AP world History chapter 7 study guide
Architecture
Built impressive temples and created rituals linking kings to gods. Open plazas surrounded by high pyramids, and decorated palaces built on high ground or on elevated mounds; Mayans loved decoration. Carved decorations painted in bright colors covered nearly all public buildings. The Maya also erected beautifully carved altars and stone monoliths near major temples.
Teotihuacan
Located about 30 miles northeast of modern Mexico City, Teotihuacan(100 CE-750 CE) was one of Mesoamerica's most important classic-period civilizations. At the height of its power around 450 CE, its population was about 125,000. It was the largest city in the Americas.
Abandonment of Chaco Canyon
most likely due to long drought that undermined cultures fragile agricultural economy. However, the Anasazi continued in Four Corners region for more than a century after abandonment of Chaco Canyon.
Olmec religion
polytheistic with both male and female deities. motifs found in ceramics, sculptures and buildings, showed human and animal characteristics blending.
Religious ceremonies
rulers and close kin came to be associated with gods through blood-letting ceremonies and human sacrifice; the staging of elaborated rituals brought together the urban and rural populations.
Purpose of Cholula
served as a trade center and religious pilgrimage destination linked the valley of Mexico with Mayan regions.
Pottery/ceramics
small scale of its monumental architecture relative to Tiwanaku and the near absence of cut stone masonry in public and private building Wari ceramic style influence the coastal area and to the northern highlands.
Fall of Tiwanaku
sometime after 1000 CE urban Tiwanakuwas abandon. evidence show that years of severe drought led to precipitous population loss and to the breakdown of long distance trade in elite good. worsening material condition undermined the legitimacy of elite.
Mita
was a rotational labor draft that organized members of ayllus to work the fields and care for the llama and alpaca herds owned by religious establishments, the royal court, and the aristocracy.
Llama
A hoofed animal indigenous to the Andes Mountains in South America. It was the only domesticated beast of burden in the Americas before the arrival of Europeans. It provided wool and meat. The use of Llama to transporta of goods made possible specialized production and trade among people living in different ecological zones and fostered the integration of these zones by Chavin and later Andean states.
Chimu
A powerful civilization, also called Kingdom of Chimor, that developed on the northern coast of Peru from about 1200 to its conquest by an expanding Inka empire in the 1470s. its capital city was Chan Chan.
Chimú/Chimor
A powerful civilization, also called Kingdom of Chimor, that developed on the northern coast of Peru from about 1200 to its conquest by an expanding Inka empire in the 1470s. its capital city was Chan Chan.
End of Mayan civilization
After centuries of expansion, the power of the Maya cities declined due to an intensified struggle for resources, leading to class conflict and warfare. Certainly, rising regional population, climatic change, and environmental degradation also undermined the fragile agricultural system that sustained Maya cities.
Vertical integration/verticality
Ayllus sent out colonists to exploit the resources of these distinct ecological niches, retaining the loyalty of the colonists by arranging marriages and coming together for rituals. Historians commonly refer to this system of controlled exchange across ecological boundaries as vertical integration, or verticality.
Chaco Canyon
Chaco Canyon was located in what is now northwestern New Mexico. it was one of the largest Anasazi communities There were eight large towns in the canyon and four more on surrounding mesas, suggesting a regional population of 15,000.
Chavin Buildings
Chavín housed a large complex of multilevel platforms made of packed earth or rubble and faced with cut stone or adobe (sun-dried brick made of clay and straw). Small buildings used for ritual purposes or as elite residences were built on these platforms. Nearly all the buildings were decorated with relief carvings of serpents, condors, jaguars, or human forms.
Connection to Toltecs
Cholula had a large culturally and linguistically diverse population, including a large Toltec community.
Zones of agriculture
Coastal regions produced maize, fish, and cotton. Mountain valleys contributed quinoa (the local grain) as well as potatoes and other tubers. Higher elevations contributed the wool and meat of llamas and alpacas, and the Amazonian region provided coca and fruits.
Religious architecture
Due to the growth of urban elites' power with religious ideologies and compelling religious ritual, urban centers were dominated by religious architecture including pyramids, monumental mounds, and raised platforms. Constructed by thousands of laborers recruited in surrounding agricultural zones, the massive urban architecture was embellished with religious symbols tied to the official cult. The Elite dominated collective religious life and built their residences on raised platforms located near most sacred ritual spaces.
