AP World: 1450-1750 (units 3 & 4)
Changes because of Chattel Slavery in Africa
-Although millions of Africans were exported for slavery, the overall population grew because of new food crops introduced by the Columbian exchange. -Demographic changes - gender imbalance created by European preference for male labors. This led to the rise of polygamy where a man would take multiple wives.
Mit'a
-Continuity in the Americas, the Spanish adopted this system that already existed in the Inca Empire. -Like a tax or tribute of a set days of labor a year
Beliefs Systems in Southwest Asia throughout the period
*Key Characteristics Beginning of Period* -Sunni Islam (Ottoman Empire): Extremely diverse empire, some religious tolerance -Shi'a Islam (Safavid Empire) *Historical Developments* -Political rivalries between Ottoman Safavid leads to increased polarization between Sunni and Shi'a sects of Islam. -Both Ottoman and Safavid become less religiously tolerant over time. *Key Characteristics End of Period* -Sunni Islam and Shi'a Islam -Wanhabi Islam: 18th century, Saudi Arabia, extremely conservative sect of Sunni Islam.
Belief Systems in Europe throughout the period
*Key Characteristics Beginning of Period* -Christianity = Catholic -Pope = ultimate authority -Strict hierarchical system of organization -Sacraments essential -Women not allowed in priesthood *Historical Developments* -Protestant Reformation -Counter-Reformation -Scientific Revolution *Key Characteristics End of Period* -Catholic Church -Protestant Churches (Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglican/Church of England, Anabaptist)
Belief Systems in South Asia throughout the period
*Key Characteristics Beginning of Period* -Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism (Theravada, Mahayana) *Historical Developments* -Akbar seeks to encourage a religiously tolerant society -Later rulers become less tolerant, leading to intensified conflict between Hindus and Muslims. *Key Characteristics End of Period* -Sikhism grows in popularity. New religion originating in northern India (Punjab). Guru Nanak - "There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim, only God". Influenced by Hinduism, Islamic Sufism, and the bhakti movement.
Compass
-Cross cultural interactions: Originated in China, as early as the Han Dynasty -Purpose: Improves navigation and allows explorers to know cardinal directions, even at night or in cloudy weather.
Lateen sail
-Cross-cultural interactions: Developed by Muslims for use in Indian Ocean trade -Purpose: A triangular rather than square sail that allows ship to switch directions and could increase speed and distances traveled.
Astrolabe
-Cross-cultural interactions: Developed in classical Greece, improved on by Muslims -Purpose: Allows explorers to determine how far north or south they are in relation to the equator.
Salaried samurai
-Daimyo were landowning aristocracy who employed a clan of paid warriors to protect their land called the samurai. -Professional warriors in Japan -In this time period, they were brought in to protect the autonomy of regional lords, protecting against rebellions and invasion. -Paid in surplus food that came from work of peasants. -Served civic alongside military function.
Impact of Mercantilism in Africa and the Americas
-Demographic changes in Africa resulted from Atlantic slave trade. Though global populations were increasing, millions were forced from Africa. Fertility rates decreased. Polyamory increased due to gender imbalance in the population. -Native groups became a source of resources and labor for colonizers. Empires seized land for producing cash crops. Natives were used for coercive labor. Population decreased up to 90% due to disease and brutality. A significant number of natives converted to Catholicism.
4.4: Maritime Empires Established (Economic)
-Despite some disruption and restructuring due to the arrival of Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch merchants, existing trade networks in the Indian Ocean continued to flourish and included intra-Asian trade and Asian merchants. -Newly developed colonial economies in the Americas largely depended on agriculture, utilized existing labor systems, including the Incan mit'a, and introduced new labor systems including chattel slavery, indentured servitude, and encomienda and hacienda systems.
