AP World Chapter 19

Hidden Imam

Last in a series of twelve descendants of Muhammad's son-in-law Ali, whom Shi'ites consider divinely appointed leaders of the Muslim community. In occlusion since ca. 873, he is expected to return as a messiah at the end of time.

Tulip Period

Last years of the reign of Ottoman sultan Ahmed III, during which European styles and attitudes became briefly popular in Istanbul; craze for high priced tulip bulbs swept Ottoman ruling circles.

Change in agriculture

Farmers in Greece, Macedonia, Bulgaria and Anatolia grew mild flavored, low nicotine tobacco and coffee, a Yemeni product, rose from obscurity in the 15th century to become the rage in 1st the Ottoman Empire and then Europe.

Adat

"custom" ; a form of Islam rooted in pre-Muslim religious and social practice; retained its prominence in rural areas over practices centered on the Shari'a, but royal courts began to heed the views of the pilgrim teachers of this religion.

Askeri

"military class" a class of people who spoke Osmali and belonged to people in military and bureaucracy - completely dependent on the Sultan

Mehmed II

"the conqueror"; laid siege to Constantinople. His forces used enormous cannon to crush the city's walls, dragging warships over a high hill from the Bosporus strait to the city's inner harbor to get around its sea defenses and finally overcame city's land walls with direct infantry assaults.

Changes in sultans

(in Ottoman Empire) Sultans had once led armies, but now they mostly resided in palaces and had little experience with the real world. The affairs of government were overseen more and more by the chief administrators- the grand visors.

Powers of Peter the Great

-sharply reduced traditional roles of boyars in government and army. -brought the Russian Orthodox church more family under state control. -built factories and foundries to provide supplies for military. -increased taxes. -imposed more forced labor on serfs (Tsar was no obliged to answer to anyone in the world for his doings, but possesses the power and authority over his kingdom and land, to rule them at his will and pleasure as a Christian ruler.)

Nawab

A Muslim prince allied to British India; technically, a semi-autonomous deputy of the Mughal emperor.

Devshirme

A new system that imposed a levy of male children on Christian villages in the Balkans and occasionally elsewhere. Selected children were placed with Turkish families for language learning and then sent to Istanbul for an education that included instruction in Islam, military training and, for the top 10%, skills that could be used in government administration.

Women in Acheh

A series of women ruled between 1641 ad 1699. This practice ended when local Muslim scholars obtained a ruling from other scholars in Mecca and Medina that Islam didn't approve of female rulers.

Russian serfdom

A type of labor commonly used in feudal systems in which the laborers work the land in return for protection but they are bound to the land and are not allowed to leave or to peruse their a new occupation. This was common in early Medieval Europe as well as in Russia until the mid 19th century.

Trade goods of Acheh

Acheh prospered by trading pepper for cotton cloth in Gujara and in India.

Istanbul

After Mehmed II laid siege on Constantinople, Constantinople was hence forward called by this new name; fall of Constantinople brought over 11 hundred years of Byzantine rule to an end and made the Ottomans seem invincible.

Effect of Mongol invasion

After the Mongols destroyed Baghdad, Iran developed largely on its own, having more extensive contacts with India than the Arabs.Artistic styles of Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia went their own way. Painted and molded tiles and mosaics became standard exterior decorations of mosques in Iran. Persian poets raised verse to peaks of perfection that had no counterpart in Arabic poetry.

Capitulations

Agreements with European powers that gave European bankers and merchants unfair advantages in the Ottoman Empire; eventually led to the European domination of Ottoman seaborne trade.

"Divine faith"

Akbar made himself the center of this religion incorporating Muslim, Hindu, Zoroastrian, Sikh, and Christian beliefs. Akbar created this religion after learning about other religions. It attracted few followers but offended Muslims.

Islamic trading networks

Although Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals didn't effectively contest the growth of the Portuguese and the Dutch. English and French maritime power, the majority of non-European shipbuilders, captains, sailors, and traders were Muslim. The presence in every port of Muslims following the same legal traditions and practicing faiths similarly cemented the Muslims' trading network, and conversion to Islam encouraged growth of coastal Muslim communities.

