abuse phenomenon
Implications for Parenting and Teaching
●Young children are incapable of adult logic. ●Build on what they already know; they are adaptive.
Herman von Helmholtz
●Young-Helmholtc Trichromatic (3-Color) Theory ●Place Theory
Bottom-Up Processing
Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory info--> higher levels of processing.
Sensorineural Hearing Loss
Caused by damage to cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerve (more common than CHL).
Conduction Hearing Loss
Caused by damage to mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.
Parallel Processing
Processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; brain's natural mode of info processing for many functions like vision. Contrasts with step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
Amplitude
The height from peak to trough (in decibels).
Lens
Transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.
Closure
We fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object.
Proximity
We group nearby figures together. We see not six separate lines, but three sets of two lines.
Continuity
We perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones.
Ernst Weber
Weber's Law
The Stimulus Input: Light Energy
What strikes out eyes is pulses of electromagnetic (E.M.) energy that our visual system perceives as a color. Visible light is a thin slice of the spectrum of E.E. Different animals perceive differently.
Visual Info Processing
●After processing by bipolar and ganglion cells in the retina, neural impulses travel... optic nerve--> thalamus--> visual cortex ●Pressure can trigger retinal cells / brain interprets their firing as light ●Scene--> Retinal Processing--> Feature Detection--> Parallel Processing--> Recognition
Shape Constancy
●Angle of view ●Perceive form of familiar objects as constant even while our retinas receive changing images of them (also consider context)
Size Constancy
●Angle of view ●Perceive objects as having a constant size, even while our distance from them varies (also consider context) ●Connection between this and distance.
Pain
●Bottom-up and top-down ●Orders you to change your behavior / body's way of telling you that something has gone wrong ●Biological Influences (Brain can sense even without functioning senses) -Nocireceptors: Sensory receptors that detect hurtful temperatures, pressure, or chemicals (sent to spinal cord then brain) -Gate-Control Theory -When we are distracted from pain and soothed by endorphins, experience of pain diminishes -Brain can create pain in phantom limbs. ●Psychological Influences: Distraction ●Social-Cultural Influences: We perceive more pain when others seem to be.
Fovea
●Central focal point in retina ●Cones cluster in/around this- transmits to a single bipolar cell ●Rods share bipolar cells, sending combined messages
Restored Vision and Sensory Restriction
●Could distinguish figure from ground and sense colors (innate) but couldn't visually recognize objects that were familiar by touch--> happens with blind from birth ●Critical period for normal sensory/perceptual development
Feature Detectors
●David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel ●Nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific feautures of stimulus like shape/angle/movement. -Receive info from individual ganglion cells in the retina. Pass info to other cortical areas where supercell clusters respond to more complex patterns. -Face-perception is different from object-perception (specific)
Weber's Law
●Ernst Weber ●Principle that, to be perceived as different, 2 stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percent (rather than a constant amount)
Opponent Processing Theory
●Ewald Hering / Afterimages ●Opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision.
Young-Helmholtc Trichromatic (3-Color) Theory
●Herman von Helmholtz ●Retina contains 3 different color receptors (cones) - one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue - which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perceptions of any color.
Place Theory
●Hermann von Helmholtz ●Links pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated. ●Detects high pitch sounds
Touch
●Localization depends on relative lengths of pathways from stimulated parts of the brain. ●Mix of distinct skin sense of pressure (can combine to produce "hot"), warmth, cold, and pain. Most sensitive to unexpected stimulation.
The Eye
●Nerves transfer the signal to the brain. ●Light enters the eyes through the pupil--> lens --> retina--> rods and cones in retina--> bipolar cells--> optic nerve Light rays reflected from a candle pass through the cornea, pupil, and lens. The curvature and thickness of the lens change to bring nearby or distant objects into focus on the retina. Rays from the top of the candle strike the bottom of the retina, and those from the left side of the candle strike the right side of the retina. The candle's image on the retina thus appears upside down and reversed, but perceived upright in the brain.
Color Vision
●Objects reflect wavelengths of color. Color is our mental construction (it doesn't exist outside the brain, perception). ●Color processing occurs in 2 stages--> YHTT, then processed by nervous system's opponent-process cells (OPT)
Color/Brightness Constancy
●Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object. ●We see color thanks to brain's comprehension of the light reflected by an object relative to the objects surrounding it (context). ●Ex: a sheet of white paper seen in bright sunlight reflects a different amount of light in a dimly lit room. ●Comparisons govern our perceptions.
Extrasensory Perception (ESP)
●Perception without sensation ●Controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy (mind-mind communication), clairvoyance (perceiving remote events), and precognition (perceiving future events). ●Psychokinesis: Mind over matter
Sensation
●Process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment (work together w/ perception). ●Brain doesn't directly receive stimuli from the outside world.
Perception
●Process of organizing and interpreting sensory info, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events (work together w/ sensation). ●Our brain constructs our perceptions
Taste (Gustation)
●Salty, sour, sweet, bitter, umami (determined by receptors inside taste buds) ●Pleasurable tastes attracted ancestors to foods that enabled their survival. ●Taste is a chemical sense (taste receptors) / expectations can influence taste.
Audition / The Ear
●Sense or act of hearing ●Nerves transfer the signal to the brain. ●Path of vibrating air into nerve impulses: Sound waves across ears--> outer ear--> auditory canal--> vibrates eardrum --> malleus, incus, stapes--> oval window vibrates & jostles fluid in tube--> cochlea--> ripples in basilar membrane--> bend hair cells--> impulses go to auditory nerve--> thalamus--> auditory cortex in the brain
The Stimulus Input
●Sound waves (molecules of air; bands of compressed and expanded ear) / ears detect brief air pressure changes. -Amplitude of SW determines loudness -Frequency determines pitch Long waves = low freq. = low pitch Short waves = high freq. = high pitch
Gate-Control Theory
●Spinal cord has a neural gate that can block incoming pain. ●Spinal cord contains a neurological gate that blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain. Gate is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by the activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.
Parapsychology
●Study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis ●Researchers have been unable to replicate ESP under controlled conditions
7 Senses
●Taste, touch/tactile, sight, sound, smell (external) ●Balance/vestibular, kinesthetic/body position (internal)