Anasazi
Important culture of what is now the southwest United States (700- 1300 C.E.). Centered on Chaco Canyon in New Mexico and Mesa Verde in Colorado, the Anasazi culture built multistory residences and worshiped in subterranean buildings called kivas.
Cause of fall
In 1470s, they fell victim to the rapid imperial expansion of the Inka, who then freely borrowws Chimu's technologies and political institutions.
Moundbuilding
Large mounds built to house burials and serve as platforms for religious rituals dominated major Hopewell centers. Some mounds were oriented to reflect sunrise and moonrise patterns.
Cholula
Located near modern Mexican city of Puebla. Developed at about the same time as Teotihuacan.
Calendar
Maya developed an accurate calendar system. The Maya calendar tracked a ritual cycle (260 days divided into thirteen months of 20 days). A second calendar tracked the solar year (365 days divided into eighteen months of 20 days, plus 5 unfavorable days at the end of the year). The Maya also maintained a continuous "long count" calendar, which began with creation in 3114 BCE.
Tiwanaku
Name of capital city and empire centered on the region near Lake Titicaca in modern Bolivia (500-1000 C.E.).
City structure
Nine large residential compounds provide the urban nucleus. Each one is believed to house a ruler and his family during his life and became his mausoleum upon his death. There was little urban planing in Chan Chan. Elite residential compounds were separated by high wall from commoners dispersed across city. Chan Chan served primarily as the residential precinct of the elite and those who provided the elite with luxury goods. Each compound contained a U shaped room used for official functions and numerous smaller rooms used for store food and other tribute items sent from dependent jurisdictions.
Priests
Rulers and other members of the elite served both priestly and political functions.They decorated their bodies to project both secular power and divine sanction.
Artisans
Superior quality textiles as well as gold crowns, breastplates, jewelry, the quality and abundance of pottery, and the monumental architecture of major centers indicate the presence of highly skilled artisans.
Mayan astronomical beliefs
The Maya divided the cosmos into three layers connected along a vertical axis that traced the course of the sun. The earthly arena of human existence held an intermediate position between the heavens and a dark underworld.
Tributary system
The capital bureaucracy also organized labor to maintain irrigation works and collect the tribute that sustained Chan Chan. With a population of only 25k to 30k at its peak, the Chimu capital was built and maintained by labor tributes imposed on dependent rural populations. As city grew, the construction of large structures like palaces and religious monuments was subdivided into multiple small tasks assigned to parties of tribute workers from distinct regions who made their own adobe bricks. Chimu organize thousands of conscripted laborers for ambitious irrigation tasks. The improved agriculture productivity compensated dependent peoples for their labor and for their loss of autonomy.
City alignment ----religious building aligned with sacred mountains and the movement of the stars
The city center was dominated by religious architecture that was situated to aligned with nearby sacred mountains and with the movement of the stars. The people of Teotihuacan recognized and worshiped many gods and lesser spirits. Enormous pyramids and more than twenty smaller temples devoted to these gods were arranged along a central avenue.
Teotihuacan city's role
The city's role as a religious center and commercial power provided both divine approval of and a material basis for the elite's increased wealth and status. Teotihuacan's economy and religious influence drew pilgrims from distant regions. Many became permanent residents.
Family relationships
These reciprocal labor obligations were initially organized by groups of related families who held land communally and claimed descent to a common ancestor. Group members thought of themselves as brothers and sisters and were obliged to aid one another.
Ball game
Transformation powers were also associated with a ballgame, played with a solid rubber ball on banked courts located near the center of the of temple precincts. Versions of this survived until the arrival of Europeans in the 16th century.
Reason for weakening of Toltec power
Two chieftains or kings shared power in Tula, but this division of responsibility eventually weakened Toltec power. Around 1150 CE a struggle between two elite groups led to violent clashes within Toltec society and encouraged attacks by rival states. Toltec state entered a period of steep decline after 1150 CE that include internal power struggles and an external military threat from the north.
Culhuacan
a Multiethnic state with historical ties to Teotihuacan , located south of Mesoamerican. It was an alliance with Toltec. The two cities benefited from military alliance and from networks of tribute and trade established throughout the central Mexican region.