Fluyt
-Developed by the Dutch -Designed explicitly for trade - rather than being designed for military and then adapted for trade -Much larger cargo hold, faster and required a smaller crew - increased profits
Caravel
-Developed by the Portuguese -A much faster and more navigable ship (because it was smaller) -Used both square and lateen sails
Impact of Mercantilism in Europe
-Economic disputes led to rivalries and conflicts between states: Competition over resources, Muslim-European rivalry in the Indian Ocean, Militaries expanded significantly, particularly navy -Defined the power of empires during this period: Industrialized, export-rich countries became more powerful, Countries with colonial possessions create systematic wealth, Military power is defined by capacity at sea
Akbar
-Emperor of the Mughal Empire -Religiously tolerant - he recognized and tried to accommodate the Hindu majority. -Granted land to Hindus and Muslims without discrimination -Helped fund Catholic Church in India -During his reign, a new religion called Sikhism (blend of Islam and Hinduism) emerged and he was very open to them.
4.4: Maritime Empires Established (Social)
-Enslavement in Africa continued in its traditional forms, including incorporation of enslaved persons into households and the export of enslaved persons to the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean regions. -The growth of the plantation economy increased the demand for enslaved labor in the Americas, leading to significant demographic, social, and cultural changes.
Mughal zamindar tax collection
-Established by Akbar -Zamindars were a group of people who went out into the different places in the territory to collect taxes and carry out the will of the emperor
4.4: Maritime Empires Established (Political)
-Europeans established new trading posts in Africa and Asia, which proved profitable for the rulers and merchants involved in new global trade networks. Some Asian states sought to limit the disruptive economic and cultural effects of European-dominated long-distance trade by adopting restrictive or isolationist trade policies. -Driven largely by political, religious, and economic rivalries, European states established new maritime empires, including the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, French, and British. -The expansion of maritime trading networks fostered the growth of states in Africa, including the Asante and the Kingdom of the Kongo, whose participation in trading networks led to an increase in their influence.
Mercantilism
-Fueled by industrialism and increased production of goods. -Incentivized territorial expansion, particularly --European colonialism -Emphasized significant exports while minimizing imports. -Relied on standardizing precious metals and currency.
Mexica practice of human sacrifice
-Idea that the sun was always in a battle against darkness and the sun required life-giving force found in human blood. -Used as a form of intimidation to the enemy and captured territories
3.1: Empires Expand
-Imperial expansion relied on the increased use of gunpowder, cannons, and armed trade to establish large empires in both hemispheres. -Land empires included the Manchu in Central and East Asia; the Mughal in South and Central Asia; the Ottoman in Southern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa; and the Safavids in the Middle East. -Political and religious disputes led to rivalries and conflict between states.
Context of Maritime technology and innovation 1450-1750
-Italian port city-states had monopoly on trade profits coming into Europe. This created rivalry between different states which led to their desire to coming up with new technologies and new ways of getting access to trade -Trade routes in the Mediterranean and Red Seas. Islamic and Chinese culture encouraged education and innovation as a part of their major belief systems. -These are the ideas that spread to Europe for their technological innovations. -Long-distance trade routes across Asia and in the Indian Ocean.
4.1: Technological Innovations
-Knowledge, scientific learning, and technology from the Classical, Islamic, and Asian worlds spread, facilitating European technological developments and innovation. -The developments included the production of new tools, innovations in ship designs, and an improved understanding of regional wind and currents patterns—all of which made transoceanic travel and trade possible.
Why did various land-based empires develop and expand from 1450-1750?
-Legitimize rule -Gain control of strategic trade routes - economic prosperity.
4.5: Maritime Empires Maintained and Developed (Political)
-Mercantilist policies and practices were used by European rulers to expand and control their economies and claim overseas territories. Joint-stock companies, influenced by these mercantilist principles, were used by rulers and merchants to finance exploration and were used by rulers to compete against one another in global trade. -Economic disputes led to rivalries and conflict between states.
Religious ideas used to legitimize rule
-Mexica practice of human sacrifice -European notions of divine right -Songhai promotion of Islam
Tax-collection systems
-Mughal zamindar tax collection -Ottoman tax farming -Mexica tribute lists -Ming practice of collecting taxes in hard currency
4.2: Exploration: Causes and Events
-New state-supported transoceanic maritime exploration occurred in this period. -Portuguese development of maritime technology and navigational skills led to increased travel to and trade with Africa and Asia and resulted in the construction of a global trading-post empire. -Spanish sponsorship of the voyages of Columbus and subsequent voyages across the Atlantic and Pacific dramatically increased European interest in transoceanic travel and trade. -Northern Atlantic crossings were undertaken under English, French, and Dutch sponsorship, often with the goal of finding alternative sailing routes to Asia.
