APAH Ch. 2 exam

Content

- The emotional or intellectual message of an artwork. - The expression, essential meaning, significance, or aesthetic value of a work of art. - Content refers to the sensory, subjective, psychological, or emotional properties we feel in a work of art. - Content is not just a description of the subject matter.

Context

- The set of circumstances or facts that surround a particular event, situation, etc. This could include when a work of art was made, where, how, and for what purpose. This could include historical information on the artist or issues or things the artist references.

#45 Basilica (large rectangular building) Ulpia.

-Basicilica: Christians later adapted this form to be the main form of christian worship and that's why we use the words apses, basilica and such -Resembles a mall -Material: concrete, with bricks on side -Tech: has relieving arches, which are arches built over a lintel or architrave to take off the superincumbent weight; Had two apses, rounded extensions @ each end of the building, provided imposed settings for judges when this court was in session -Func: law courts held here -DT: Spacious, wide, double collonade, court

Key Ideas Egyptian Art

-Elaborate funerary practices -Broad frontal shoulders and profiled heads, torsos, and legs -Old Kingdom = unyielding stance and formidable expressions -Middle Kingdom = more relaxed and emotional -New Kingdom = rounded and elongated figures

#31 a. Apollo of Veii

-Func: dynamic, striding masterpiece of large scale terracotta sculpture and likely a central figure in the rooftop narrative -Content: His counterpart may have been the less well-preserved figure of Hercle (Hercules) with whom he struggled in an epic contest over the Golden Hind, an enormous deer sacred to Apollo's twin sister Artemis. Placed on top of a roof, so it's not a cult statue -DT: highly stylized and resembles the archaic style of the Greeks

#41 Seated boxer. Hellenistic Greek. c. 100 B.C.E.

-Material: Bronze statue inlaid with copper. -Tech: Lost wax technique -Func: Possibly made to be votive/dedicated by a victorious boxer. -Content: displayed emotion of a heavily battered athlete, as opposed to former athletes in archaic and classical periods that were portrayed as perfectly symmetrical, with a perfect face and body -Context: Rome had been conquered by Alexander the Great of Greece, after his death (Hellenistic Period) this art focused on realism. -DT: Stiff, free-standing, rigid, ready, victorious, proportionate -Meaning: Votive demonstrating the appreciation for fighters which was a way of entertainment and distraction in Hellenistic Greece.

#30 Audience Hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes. Persian. c. 520-465 B.C.E.

-Material: Limestone -Tech: Stone masonary/ stone carving -Func: to act as a central location for subject nations to bring tribute and exchange gifts -Context: the Persians were in fact quite tolerant and ruled a multi-ethnic empire. Persia was the first empire known to have acknowledged the different faiths, languages and political organizations of its subjects. In the lands which they conquered, the Persians continued to use indigenous languages and administrative structures -Content: the city Persepolis included a massive columned hall used for receptions by the Kings, called the Apadana. This hall contained 72 columns and two monumental stairways. The walls of the spaces and stairs leading up to the reception hall were (relief) carved with hundreds of figures, several of which illustrated subject peoples of various ethnicities, bringing tribute and gifts to the Persian king. -Meaning: symbol of the king's power because gift exchange was one of the central elements in Persian style.

#27 Anavysos Kouros. Archaic Greek. c. 530 B.C.E.

-Material: Marble with remnants of paint -Tech: brightly painted & sometimes had incriptions indicating that individual men or women had commissioned them for a comemmorative purpose -Func: Idealize the beauty of the male nude physique; used as gravemarkers & offerings in sanctuary; but this one was grave monument to fallen war hero BUT there is no evidence that this figure was meant to preserve Kroisos, so he's symbolic type - not a specific individual -Content: Kouroi, nearly always nude, have been variously identified as gods, (usually Apollo), warriors, & victorious atheletes. This isn't a real portrait but general representation of an ideal, perfected greek male. Named after a fallen young military hero Kroisos (inscription at base identifies him). This particular Kouros shows us that these diff. figures become more natural, more life like, more rounded & less blocky. -DT: Rigidly frontal. Emulates stance of egyptian sculpture but is nude. Arms and legs largely cut free from the stone. Freestanding sculpture with legs appearing to stride forward in contrast to many egyptian works that are reliefs or are attached to stone. Traditional braiding of the hair. Has his eyes wide open & has squarish shoulders, face is masklike. HAS THE ARCHAIC SMILE. More naturalistic though still adhering to Egypt conventions -Meaning: idea of monumental sculpture of ideal male youth is very powerful motif in greek culture.