Chavin Labor
development of trade networks led to the reciprocal labor obligations that permitted construction and maintenance of roads, bridges, temples, palaces, and irrigation/drainage products; all of this activity was organized collectively by the state in the time of Chavin.
Causes of Olmec decline
internal upheavals or military attacks; death/ overthrow of leader or of social conflict.
Mesoamerican Geography
located in Mexico and northern Central America, a region of geographic and climatic diversity.It is extremely active geologically, experiencing both earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Mountain ranges break the region into microenvironments, including the temperate climates, the tropical forests, the rain forest, and the drier scrub forest.
Trade goods
merchants from Chaco provide Toltec-period peoples of northern Mexico with turquoise in exchange for shell jewelry, copper bells, macaws and trumpets.
Chan Chan
the chimu empire with its capital of Chan Chan
Quetzalcoatl
the feathered serpent, a culture-god believed to be the originator of agriculture and the arts.
Coco
the leaves that are chewed, producing a mild narcotic effect.
Trade & Interaction
the location of the Chavin de Huantar facilitated exchanges among ecologically distinct zones, linking the inland producers of quinoa, maize, and potatoes to the coast to llama herders in high mountain valleys to tropical producers of coco on the eastern flank of the Andes
Decline
the rapid decline of major Moche centers coincided with a succession of natural disasters in the sixth century and with the rise of a new military power in the Andean highlands. Long-term climate changes also threatened the Moche region. A thirty-year drought expanded the area of coastal sand dunes during the sixth century, and powerful winds pushed sand onto fragile agricultural lands, overwhelming the irrigation system. As the land dried, periodic heavy rains caused erosion that damaged fields and weakened the economy that had sustained ceremonial and residential centers.
Kiva
underground buildings used for worship.
Llamas
A hoofed animal indigenous to the Andes Mountains in South America. It was the only domesticated beast of burden in the Americas before the arrival of Europeans. It provided wool and meat. The use of Llama to transporta of goods made possible specialized production and trade among people living in different ecological zones and fostered the integration of these zones by Chavin and later Andean states.
Tres Zapotes
After La Venta's collapse around 600 b.c.e. Tres Zapotes survived as the largest Olmec center, although it was much smaller than either of its predecessors.
Amerindian people
Amerindian peoples developed specialized technologies that exploited indigenous plants and animals, as well as minerals like obsidian, quartz, and jade. The ability of farmers to produce dependable surpluses of maize, beans, squash and other locally domesticated plants permitted the first stages of craft specialization and urbanization.
Wari
Andean civilization culturally linked to Tiwanaku, perhaps beginning as a colony of Tiwanaku. Wari clearly shared elements of the culture and technology of Tiwanaku. Wari's distinct culture evolved a politically centralized state and powerful military.
Ayllu
Andean lineage group or kin-based community. Members of an ayllu held land communally. Ayllu members thought of each other as brothers and sisters and were obligated to aid each other in tasks. Members of an ayllu were expected to provide labor and goods to their hereditary chief.
Andean Geography
Andean region has diverse geographic environments-a mountainous core, arid coastal plain, and dense interior tropical forests
Moche
Civilization of north coast of Peru (200-700 C.E.). An important Andean civilization that built extensive irrigation networks as well as impressive urban centers dominated by brick temples.
Class in Chavín
Class distinctions appear to have increased in thid period: evidence of a powerful king or chief dominated politics, while a class of priests directed religious life.
Resources
Control and possession of resources, such as salt, cacao, clay (for ceramics), etc, led to the development of specialized crafts and trade.
Environmental challenges
Droughts and shifting sands that clogged irrigation works periodically overwhelmed the coastal region's fields and the mountainous interior presented enormous environmental challenges, since it averaged between 250 and 300 frosts per year. The Andean people developed an accurate calendar to time planting and harvests and the domesticated frost-resistant varieties of potatoes and grains. Native peoples learned to practice dispersed farming at different altitudes to reduce risks from frosts and they terraced hillsides to create micro environments within a single area. They also discovered how to use the cold, dry climate to produce freeze-dried vegetable and meat products that prevented famine when crops failed. The domestication of the llama and alpaca also proved crucial, providing meat, wool, and long-distance transportation that linked coastal and mountain economies.