Afro-Eurasian Land-Based Empires
-Ottoman Empire -Safavid Empire -Mughal Empire -Songhai Empire -Qing Dynasty (Manchus) -Russia
Bureaucratic elites or military professionals
-Ottoman devshirme -Salaried samurai
Effects of the crops from West to East
-Population increase due to more diverse diet and better nutrition -Massive population growth -Increase in profit
Art and monumental architecture used to legitimize rule
-Qing imperial portraits -Sun temple of Cuzco -Mughal mausolea and mosques -European palaces, such as Versailles When people see such magnificent buildings and art, it has a way of working in their guts to say that whoever made this must be the one in power.
3.2: Empires: Administration
-Recruitment and use of bureaucratic elites, as well as the development of military professionals, became more common among rulers who wanted to maintain centralized control over their populations and resources. -Rulers continued to use religious ideas, art, and monumental architecture to legitimize their rule. -Rulers used tribute collection, tax farming, and innovative tax-collection systems to generate revenue in order to forward state power and expansion.
State rivalries
-Safavid-Mughal conflict -Songhai Empire's conflict with Morocco
Chattel Slavery
-Slavery was not new - Slaves had been imported out of Africa into the Muslim world for centuries. Various forms of domestic slavery existed across Africa as well. -Many African coastal leaders took advantage of the profit promised them by providing slaves to the Europeans on the coast. This led to warfare and invasions among small African coastal states, in order to capture prisoners who could be sold to the Europeans. -Millions of Africans captured, enslaved, and imported to the Americas. -Crammed in cargo bays of ships designed to dehumanize them before they were sold in the Americas. Many died on the journey. -Many were imported to the Caribbean/Brazil where sugar plantations demanded extremely difficult work.
4.5: Maritime Empires Maintained and Developed (Social and Cultural)
-Some notable gender and family restructuring occurred, including demographic changes in Africa that resulted from the trade of enslaved persons. -The Atlantic trading system involved the movement of labor—including enslaved persons and the mixing of African, American, and European cultures and peoples, with all parties contributing to this cultural synthesis. -In some cases, the increase and intensification of interactions between newly connected hemispheres expanded the reach and furthered development of existing religions, and contributed to religious conflicts and the development of syncretic belief systems and practices.
Spanish Exploration
-Spain sponsored Ferdinand Magellan's expedition as the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe, though he died before they got home. An important stop was a series of islands the Spanish would later call the Philippines. -Christopher Columbus was another explorer sponsored by Spain. He traveled to the Americas in four separate voyages. However, he labeled the indegenous people Indians, and the extent to which he knew he wasn't in India was unclear.
Songhai Empire
Largest and last pre-colonial empire in West Africa From capital Gao, expanded in all directions until it reached the Atlantic Ocean to northwest Nigeria & central Niger.
Ottoman Empire
-Started by Osman Bey -Mehmed II (The Conqueror) - captures the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, in 1493 with the use of cannons (gunpowder). They change name to Istanbul, and the city's strategic location on Bosporus Strait means control of trade. -Suleiman I - empire reaches peak. Uses strong navy to expand into Eastern Europe (Hungary and Mediterranean)
Russian Empire
-Territory stretched from east to west, meaning it was in a pivotal position to get wealthy on trade. -Ivan IV was crowned tsar in 1547 and later became known as Ivan the Terrible. He was able to expand further east and took much of the land held by the Mongolian Khans. -Oath of allegiance to the tsar and demanded yasak (tribute of furs) -Cossacks: forefront of expansion, bands of independent warriors consisting of peasants that escaped serfdom, criminals, and adventurers. -Very multiethnic empire -Contact with Europe promoted westernization policies as they became aware of their backwardness. -Russian motives for expansion - Security concerns drew Russians south/east (raiding and slavery) and opportunity (animal fur pelts) drew them east across Siberia
4.5: Maritime Empires Maintained and Developed (Economic)
-The Atlantic trading system involved the movement of goods, wealth, and labor, including enslaved persons. -The new global circulation of goods was facilitated by chartered European monopoly companies and the global flow of silver, especially from Spanish colonies in the Americas, which was used to purchase Asian goods for the Atlantic markets and satisfy Chinese demand for silver. Regional markets continued to flourish in Afro-Eurasia by using established commercial practices and new transoceanic and regional shipping services developed by European merchants. -Peasant and artisan labor continued and intensified in many regions as the demand for food and consumer goods increased.