#24 Last judgment of Hu-Nefer. New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty. c. 1275 B.C.E.

-Material: Painted papyrus scroll -Tech: twisted perspective -Func: Final judgment of the deceased -Context: The Book of the Dead was a collection of funerary spells and prayers used in Egypt. -Content: Anubis, god of embalming, leads Hu-Nefer to where he will weigh his heart vs feather of truth, the symbol of Ma'at. Ammit, eater of dead, watches for a sign from ibis headed god Toth, who prepares to record the result of the weighing, but Ammit goes hungry. Hu-Nefer passes the test, & Horus presents him to Osiris. In front of him, Horus's 4 sons, each caring the dead's vital organs, each are on top of a huge lotus flower. In the register, Hunefer finally is accepted into the afterlife, & he kneels before the 14 gods of the underworld. -DT: conservative; traditional; hieroglyphs

#34 Doryphoros (Spear Bearer). Polykleitos. Original 450-440 B.C.E.

-Material: Roman copy (marble) of Greek original (bronze). -Tech: Greeks created their free-standing sculpture in bronze, but because bronze is valuable and can be melted down and reused, sculpture was often recast into weapons. This is why so few ancient Greek bronze originals survive, and why we often have to look at ancient Roman copies in marble (of varying quality) to try to understand what the Greeks achieved. -Func: an idealized version of a Grecian man- the type of man that people idolize and strive to be but can never reach. -Content: The original was sculpted by the Greek sculptor Polykleitos. His wish was to create a sculpture encompassing the perfect balance and proportions of the human body. Doryphorus depicts a warrior going out to battle. The original sculpture has never been uncovered; many suspect that it had been destroyed. Created as a "canon" (rule) as to what perfectly balanced proportion should look like. Greeks focused on the nobility of the athelete & of the humn body in art. This is one reason why most greek sculptures are nude = the artist views human body as one that revealed rational perfection (godlike) -DT: Contrapposto pose (asymmetrical arrangement of the human figure in which the line of the anus & shoulders contrasts w while balancing those of the hips & legs), sort of a diagonal in his body because one side is relaxed another is tense; outlines the strength of a male dominated society; left leg is relaxed while right is carrying his weight

#29 Sarcophagus of the Spouses. Etruscan. c. 520 B.C.E.

-Material: Terra Cotta -Tech: Standard etruscan style terracotta sculpture. -Func: Possibly used for funerary purposes or decoration. -Content: The Sarcophagus of the Spouses has been interpreted as belonging to a banqueting scene, with the couple reclining together on a single dining couch while eating and drinking. Symbolic relationship, man has a protective gesture around the woman and the woman feeds the man, reflects high standing of women in society. So their relationship can last in the afterlife, buried together -Context: Painted terracotta played a key role in Etrsucan culture, this work would have been an elite. Commision for the difficulty of creating a sculpture of its size with limited resources. -DT: simplified shapes, redish coloring, stiff, rigid, smooth, lifelike, horizontal -Meaning: women given equal placement in Etruscan art

#23 Tutankhamun's tomb. New Kingdom (Amarna Style), 18th Dynasty. c. 1323 B.C.E.

-Material: beaten gold with inlay of enamel and semiprecious stones. -Func: During 18th Dynasty, the outer sarcophagus enclosed a series of inner coffins, the last of which would contain the royal mummy of the Pharaoh. The purpose of the King Tut sarcophagus was therefore the external layer of protection for the royal mummy of Tutankhamun. -Context: Was perfectly preserved when found in 1922. -Content: It was sculpted in the image of Tutankhamun as Osiris, the god who presided over the judgment of the dead. He carries a crook and flail (worn by the god Osiris and the pharaoh), and wears the royal beard and a nemes head cloth w cobra & vulture - pharaohs wanted to imitate gods to connect to them and be like them. On either side of him, Isis and Nephthys, goddesses of lower & upper egypt, spread their wings in a protective embrace. DT: anthropoid (resembling human, as the king's features reproduced on the coffin & masks are those of a very young man), ethereal, detailed, smooth M: The coffin gives people insight on Ancient Egyptian burial customs, and expresses Egyptian power and affluence. Have influences of traditional ancient Egyptian art and of the Amarna style.