Mayan women
Few women directly ruled Maya kingdoms, but Maya women of the ruling lineages did play important political and religious roles. The consorts of male rulers participated in bloodletting rituals and their noble blood helped legitimate the rule of their husbands. Although Maya society was patrilineal, some male rulers traced their lineages bilaterally. women played a central role in the religious rituals of the home. They were also healers and shamans. Women were essential to the household economy, maintaining essential garden plots and weaving, and in the management of family life.
Priests and shamans
Foretold the future, cured the sick, and led collective rituals; claimed the ability to make direct contact with supernatural powers by transforming themselves into powerful animals, such as crocodiles, snakes and sharks.
Chiefdom
Form of political organization with rule by a hereditary leader who held power over a collection of villages and towns. Less powerful than kingdoms and empires, chiefdoms were based on gift giving and commercial links.
La Venta
Founded around 1200 BCE, it became the preeminent Olmec center when San Lorenzo was abandoned or destroyed around 900 BCE.
Hopewell
From around 100 CE the Hopewell culture spread through the Ohio River Valley. Hopewell people constructed large villages and monumental earthworks. Hopewell depended on hunting and gathering and a limited agriculture. Hopewell is an early example of a North American chiefdom—populations as large as 10,000 and rule by a chief, a hereditary leader with both religious and secular responsibilities.
Stone heads
Giant heads sculpted from basalt are a widely recognized legacy of Olmec culture. Sixteen heads have been found, the largest approximately 11 feet (3.4 meters) tall. Experts in Olmec archaeology believe the heads are portraits of individual rulers, warriors, or ballplayers.
Toltec art
In violent era, Toltecs use violent images, like impaled skulls to decorate public buildings. Massive architecture of city center featured impressive statues of warriors and serpents, colonnaded patios, raised stone platforms and numerous temples.
Collapse of Teotihuacan
It is unclear what forces brought about the collapse of Teotihuacan about 750 CE. Pictorial evidence from murals indicates that the city's final decades were violent. Scholars have uncovered evidence that the elite had mismanaged resources and then divided into competing factions,leading to class conflicts and the breakdown of public order. In the final collapse the most important temples in the city center were destroyed and religious images defaced. Elite palaces were systematically burned and many of their residents killed.
Swidden agriculture
Maya farmers prepare their fields by cutting down small trees and brush and then burning the dead vegetation to fertilize the land. Such swidden agriculture (also called shifting agriculture or slash and burn agriculture) can produce high yields for a few years.
Mayan agriculture
Maya living near the major urban centers achieved high agricultural yields by draining swamps and building elevated fields. They used irrigation in areas with long dry seasons, and they terraced hillsides in the cooler highlands. Maya agriculturists also managed nearby forests, favoring the growth of the trees and shrubs that were most useful to them, as well as promoting the conservation of deer and other animals hunted for food.
Mayan Mathematics
Maya mathematics and writing provided the foundations for both the calendars and the astronomical observations on which they were based. Their system of mathematics incorporated the concept of the zero and place value but had limited notational signs.
Maya writing
Maya writing was a form of hieroglyphic inscription that signified whole words or concepts as well as phonetic cues or syllables. Scribes recorded aspects of public life, religious belief, and the biographies of rulers and their ancestors in books, on pottery, and on the stone columns and monumental buildings of the urban centers.
Social class structure
Members of the elite controlled the state bureaucracy, tax collection, and commerce. Their rich and ornate clothing, their abundant diet, and their large, well-made residences signaled the wealth and power of aristocratic families. Temple and palace murals make clear the central position and great prestige of the priestly class as well.
Maya
Mesoamerican civilization concentrated in Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula and in Guatemala and Honduras but never unified into a single empire. Instead Maya civilization developed as a complex network of independent city states. Major contributions were in mathematics, astronomy, and development of the calendar.
Metallurgy
Metallurgy was first developed in the Andean region ca.2000 BCE. The later introduction of metallurgy in Mesoamerica suggests sustained trade and cultural contacts between the two regions. Archaeological investigations of Chavín de Huantar have uncovered remarkable silver, gold, and gold alloy ornaments that represent a clear advance over earlier technologies. Improvements in both the manufacture and decoration of textiles are also associated with the rise of Chavín.
Society
Moche did not establish a formal empire or create unified political structures, but Moche society was highly stratified and theocratic. Wealth and power was concentrated, along with political control, in the hands of priests and military leaders. The military conquest of neighboring regions reinforced hierarchy. They elaborate potent ideology that tie hereditary rulers to gods through religious rituals in major Moche cities.