The Search for a Northwest Passage
-The English sent John Cabot, but he didn't find a passage. Instead, he claimed new lands in the Northeast area of North America. -The French sent Jacques Cartier and Samuel de Champlain, who sailed more inland on the St. Lawrence River, claiming what would eventually become Canada. -The Dutch sent Henry Hudson. But like the others, he could not find a Northwest Passage.
Portuguese Exploration
-The Portuguese were at the forefront of European exploration, in large part thanks to Prince Henry the Navigator, who was fully committed to exploring the Atlantic Ocean. Prince Henry funded expeditions that mastered the wind and currents that helped sailors reach North Africa via the Atlantic Ocean and eventually return to Portugal. Prince Henry's legacy also includes the beginning of transporting slaves in ships on the Atlantic Ocean. -Portugal also sponsored the voyages of Bartholomew Diaz and Vasco de Gama. Diaz sailed around the Cape of Good Hope, but returned home. De Gama sailed the same way but went all the way around and reached India, claiming it as part of Portugal's empire.
3.3: Empires: Belief Systems
-The Protestant Reformation marked a break with existing Christian traditions and both the Protestant and Catholic reformations contributed to the growth of Christianity. -Political rivalries between the Ottoman and Safavid empires intensified the split within Islam between Sunni and Shi'a. -Sikhism developed in South Asia in a context of interactions between Hinduism and Islam.
Scientific Revolution
-The intellectual and cultural transformation that shaped a new conception of the material world between the mid-sixteenth and early eighteenth centuries in Europe; instead of relying on the authority of religion or tradition, its leading figures believed that knowledge was acquired through rational inquiry based on evidence, the product of human minds alone. -Copernicus from Poland, Galileo from Italy, Descartes from France, Newton from England, and many others.
4.3: Columbian Exchange
-The new connections between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres resulted in the exchange of new plants, animals, and diseases, known as the Columbian Exchange. -European colonization of the Americas led to the unintentional transfer of disease vectors, including mosquitoes and rats, and the spread of diseases that were endemic in the Eastern Hemisphere, including smallpox, measles, and malaria. Some of these diseases substantially reduced the indigenous populations, with catastrophic effects in many areas. -American foods became staple crops in various parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Cash crops were grown primarily on plantations with coerced labor and were exported mostly to Europe and the Middle East. -Afro-Eurasian fruit trees, grains, sugar, and domesticated animals were brought by Europeans to the Americas, while other foods were brought by African enslaved persons -Populations in Afro-Eurasia benefitted nutritionally from the increased diversity of American food crops.
Reasons for State-Sponsored Exploration
-Too expensive for anyone else - state was the only entity that could afford it -Mercantilism = there is a fixed amount of wealth, so states compete with each other to get as much gold/silver as possible before other states can. -Spreading Christianity. Christianity is a religion that encourages its followers to be missionaries. -Glory - nothing delivers glory more to a state than controlling a large empire.
Ottoman devshirme
-Under Suleiman the Magnificent -Children taken from Christian families (mostly in the Balkans) to serve in the Ottoman military -Placement into Turkish families -Significant opportunities for advancement -Served to strengthen military control and spread Turkish culture -Janissaries: A group of devshirme trained to be an elite squad of the Ottoman army.
Mexica tribute lists
-Way they consolidated power -Conquered peoples, or tribute states, owed certain goods to the conquerors on a regular basis. The result of this was that the Aztecs could rule a diverse empire without being directly present. They would also collect people for human sacrifice.
Songhai Empire's conflict with Morocco
A conflict between Songhai and the Moroccans; Moroccan victory in 1591. Greatly weakened West Africa, allowing for growth of the Trans-Atlantic slave trades.