Oman

Arab state based in Musqat, the main port in the southwest region of the Arabian peninsula. Oman succeeded Portugal as a power in the western Indian Ocean in the eighteenth century.

Swahili

Bantu language with Arabic loanwords spoken in coastal regions of East Africa.

Conflict with Venice

Between `1453 and 1502, the Ottomans fought the opening rounds of a two-century war with Venice, the most powerful of Italy's commercial city states. Initial fighting left Venice in control of its lucrative islands like Crete and Cyprus for another century. But it also left Venice a reduced military power compelled to pay tribute to the Ottomans.

Battle of Lepanto

Combined Christian forces achieved a massive naval victory in this battle, off Greece, in 1571.

Jesuits

European missionaries of the Society of Jesus who particularly tried to extend Christianity into Asia and Africa; most Europeans, the Portuguese excepted, didn't treat local converts or offspring of mixed marriages as full members of their communities.

Batavia

Fort established in 1619 as headquarters of Dutch East India Company operations in Indonesia; today the city of Jakarta.

Mocha

Literally meant "the coffee place"; by 1770, Muslim merchants trading in the Yemeni port were chargeed 15% in duties and fees, while European traders, benefiting from long-standing trade agreements with the Ottoman Empire, paid a little more than 3%.

Josephy Francois Dupleix

In 1741, he took over the presidency of the French stronghold of Pondicherry and began a new phase of European involvement and in India; he captured the English trading center of Madras and used his small contingent of European and European-trained Indian troops to become a power broker in Southern India.

Slave trade

In 18th century, this practice increased in importance. Because Europeans played a minor role in this, few records exist, but best estimate was that about 2.1 million slaves were exported between 1500 and 1890.

Mansabs

In India, grants of land given in return for service by rulers of the Mughal Empire.

Hookah

In India, where coconuts were often used to contain water, this word usually meant "jar"

Ottomans vs European exploration

In early 16th century, merchants from southern India and Sumatra sent emissaries to Istanbul requesting naval support against the Portuguese. The Ottomans responded vigorously to Portuguese threats close to their territories and seemed to have a coherent policy for defending Muslim lands bordering the Indian Ocean, but pulled back from major maritime commitments outside the Mediterranean Sea later on. Since luxury goods products still flowed into the Ottoman markets and Portuguese power was territoriality limited to fortified coastal points, like Malacca in Malaya; it seemed wise to concentrate the states resources on defending territory in Europe.

Al-Qasr al-Kabir

In north west Africa, the seizure by Portugal and Spain of coastal strongholds in Morocco provoked a militant response. The Saladi family, which claimed descent from the Prophet Muhammad; led a resistance that climaxed victory in this battle. Triumphant Moroccan sultan Ahmad al-Mansur, restored his country's strength and independence.

Janissaries

Infantry, originally of slave origin, armed with firearms and constituting the elite of the Ottoman army from the fifteenth century until the corps was abolished in 1826.

Effect of silver

Inflation caused by a flood of cheap silver from the New World bankrupted many of the remaining landholders, who were restricted by the law to collecting a fixed amount of taxes and their land was returned to the state.

Breakup of the Ottoman Empire

Janissary commanders and Georgian mamluks competed for power, with the latter of emerging triumphant by the mid-18th century. Janissaries came out on top; in central Arabia, the puritanical Sunni movement inspired by Muhammad ibn Abd al- Wahhab began a remarkable rise beyond the reach of the Ottoman's power. Though no region declared full independence, sultan's power was slipping away to the advantage of a broad array of lower officials and upstart chieftains in all parts of the empire while the Ottoman economy was reorienting itself towards Europe.

Safavid empire

Iranian kingdom (1502-1722) established by Ismail Safavi, who declared Iran a Shi'ite state.

Shari'a

Islamic law; in some Baltic regions, it conditioned urban institutions and social life.