#14 Statues of votive (fulfillment of a vow) figures. Sumerian. c. 2700 B.C.E.

-Material: carved from soft Gypsum, inlaid with shell and black limestone -Subject Matter: men and women in forms of sculptures in a praying position. Size could enforce hierarchy -Func: religious sculptures as votive offerings for prayer to the gods; -Tech: Subtractive method -ID Aspects: Large wide open eyes with fear in the prescence of gods, geometric, not detailed, rigid, beard, stylized faces and bodies in a V-shape with the skirt kicking out, not a true portrait where you could recognize the individual -DT: Stiff, rigid, not in proportion, awe, pessimistic, frontal simplified, conical -Context: Votive offerings have always been popular in ancient times. The purpose of having these mortals was for eternal prayer. As noted, prayer to the gods was one of the most important aspects of Sumerian societies. People tried to avoid being killed by the gods by having a statue of themselves in a constant prayer. placed in temples precincts ("waiting rooms") facing altar or stautes of god. -Content: to create something that they could use to pray to the gods away from home; Their religion deemed they had to be in constant prayer. Since you actually had to do stuff and it wasn't realistic for a person to be in prayer throughout the entire day, citizens would commission and buy a votive statue to pray for them at home while they were out or working.

#20 Temple of Amun-Re and Hypostyle Hall. New Kingdom, 18th and 19th Dynasties. Temple: c. 1550 B.C.E.; Hall: c. 1250 B.C.E.

-Material: cut sandstone and mud brick -Hall Tech: Massive lintels bind the columns together -Temple Func: Temple of Karnak was principal religious center of the god Amun-Re during New Kingdom. Karnak wasn't just 1 temple dedicated to 1 god, held not only the main precinct to Amun but also the precincts of the gods Mut & Montu. Karnak wasn't only the location of the cult image of Amun & a place for the god to dwell on earth but also a working estate for the priestly community who lived on site. -Hall Func: may have been used for royal coronation ceremonies -Context for Temple: Access to the heart of the temple, a sanctuary containing the statue of Amun, was from the west through a principal courtyard, a hypostyle hall, & a # of smaller halls & courts. Main temple of Amun-Re had two axes—one that went north/south and the other that extended east/west. The southern axis continued towards the temple of Luxor and was connected by an avenue of ram-headed sphinxes. -Context for Hall: Hypostyle means space with a roof supported by columns. It had 134 sandstone columns supported a roof of flat stones w the center 12 columns standing @ 69 ft with massive papyrus capitals. Hall would've been brightly painted and some of this paint still exists on upper portions of the columns and ceilings today. With the center of the hall taller than the spaces on either side, the Egyptians allowed for clerestory lighting (a section of wall that allowed light and air into the otherwise dark space below). Despite the dimness of the interior, artists covered nearly every inch of the columns, walls, & cross beams with painted pictorial reliefs and inscriptions. -Content for Temple/Hall: In sanctuary of Amun, priests washed the god's statue every morn & clothed it in a new garment. Bc the god was thought to derive nourishment from the spirit of food, his statue was provided with tempting meals twice a day, which the priests then removed & ate themselves. Ordinary people entered the temple precinct only as far as the hypostyle halls, where they found themselves surrounded by inscriptions & images of kings & the god on columns & walls. During religious festivals, they lined the waterways, along which statues of the gods were carried in ceremonial boats, & were allowed to submit petitions to the priests for requests they wished the gods to grant. -DT: Pylon is a peristyle court (a colonnade that surrounds a court or building); Clerestory is raising of the the center of the roof creates a clerestory in which sun light can enter through the stone grills -***: Conceptually, temples in Egypt were connected to the idea of zep tepi, or "the first time," the beginnings of the creation of the world. The temple was a reflection of this time, when the mound of creation emerged from the primeval waters. The pylons, or gateways in the temple represent the horizon, and as one moves further into the temple, the floor rises until it reaches the sanctuary of the god, giving the impression of a rising mound, like that during creation. The temple roof represented the sky and was often decorated with stars and birds. The columns were designed with lotus, papyrus, and palm plants in order to reflect the marsh-like environment of creation. The outer areas of Karnak, which was located near the Nile River, would flood during the annual inundation—an intentional effect by the ancient designers no doubt, in order to enhance the temple's symbolism