Olmec
Olmec The first Mesoamerican civilization. Between ca. 1200 and 400 B.C.E., the Olmec people of central Mexico created a vibrant civilization that included intensive agriculture, wide-ranging trade, ceremonial centers, and monumental construction. The Olmec had great cultural influence on later Mesoamerican societies, passing on artistic styles, religious imagery, sophisticated astronomical observation for the construction of calendars, and ritual ball game.
Astronomy
Olmec religious practice included the close observation of the heavens; all their major ceremonial centers were laid out in alignment with paths of certain stars. The concern for astronomic observation led to development of an accurate calendar used to predict seasonal rains and guide planting and harvesting schedules.
Teotihuacan sacrifice
People living at Teotihuacan practiced human sacrifice. Scholars believe that residents viewed sacrifice as a sacred duty to the gods and as essential to the well-being of society.
Toltec
Powerful postclassic empire in central Mexico (900-1175 C.E.). It influenced much of Mesoamerica. Aztecs claimed ties to this earlier civilization. Toltecs culture was deeply influenced by Teotihuacan, and it also utilized agricultural technologies, like irrigation and terraced hillsides, so important to Teotihuacan .
Pueblo/Pueblo Bonito
Pueblo Bonito (founded in 919 !.".) had more than 650 rooms arranged in a four-story block of residences and storage rooms; it also had thirtyeight kivas, including a great kiva more than 65 feet (19 meters) in diameter.
Difference between Mesoamerican cultures
Pueblo Bonito's rise depended on its identitity as a sacred site and on its intense cycle of religious rituals that attracted pilgrims from distant location, which similar with the Olmec center of San Lorenzo and Chavin de Huantar in Peru. The signature elements of Mesoamerican influence, such as pyramid-shaped mounds and ball courts, are missing at Chaco.
Chinampas
Raised fields constructed along lakeshores in Mesoamerica to increase agricultural yields. sometimes called "floating gardens."Chinampas permitted year-round agriculture—because of subsurface irrigation and resistance to frost—and thus played a crucial role in sustaining the region's growing population.
Elites vs. others
Rural mass provided labor to construct city center, as well as food that sustained urban population, but received some benefits. Elite explained human origin, unforeseen events, and guide to collective life; organized labor to dig canals and construct raised fields to allow for agriculture in the wetlands, therefore expanding food production. In other words, elite were authoritative leaders and organizers, while the nonelite were laborers and followers.
San Lorenzo
San Lorenzo (1200-900 b.c.e.) with a population of between 10000 to 18000, was the largest and most important Olmec urban center. It's cultural influence extended south and west to the Pacific coast of Central America and north to central Mexico, suggesting its ability to project military and political power.
Tula
capital of Toltec. North of modern Mexico City.
Early Horizon
Scholar use the term Early Horizon for the period of 900 BCE to 200BCE in Andean history
Chichen Itza
Similarities in architecture and urban planning in the Toltec heartland and in some Maya postclassic centers, like Chichen Itza in the Yucatán Peninsula, led some scholars to suggest a Toltec presence in the Maya region.
Warfare
The Maya infused warfare with religious meaning and celebrated it in elaborate rituals. Maya military forces fought to secure captives rather than territory. The king, his kinsmen, and other ranking nobles actively participated in war. Elite captives were nearly always sacrificed; captured commoners were more likely to be forced to labor for their captors.
Cahokia
The Mississippian culture reached its highest stage of evolution at the great urban center of Cahokia, located near the modern city of East St. Louis, Illinois. It served as a religious center and pilgrimage site. At its height in about 1200 CE Cahokia had a population of about 20,000.
Military in Teotihuacan
The absence of walls or other defensive structures before 500 CE suggests that Teotihuacan enjoyed relative peace during its early development. Archaeological evidence, however, reveals that the city created a powerful military to protect long-distance trade and to compel peasant agriculturalists to transfer their surplus production to the city. Unlike later postclassic civilizations, however, Teotihuacan was not an imperial state controlled by a military elite.