Ottoman tax farming
A group of people called tax farmers who went out to collect taxes in the empire. They would collect more taxes than they needed as profit for themselves.
European technological developments influenced by cross-cultural interactions with the Classical, Islamic, and Asian worlds
Lateen sail Compass Astrolabe
Bureaucracy
A system of managing government through departments run by appointed officials
Tokugawa Japan
At first, Japan allowed Europeans to trade within its borders, leading to the spread of Christianity. However, the monotheistic Christians became intolerant of Buddhism in Japan. The Japanese government's response was to ban Christianity, persecuting thousands of Japanese Christians. After this, they adopted a policy of isolation, only allowing trade with the Dutch.
Settler Colonies in North America
Both the British and the Dutch established settler colonies in North America, providing quite lucrative for their role in global trade networks.
How empires began to come about in Europe
By mid 1400s, the devastation of the Black Plague was wearing off, and the European population began to recover. The 100 years war had come to an end and the printing press was invented, which led to increased literacy. New monarchies begin to rise throughout Europe in the 1500s which begin to centralize power. Previously, Europe was feudalistic, meaning power was distributed throughout the territory and was largely in the hands of the landed elite. In this period, kings began to centralize all of this power. They did this by control of taxation, military, and religion. A side consequence of this consolidation of power is that the middle class begins to grow, which happens at the expense of the nobility and the clergy. Examples: Tudors in England and Valois in France
Innovations in ship design
Caravel, Carrack, Fluyt
Effects of the crops from East to West
Cash crop system Coerced labor Large scale Deforestation and soil erosion.
Horses
Changed the lives of the Native Americans who lived in the plains regions. After they learned to ride horses, they were able to hunt buffalo with greater efficiency which meant excess food. Horses also gave tribes a competitive advantage against tribes who didn't have horses so they could kill people better too.
Spanish Maritime Empire
During Ferdinand Magellan's voyage, he claimed the Philippines as a Spanish territory. Eventually, this became the center of Spanish trade in the Indian Ocean. Though the Spanish traded in the Indian Ocean, much of the goods they traded came from settlements in the Americas. In the beginning of exploration, the Americas seemed like an unprofitable place to explore. Then, the Spaniards found the Aztec and Inca empires. In those empires, the Spanish found not only an abundant supply of gold and silver, but also indigenous people they could enslave for labor. The commodity that really fueled the Spanish trade in the Indian Ocean became silver, silver that came from the Americas in the 16th century.
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)
During this time, China's population doubled, and it began to develop into the powerhouse it is today. The Ming Dynasty essentially expanded China's trade and mercantile reputation, and it tied deep networks to the outside world including cultural ties with the West. The Ming Dynasty is also remembered for its developments in shaping a distinctly Chinese culture, drama, literature and world-renowned porcelain.
European notions of divine right
England - rule of King James I. King James believed that kings ruled because God put them there in power. This means that to challenge the king is to challenge God, which no one at the time wanted to do. Kings often saw themselves as outside the law.
Attempt at indigenous slavery
Europeans tried to enslave natives to make them do agricultural farming, but the natives knew their own land better than them, so they would often escape into the hills and forests nearby. The Portuguese dealt with this in their Brazilian colony. They started growing sugarcane there and it was making them so wealthy that when the natives ran off, they came up with another solution: import enslaved laborers from Africa, and in Portugal's case, especially from the Kongo Kingdom. As the demand for sugarcane and in other regions, tobacco, spiked, so did the demand for enslaved people from Africa. This meant that millions of Africans were forcibly removed and made to participate in the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.
Catholic Counter Reformation
Eventually, the Catholic Church did acknowledge that some of its practices had become corrupt. At the Council of Trent, they corrected many abuses concerning the sale of indulgences and the sale of church offices.
Animals from East to West
Horses Pigs Chicken Cattle
England
In 1497 the English state sponsored an explorer named John Cabot. His aim was to find a northwest passage to Asia so that they didn't have to sail all the way around South America. He didn't find such a passage but claimed all the land from Newfoundland to the Chesapeake Bay for the English. In 1607 the English established their first colony called Jamestown in the Chesapeake Bay.