#21 Large Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut. 18th dynasty, c. 1473-1458 BCE

-Material: red granite -Content: Hatshepsut initially ruled as regent for her step son Thuthmosis III but promoted herself to the role of pharaoh instead of passing power to him. There was no artistic formula for a female pharoah in Egyptian art, yet Hatsheptsut had to be portrayed in her new role. She was rep. as a male king wearing a kilt & linen headdress, ocasionally even a king's false beard; Hatshepsut on her knees making offering of two jars bc the God passed in front of these sculptures, who aren't just sculptures, they're embodiment of Hatsheptut. -Representation itself is masculine, but the identification is a female

#32 Tomb of the Triclinium. Etruscan. c. 480-470 B.C.E.

-Material: tufa and fresco -Tech: subterranean rock-cut chambers -Func: The Tomb of the Triclinium was built as a burial chamber. The tombs are intended to contain not only the remains of the deceased but also various grave goods or offerings deposited along with the deceased. The main painted scene is meant to represent the celebration of the funeral banquet to show that the funeral rites were not somber but rather a festive celebration of going to the afterlife. -Content: It is so named because its frescoes may have once featured three couches like triclinums, dining rooms from ancient Greece and Rome. The frescoes depict a banquet and people dancing to music. Common painterly conventions of gender typing are employed—the skin of females is light in color while male skin is tinted a darker tone of orange-brown. The dancers and musicians, together with the feasting, suggest the overall convivial tone of the Etruscan funeral. -DT: flat figures, lively, checkered ceiling and floors, It is a single large chamber -Meaning: This hints at the cheerful burial rituals of the Etrucans, celebrating a last meal with the deceased; Reinforce the socio-economic position of the deceased person and his/her family, a way to remind the community of the living of the importance and standing of these people and thus tangibly reinforce their position in contemporary society

#16 Standard of Ur from the Royal Tombs at Ur (modern Tell el-Muqayyar, Iraq). Sumerian. c. 2600-2400 B.C.E.

-Media: This piece has two sides. The end panels are covered with figurative and geometric mosaics -Material: pieces of wood inlaid w shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone set into bitumen. -Func: OG func is not yet understood, but it is likely to have been the sound box for a musical instrument; carried on a pole as a standard, hence its common name -Content: The mosaics represent life in early Mesopotamia. One side represents the "War Side" (which shows the defeat of some unknown enemy) while the other is the "Peace Side" (which shows the bounty of the land with animals, fish and other goods brought in procession to a banquet). This narrates a story from the bottom to the top. For example, the top register on each side depicts a king, who is larger in scale than the other figures (it represents/symbolizes his power). The Standard shows the two most important roles of an early Mesopotamian ruler: the warrior (protects people and secured access to water and natural resources) and the leader (served as an intermediary between the people and the gods.) -DT: twisted perspective

#45 Column of Trajan. Rome. 117 CE. Marble. 625 ft.

-Patron: King Trajan -Technique: spiral frieze of low reliefs; the width of the frieze gets bigger and wider as you go up from the bottom -DT: Reliefs, Illustrated Scroll (this column was b/w the two libraries so the libraries had scrolls with pictures), Spiral Frieze, Episodes, helix -Content: has continuous pictorial narratives of the Dacian campaigns of 102-103 & 105-106 CE. It has more than 2500 individual figures linked by landscape & architecture, & punctuated by reoccuring figures of Trajan. The column shows that the Romans spent more time preparing for battle like building than actually fighting. Also shows Trajan's superior rule & everlasting power, known as one of the "victory columns" of Rome. In this piece of imperial idealogy of propaganda, Trajan is shown as strong, stable, & efficient commander of well run army, & his barbarian enemies are shown as worthy opponents of Rome. -Context: Bottom of column shows Trajan's army crossing the Danube river @ 1st Dacian campaign of 101 CE. Trajan is shown listening to his advisors and people and shows he is great king. Top of column shows 2nd Dacian war (105-106 CE)

#42 Head of a Roman patrician. Republican Roman. 1st century B.C.E.