Decline of Cahokia
The construction of defensive walls around the ceremonial center and elite residence after 1250 CE provides some evidence that the decline and eventual abandonment of Cahokia were tied to the effects of military defeat or civil war. There is also evidence that climate changes and population pressures, exacerbated by environmental degradation caused by deforestation and more intensive farming practices, undermined Cahokia's viability.
Mississippian life
The development of urbanized Mississippian chiefdoms resulted from the accumulated effects of small increases in agricultural productivity and the expansion of trade networks. An improved economy led to population growth, the building of cities, and social stratification. The largest towns shared a common urban plan based on a central plaza surrounded by large platform mounds. Major towns were trade centers where people bartered essential commodities.
Chavin's influence
The enormous scale of the capital and the dispersal of Chavín's pottery styles, religious motifs, and architectural forms over a wide area have led some scholars to claim that Chavín imposed some form of political and economic control over its neighbors by military force. Most scholars believe, however, that Chavín's influence depended more on the development of an attractive religious belief system and related rituals.
Chavín
The first major urban civilization in South America (900-250 B.C.E.). Its capital, Chavín de Huantar, was located high in the Andes Mountains of Peru. Chavín became politically and economically dominant in a densely populated region that included 2 distinct ecological zones, the Peruvian Costal Plain and the Andean Foothills.
Artisans
The high quality of Moche textiles, ceramics, and metallurgy indicates the presence of numerous skilled artisans. Women had a special role in the production of textiles, and even elite women devoted time to weaving. Moche culture developed a brilliant representational art. Craftsmen produced highly individualized portrait vases and decorated other ceramics with representations of myths and rituals. They were also accomplished metal-smiths, producing beautiful gold and silver religious objects and jewelry for elite adornment. Metallurgy served more practical ends as well: Artisans produced a range of tools made of heavy copper and copper alloy for agricultural and military purposes.
the largest building at Chavin de Huantar
The largest building at Chavín de Huantar measured 250 feet (76 meters) on each side and rose to a height of 50 feet (15 meters). Its hollow interior contained narrow galleries and small rooms that may have housed the remains of royal ancestors.
jaguar-man
The most common decorative motif in sculpture, pottery, and textiles was a jaguar-man similar in conception to the Olmec symbol. In both civilizations this powerful predator provided an enduring image of religious authority.
Fall of Chavin
There is no convincing evidence that the collapse of Chavín was associated with conquest or rebellion. However, recent investigations have suggested that increased warfare through out the region disrupted Chavín's trade and undermined the authority of the governing elite.
Tiwanaku social structure
Tiwanaku at its height around 800 ce had a fulltime population of around 60000. It was a highly stratified society ruled by a hereditary elite. This elite initially organized and controlled the ayllus of the surrounding region, eventually utilized drafted labor from conquered and incorporated populations as well. Skilled craftsmen constantly expanded and embellished the ceremonial architecture and produced the metal goods, textiles, and pottery consumed by elite. Military conquests and the establishment of colonial populations provided dependable supplies of products from ecologically distinct zones.
Statues
Tiwanaku was distinguished by the scale of its construction and by the high quality of its stone masonry. They cut and move the large stones and construct a large terraced pyramid, walled enclosures, and a reservoir. Tiwanaku's artisans built large structures of finely cut stone that required little mortar to fit the blocks. They also produced gigantic human statuary. Sacred construction were oriented to reflect celestial cycles and distant Andean peaks infused with religious significance. collectively, they provided an awe-inspiring setting for religious ritual that legitimate the city's control of distant territories and people and for the elite's domination of society.
Government
Unlike the other classic-period civilizations, the people of Teotihuacan did not concentrate power in the hands of a single ruler. There is no clear evidence that individual rulers or a ruling dynasty gained overarching political power. In fact, some scholars suggest that allied elite families or weak kings who were the puppets of these powerful families ruled Teotihuacan.
Chunkey
a game infused with religious meaning and accompanied by gambling, help establish Cahokia's culture influence over a large region. Was used by the elite to organize tribute payments and labor for construction of massive public works.
Economy & production
an economy based on maize, beans, and squash. They produced pottery decorated with geometric pattern, learned to weave cotton cloth, and began to construct large multistory residential and ritual centers.
Northern Peoples
around 900 CE., important cultural centers had appeared in the southwestern desert region and along the Ohio and Mississippi River Valleys of what is now the United States. In both regions improved agricultural productivity and population growth led to increased urbanization and more complex social and political structures.