Portuguese in China
In 1514 Portuguese traders arrived in China. After the merchants came the missionaries. Two sects of Catholic missionaries made it their aim to convert the Chinese. The Franciscans worked to convert the mass of Chinese people while the Jesuits worked to convert the elite. They had some success, but the vast majority of the Chinese considered these Christians barbarians, and therefore, their overall impact was minor.
How were the Portuguese able to establish a trading post empire?
In many places, local leaders, especially in Africa, were willing to cooperate with the Portuguese. They often made trade deals that would result in kidnapped slaves moving to Portuguese control, and guns and other weapons in the hands of local rulers. This promoted rivalries among indigenous people, and helped states like the kingdom of Dahomey, Congo, and Asante become very wealthy. These relationships also helped to diffuse European culture into Africa. For example, in the Kingdom of the Kongo, King Alfonso I converted to Christianity and you can see Christian influence in the art coming out of the Kingdom of the Kongo during this time.
Mughal Empire
In the 1520s, a man named Babur founded the Mughal Empire when India was in disarray. Babur completed conquest of northern India with the use of gunpowder, and established a central government similar to Suleiman's. Under Emperor Akbar's leadership, the Mughal Empire was one of the most prosperous and well led states in the world.
Things Europeans inherited from the Greeks, Asians, and Muslims
Increasingly accurate records of wind patterns Increasingly detailed astronomical charts
Muslim-European rivalry in the Indian Ocean
Indian Ocean trade was still going strong, and just as they always had, states vied for dominance over these routes. In 1509 the Portuguese defeated Muslim forces in a battle over trade rights, as they had the advantage with superior naval technology. But once they tried to defeat the Moroccan Muslims on land, they were defeated.
Hacienda
Indigenous people lived on a land owner's land, but it was used for cultivation of cash crops.
Indentured servitude
Land owners would pay transportation costs for migrants in Africa and Asia to come to the Americas, or sometimes other parts of the Maritime empire. In exchange, these migrants worked for a designated amount of time.
Asian states that adopted restrictive or isolationist trade policies
Ming China Tokugawa Japan
Coerced Labor Systems
Mit'a Encomienda Hacienda Indentured servitude Chattel Slavery
Effects of Animals from West to East
More diverse diets New textiles
Aurangzeb
Mughal emperor who reversed his predecessors' policies of religious tolerance and attempted to impose Islamic supremacy.
Competition over trade routes
Muslim-European rivalry in the Indian Ocean Moroccan conflict with the Songhai Empire
Encomienda
Often used for mining gold/silver Similar to European serfdom, food, shelter, and "protection" granted for labor, but living and working conditions were brutal and often fatal
Foods brought by African enslaved persons
Okra and Rice
Portuguese Maritime Empire
Once the Portuguese reached the Indian Ocean, they had superior technology to most of the merchants and states in the area, especially since China had put a halt to their own expeditions through the Indian Ocean half a century prior. The Portuguese attempted to build a monopoly of the spice trade in the Indian Ocean by creating a trading post empire. They built forts and port cities and gained control of the movement of ships in and out, requiring licenses to trade. Even though Portugal was able to build such an extensive network of coastal dominance, they were a small country without much of a labor force to maintain such a large empire. So the trading post of empires didn't last for more than a few decades. By the 17th century, the Dutch and the British had become major rivals for dominance in the Indian Ocean.
Ottoman vs. Safavid religious conflict
Ottomans were Sunni Muslim, Safavids were Shi'a Muslim. When the Safavid Empire fully shifted to Shi'a Islam, they were denying the legitimacy of any Sunni Muslim. Since these two empires bordered each other, they were in constant dispute over who owned what. On the surface, these battles were about land, but they were deeply tied to religion.
Effects of Animals from East to West
Overgrazing led to soil erosion Reshaped indigenous cultures Helped spread disease
The Protestant Reformation
People began to question the authority of the church because of its corruption. The two main abuses were the sale of indulgences and simony. The selling of indulgences was the selling of absolution for sins, and simony was the sale of church offices. These practices were able to raise money for the church as they had debts to pay. A German monk named Martin Luther began to question these practices, and he found that the Bible says that salvation is guaranteed to the believer by faith alone, not through the church. He produced a document called the Ninety-Five Theses, which outlined this new idea of salvation and the problems with the church. Because of the invention of the printing press, Luther's ideas spread across Germany and Europe and took hold. This was a permanent split in the Christian church.