-Period/Style: Verism, a style in which artists concern themselves with capturing the exterior likeness of an object or person, usually by rendering its visible details in a finely executed, meticulous manner -Patron: Emperor Augustus -Material: Marbles -Tech: Veristic portrait -Func: To illustrate the idealistic physical appearance at the time which is old face with wrinkles that indicated how wise they are. Symbolize the virtues of wisdom, determination, and experience, valor and strength that all Roman Republicans hoped to obtain. -Context: Roman Emperor Augustus admired Greek verism and he encouraged sculptors to promote and adopt to verism -DT: Exhausted, serious, experienced, determined, loyal -Meaning: That the old ones are the wisest and expresses the tradition of Roman art; Romans prized age & wisdom

#35 f. Plaque of the Ergastines, c. 447-424 BCE

-Period: Hellenic (greek) -Medium: Marble -Artist: Iktinos and Kallikrates -Function: Panthenaic Procession in Athens -Form/DT: Stylized, natural swell, relief carvings -Content: epresents procession of citizens on horseback on foot under the gods' watchful eyes. Athenians judged themselves fit for inclusion in the temples sculptural decoration. First depiction of human event on a temple. the message is that the Athenians are united and helping people. -Context: Festival held every four years in honor of Athena, goddess of wisdom

#35 e. Victory adjusting her sandal, c. 410 - 405 BCE

-Period: High Classical Greek -ID Aspects: Ruffles and folds, tight clothing on a woman, idealized, ordinary action depicted -Material: marble; fragment of high relief sculpture; Parapet: railing or low wall -Func: A guard for Athena at her temple. -Content: It captures her in a human moment of fixing her shoes. the figure bends forward gracefully, allowing her chiton (tunic) to slip off one shoulder. Har large overlapping wings effectively balance her unstable pose. Unlike the decorative swirls of heavy fabric, covering the Parthenon goddesses, or the weighty, pleated robes, the textile covering this Nike appears delicate & light, clinging to her body like wet silk, one of the most discreetly erotic images in ancient art. Highlights human anatomy and the fabric of the clothes appears light, delicate and airy, unlike the heavier clothing of other gods. -Ideas: Mixing humanity and divinity was common in the art of this time period. She is keeping guard for Athena at her temple and is depicted by doing such an ordinary everyday action which helps to bring more life and movement to the sculpture. -the effect of the artist's treatment of the drapery is it seems transparent & reveals the nude body beneath

Relief

-Relief is a sculptural technique where the sculpted elements remain attached to a solid background of the same material. The term relief is from the Latin verb relevo, to raise. -To create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background plane. -Sunken Relief: sculptural relief in which the outlines of modeled forms are incised in a plane surface beyond which the forms do not project. -High relief: more than half the mass of the sculpted figure projects from the background, indeed the most prominent elements of the composition, especially heads and limbs, are often completely undercut, detaching them from the field -Relief painting: a process where protruding surface faces of the printing plate or block are inked; recessed areas are ink free. Printing the image is therefore a relatively simple matter of inking the face of the matrix and bringing it in firm contact with the paper -Low relief means they barely stand out from the background, almost like it's carved just around the edges. -Relief sculpture:

a. Pyramid of Khufu

-The Great Pyramid, the largest of the three, was built by the pharaoh Khufu. -Material/Tech: Khufu's pyramid is constructed of inner, rough-hewn, locally quarried core stones, which is all we see today, and angled, outer casing blocks laid in even horizontal courses with spaces filled with gypsum plaster. The fine outer casing stones, which have long since been removed, were laid with great precision. These blocks of white Tura limestone would have given the pyramid a smooth surface and been quite bright and reflective. At the very top of the pyramid would have sat a capstone, known as a pyramidion, that may have been gilt. This dazzling point, shining in the intense sunlight, would have been visible for a great distance. -Context: The interior chambers and passageways of Khufu's pyramid are unique and include a number of enigmatic features. There is an unfinished subterranean chamber whose function is mysterious as well as a number of so-called 'air shafts' that radiate out from the upper chambers. Above the King's Chamber are five stress-relieving chambers of massive granite blocks topped with immense cantilevered blocks forming a pent roof to distribute the weight of the mountain of masonry above it. The king's sarcophagus, also carved from red granite, sits empty at the exact central axis of the pyramid. This burial chamber was sealed with a series of massive granite blocks and the entrance to the shaft filled with limestone in an effort to obscure the opening. -Content: Boats for the afterlife: Khufu's mortuary complex also included seven large boat pits. Five of these are located to the east of the pyramid and were a sort of model; these brick-lined boat shaped elements were probably intended for use in the afterlife to transport the king to stellar destinations. These boats appear to have been used for the funerary procession and as ritual objects connected to the last earthly voyage of the king, and were then dismantled and interred.