Ottoman empire

Islamic state founded by Osman in north western Anatolia around 1300. After the fall of the Byzantine Empire, the Ottoman Empire was based at Istanbul (formerly Constantinople) from 1453 to 1922. It encompassed lands in the Middle East, North Africa, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe.

Causes of rebellion

Little Ice Age resulted in revolts that devastated Anatolia between 1590 and 1610. Former landholding cavalrymen, short term soldiers released at the end of the campaign season, peasants overburdened by emergency taxes and impoverished students of religion formed bands of marauders. Anatolia experienced the worst of the rebellions and suffered greatly from emigration and the loss of agricultural production.

Relations between Hindus and Muslims

Marriage of Akbar and a Rajput princess encouraged reconciliation and even intermarriage between Muslims and Hindus. Birth of the son in 1569 ensured that the future rulers would have both Muslim and Hindu ancestry.

Rajputs

Members of a mainly Hindu warrior caste from northwest India. The Mughal emperors drew most of their Hindu officials from this caste, and Akbar I married a princess of this caste to help encourage tolerance.

Akbar

Most illustrious sultan of the Mughal Empire in India (r. 1556-1605). He expanded the empire and pursued a policy of conciliation and religious tolerance with Hindus.

Mughal goods

Mughal had a thriving trading economy based on cotton cloth.

Acheh sultanate

Muslim kingdom in northern Sumatra. Main center of Islamic expansion in Southeast Asia in the early seventeenth century, it declined after the Dutch seized Malacca from Portugal in 1641.

Mughal empire

Muslim state (1526-1857) exercising dominion over most of India in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries before political fragmentation caused decline; a minority of Muslims ruled over a majority of Hindus.

Shi'ite Islam

Muslims of the Islam branch that believed God's leadership line was a descendant of Muhammad's son in law, Ali. Ismail, the Shah of Iran, declared his people to practice this religion in 1502. State religion of Iran.

Islam's spread in Southeast Asia

Muslims probably reached East Indies in the 8th century; the continuing dominance of Indian cultural influences in the area indicates that early Muslim visitors had little impact on local beliefs. Clearer indications of the formation of Muslim communities date from roughly the 14th century w/ strongest overseas linkage being into port cities of Cambay in India rather than into Arab land. Islam first took root in port cities and in some royal courts and spread inland slowly, possibly transmitted by itinerant Sufis.

Moros

Name Spaniards gave to Muslims they encountered on Mindanao and Sulu archipelago; name was the Spaniard term for their old enemies: the Muslims of North Africa.

St. Petersburg

On land captured from Sweden at the eastern end of the Baltic Sea, Peter built this city, his window on the West. In 1712, the city became Russia's capital. To demonstrate Russia's new sophistication, Peter ordered architects to build this city's houses and public buildings in the baroque style then fashionable in France.

Battle of Kosovo

Ottoman armies attacked Christian enemies in Greece and the Balkans before conquering neighboring Muslim principalities. In 1389, a strong Serbian kingdom was defeated in this battle, and by 1402, sultans ruled most of south eastern Europe and Anatolia.

Patrona Halil Rebellion

Patrina halil was the leader of this revolt: An Albanian former seaman and stoker of the public baths, swaggered around capital for several months dictating government policies before he was seized and excecuted. Rebellion confirmed the perceptions of a few that the Ottoman empire was facing serious diffuculties. In provinces, ambitious aristocratics took advantage of central government's weaknesses (rebellion had strong religious overtones).

Cossacks

Peoples of the Russian Empire who lived outside the farming villages, often as herders, mercenaries, or outlaws. Cossacks led the conquest of Siberia in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; conquested in bands, and bands remained loyal to the band leaders.

Qalyan

Persian word for "waterpipe"

Shah Abbas I

The fifth and most renowned ruler of the Safavid dynasty in Iran. He moved the royal capital to Isfahan in 1598.

Westernization in Russia

Peter also pushed the Russian elite to imitate European fashions. Shaved noblemen beards to conform to Western styles. To end the traditional seclusion of upper-class Russian women, Peter required officials, military officers, and merchants to bring their wives to social gatherings he organized in the capital; also directed nobles to educate their children.