Crops from West to East
Potatoes Maize Tobacco Tomatoes
Sikhism
Religious tradition of North India founded by Guru Nanak, combines elements of Hinduism and Islam and proclaims the brotherhood of all humans and the equality of men and women.
Changes because of Chattel Slavery in the Americas
Slavery played a significant role in shaping social classes that existed long after the abolition of slavery in the 19th century. The British colonies in North America maintained distinct racial lines to separate Africans from Europeans. But in Spanish and Portuguese colonies, racial mixing led to a much more complicated social structure.
Competition between European States in the Americas
Spain and Portugal fought each other for territory in South America until the Treaty of Tordesillas was agreed on and divided their territory. This was especially beneficial for the Spanish who found silver mines in their territory.
Crops from East to West
Sugar Coffee Rice Okra
Indian Ocean Asian merchants
Swahili Arabs Omanis Gujaratis Javanese
Competition between European States in India
The BEIC exploited local divisions to gain territory across the Indian mainland. In the same region, the Portuguese, French, and Dutch vied for superiority. The Seven Years' War between the French and British pushed the French out of the Indian Ocean. Portugal was unable to maintain the large empire they built, leaving the British and the Dutch in the region. The same states (French, British, Dutch) fought each other in North America.
China and Sea Voyages
The Ming Dynasty in China was far more concerned about potential nomadic invasions from the north.
Context of the Protestant Reformation
The Roman Catholic Church was dominant in Europe for centuries. The Catholic Church became unstable through Europe's transition from feudalism to more powerful centralized governments. This is because when European society was fractured politically and socially during the feudal era, it was the Roman Catholic church that provided cultural continuity to the people, but when kings began competing for power, much of the power was transferred from the church to the monarchs.
Songhai promotion of Islam
The Songhai ruler Askia the Great claimed Islam as the official religion. Doing so created a sense of cultural continuity throughout the empire.
Qing Dynasty (Manchus)
The Yuan Dynasty established by the Mongols was overthrown in 1368 and was replaced by the Ming Dynasty which held power in China well into the 1600s. Even so, the Mongolians were still a threat, so the Ming state restored and expanded the Great Wall of China. Around the mid 17th century, another group called the Manchu from neighboring Manchuria seized power and established the Qing Dynasty in 1644. Under the leadership of Emperor Kangxi, the Qing territory was significantly expanded into Taiwan, Mongolia, Central Asia, and Tibet.
Safavid Empire
The shah Ismail conquered most of Persia and parts of Iraq with the use of gunpowder. He made Shi'a Islam the official religion of his empire. This had a way of uniting his empire, but by doing this he denied legitimacy to any member of the other branch of Islam, the Sunnis. This caused conflicts with the Ottomans, who were Sunnis.
French Fur Trade
Though the French never found the Northwest passage that they coveted, they did establish trading posts in modern day Quebec. In these outposts, they developed a lucrative trade in fur. They mostly depended on indigenous American labor, but unlike the Spanish, they traded with Native Americans, offering guns, alcohol, and other goods for fur. As a result, the French had the most positive relationship with the Native people of any of the European states.
Animals from West to East
Turkeys Llamas Alpacas
How did the Qing Dynasty maintain a bureaucracy?
Used the civil service exam, which provided the means by which the leadership in China would both think and believe the same things. The Manchus were foreigners so they had a lot of incentive to legitimize their rule.
Spread of Diseases
When the Europeans came to the Americas, their ships had disease vectors (mosquitoes and rats). Furthermore, they carried smallpox with them. Smallpox is an airborne disease that most Europeans had built natural immunities to after centuries of exposure. When it came to the Americas, it spread rapidly and killed many. When it came to conquering the Native American population, disease was the most useful unintentional weapon, killing at least half of the Native American population. Despite European's advanced gunpowder technology and use of horses, disease killed way more indigenous people than European warfare. Other diseases, such as measles, malaria, and influenza spread as well.