Great Northern war

Peter the Great's modernized armies broke Swedish control of the Baltic Sea, making possible more direct contacts between Russia and Europe. This Russian victory forced European powers to recognize Russia as a major power for the first time.

Pondicherry

Place where Joseph Francois Dupleix took over French stronghold.

Peacock throne

Priceless jewel-encrusted symbol of Mughal grandeur that was snatched by Nadir Shah, a warlord who seized power in Iran after the Safavids fell, in a climax of regional powers challenging Mughal military supremacy in 1739.

Mikhail Romanov

Russian aristocracy allowed him to inaugurate a dynasty that would soon consolidate its own authority while successfully competing with neighboring powers.

"Third Rome"

Russian church gave Moscow this nickname; successor to the Roman empire's second capital, Constantinople, which had fallen to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

Muscovy

Russian principality that emerged gradually during the era of Mongol domination. The Muscovite dynasty ruled without interruption from 1276 to 1598.

Peter the Great

Russian tsar from 1672-1725. He enthusiastically introduced Western languages and technologies to the Russian elite, moving the capital from Moscow to the new city of St. Petersburg.

Europeans in southeast Asia

Spaniards conquered Philippines during decades following establsihment of their first fort in 1565. In ensuing Moro wars, Spaniards portrayed Moros as greedy pirates who raided non-Muslim territories for slaves.

Siege of Vienna

Suleiman, seemingly unstoppable, conquered Belgrade in 1521, expelled the Knights of the Hospital of St. John from Island of Rhode the following year, and laid siege on Vienna. Vienna was saved by the need to retreat before the onset of winter more than by military action.

Siberia

The extreme northeastern sector of Asia, including the Kamchatka Peninsula and the present Russian coast of the Arctic Ocean, the Bering Strait, and the Sea of Okhotsk.

Suleiman the Magnificent

The most illustrious sultan of the Ottoman Empire (r. 1520-1566); also known as 'The Lawgiver.' He significantly expanded the empire in the Balkans and eastern Mediterranean.

Tax farmers

This practice created new pressures. they paid specific taxes, such as custom duties, in advance in return for the privilege of collecting a greater amount from the actual taxpayers. Rural administration suffered from the shift to tax farms. Tax farmers were less likely to live on the land. Imperial government therefore faced greater administrative burdens and came to rely heavily on powerful provincial governors or on wealthy men who purchased life long tax collection rights and behaved more or less like private landowners.

Modernization projects of Peter

To secure a port on the Black Sea, he constructed a small but formidable navy; fancied himself legal protector of Orthodox Christians in Ottoman rule. resolved to expand and reform his vast but backward empire.

Second siege of Vienna

Trained Janissaries sometimes resorted to hiring substitutes to go on campaigns and sultans relied on partially trained recruits for missions. A second mighty siege of Vienna failed in 1683, and by the middle of the 18th century, it was obvious to Austrians and Russians that the Ottoman Empire was weakening.

Fall of the Safavid

Trying to unseat the nomads from their lands to regain control of taxes was more disruptive military than the piece mental dismantlement of the land grant system in the Ottoman empire. Nomads remained cohesive military forces, and pressure from the center simply caused them to withdraw from mountain pressures. By 1722, the government had become so weak and commanded so little support from nomadic groups that an army of marauding Afghans was able to capture Isfahan and effectively end Safavid rule.

Ismail

Ultimate victor in complicated struggle for power among Turkish chieftains east of Ottoman lands; by of Kurdish, Iranian and Greek ancestry. At 16, he proclaimed himself Shah of Iran and declared that his realm would be Shi'ite Muslim; the effect of this radical act was to create a deep chasm between Iran and its Sunni neighbors, and Iran became a truly separate country.

Urdu/Hindi

Urdu= name of a popular language of the Delhi region in Pakistan; Hindi=name of this popular language in India.

Dutch East India Company

Using this, the Dutch played a major role in driving Portuguese from their possessions in East Indies. Just as the Portuguese had tried to dominate spice trade,the Dutch concentrated on spice producing islands of south east Asia. Portuguese seized Malacca in 1511, and the Dutch took it from them, leaving little Portugal foothold in East Indies.

Cosmopolitan nature of Istanbul

Venetians, Geneose, Arabs, Turks, Greeks, Armenians, Albanians, Serbs, Jews, Bulgarians, and more lived in Istanbul. Istanbul conveyed the cosmopolitian character of major seaports from Venice to Canton, though its prosperity rested on the vast reach of the sultans terriotories rather than on voyages of Muslim merchants.

Russian peasants' lives

as centralized tsarist power rose, freedom of peasants who tilled the land in European Russia fell. Lords were encouraged to treat their peasants well, but rising commercialization of agriculture also raised values of these labor obligations. Long periods of warfare disrupted peasant life and caused many to flee to the Cossacks or into Siberia. Some who couldn't flee sold themselves into slavery to prevent from starving.

Effect of technology on military

cannons and lighter- weight firearms played an ever-larger role on the battlefield as military technology evolved. Accordingly the size of the Janissary corps- and its cost to the government- grew steadily, and the role of Turkish cavalry diminished. To pay for the Janissaries, the sultan began reducing the number of landholding cavalrymen.

Inflation

caused by cheap silver spread through Iran; then overland trade through Safavid territory declined due to mismanagement of silk monopoly after Shah Abbas I's death in 1629; later, shahs couldn't afford to pay army and bureaucracy.

Time of Troubles

early 17th century; marked the end of the old line of Muscovite rulers. During this era, which coincided with the beginning of the Little Ice Age and a similar period of internal disorder in the Ottoman empire; Swedish and Polish forces briefly occupied Moscow on different occasions.

Main goods of the Safavid

foreign trade rested on silk fabrics of northern Iran; product that eventually became more powerfully associated with Iran were deep pile carpets; different cities produced distinctive carpet designs.

Tsar

from Latin Caesar, this Russian title for monarch was first used in reference to a Russian ruler by Ivan III; the Russian term for ruler or king; taken from the Roman word caesar.

Java

location of modern day city of Jakarta.

Imam Husayn

martyrdom of this son of Ali and third imam regularized an emotional outbouring with no parallel to Sunni lands. To celebrate his martyrdom, preachers recited woeful tale to crowds weeping in the streets and elaborate shrines and processions took place. Mostly took place in Iran, where 90% were Shi'ite Muslim.

Mansabdars

nobles chosen by the emperor who were then assigned to a territory and expected to recruit soldiers for the Mughal army; holders of mansabs.

African trade goods

ports competed with one another in the export of ivory, ambergris (whale byproducts used in perfume), and forest products such as beeswax, copal tree resin, and wood. Kilwa also exported gold.

Ivan IV (the Terrible)

prince of neighboring Russian state of Novgorod; pushed Muscovy's conquests south and east at the expense of the Tatar Khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan.

Osmanli

the Turkish form of Ottoman; the sophisticated court language that shared basic grammar and vocabulary with Turkish.

Veils/clothing

women were veiled outside the home, but normally, both sexes had complete coverage of arms, legs, and hair. Females= wore long, ample dress with scarf or shawl to conceal hair with lightweight bagger trousers worn underneath. Poor men= light trousers, long shirt, jacket, and hat or turban. Wealthy men= ankle length caftans worn over trousers.

Anderun/harem

women's quarters: Anderun, or "interior" in Iran and harem, or "forbidden area" in Istanbul; these were separate from other rooms where men of the family received visitors.

Women's role in Safavid society

women, using male agents, were very active in urban real estate market, often selling inherited shares of father's estates, and even established reeligious endowments for pious purposes. could retain property after marriage; sometimes appeared in court cases.

Sawahil

word meaning "coasts."

Aurangzeb

zealous great grandson of Akbar who reinstituted many restrictions on Hindus; repealed the religious tolerance instituted by Akbar.