b. Pyramid of Khafre

-The second great pyramid of Giza, that was built by Khufu's second son Khafre, has a section of outer casing that still survives at the very top -Interior: a single burial chamber, one small subsidiary chamber, and two passageways. The mortuary temple at the pyramid base was more complex than that of Khufu and was filled with statuary of the king -Valley Temple: Khafre's valley temple, located at the east end of the causeway leading from the pyramid base, is beautifully preserved. It was constructed of megalithic blocks sheathed with granite and floors of polished white calcite -Great Sphinx: Right next to the causeway leading from Khafre's valley temple to the mortuary temple sits the first truly colossal sculpture in Egyptian history; The Sphinx is carved from the bedrock of the Giza plateau, and it appears that the core blocks used to construct the king's valley temple were quarried from the layers of stone that run along the upper sides of this massive image. -Context: The lion was a royal symbol as well as being connected with the sun as a symbol of the horizon; the fusion of this powerful animal with the head of the pharaoh was an icon that survived and was often used throughout Egyptian history. The king's head is on a smaller scale than the body. This appears to have been due to a defect in the stone; a weakness recognized by the sculptors who compensated by elongating the body.

c. Pyramid of Menkaure

-smallest of the 3 pyramids -Interior: Menkaure's pyramid chambers are more complex than those of Khafre and include a chamber carved with decorative panels and another chamber with six large niches. The burial chamber is lined with massive granite blocks.

4 styles of Roman painting

1. Pursue Optical Reality Textures 2. Creates the illusion of a window onto the world using linear perspective 3. Artificial style 4. Combination of 3 above = looks like a picture gallery

Peristyle

A planted interior court enclosed by columns

Barrel Vault

A semicircular vault over a rectangular space.

Tuscan order

A variation of Doric characterized by a smooth-surfaced column shaft with a base, a plain architrave, and an undecorated frieze

#46 Pantheon. Rome. Imperial Roman. 118-125 C.E. Concrete with stone facing. *(Pantheon means all the gods of a particular religion. Pantheon is made up of two Greek words, pan meaning all and theon meaning gods)

A: ordered to be built by Emperor Hadrian but not fully sure of the builder -Material: Roman concrete and marble -Function: served as a place to worship Roman Gods Mars, Venus, and the divine Julius Caesar. - C: Created in order to replace the original Pantheon built in 80 A.D. -Context: There is long inscription on the architrave states that it was built by "Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, who was consul 3 times". Agrippa, the son in law & valued advisor of Augustus, sponsered a building on this site. The inscription was taken at face value until 1892, when a well-documented interpretation of stamped bricks found in and around the building showed that the Pantheon standing today was a rebuilding of an earlier structure, and that it was a product of Emperor Hadrian's ( who ruled from 117-138 C.E.) patronage, built between about 118 and 128. Thus, Agrippa could not have been the patron of the present building. Agrippa built the original Pantheon in honor of his and Augustus' military victory at the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C.E.—one of the defining moments in the establishment of the Roman Empire (Augustus would go on to become the first Emperor of Rome). It was thought that Agrippa's Pantheon had been small and conventional: a Greek-style temple, rectangular in plan. When the building was more substantially damaged by fire again in 110 C.E., the Emperor Trajan decided to rebuild it, but only partial groundwork was carried out before his death. Trajan's successor, Hadrian—a great patron of architecture and revered as one of the most effective Roman emperors—conceived and possibly even designed the new building with the help of dedicated architects. It was to be a triumphant display of his will and beneficence. He was thought to have not reconstructed Agrippa's temple, deciding instead to create a much larger and more impressive structure. And, in an act of pious humility meant to put him in the favor of the gods and to honor his illustrious predecessors, Hadrian installed the false inscription attributing the new building to the long-dead Agrippa. More startling, a reconsideration of the evidence of the bricks used in the building's construction—some of which were stamped with identifying marks that can be used to establish the date of manufacture—shows that almost all of them date from the 110s, during the time of TRAJAN. Instead of the great triumph of Hadrianic design, the Pantheon should more rightly be seen as the final architectural glory of the Emperor Trajan's reign -Content: Partheon has this name, perhaps because it received among the images which decorated it the statues of many gods, including Mars and Venus; but my own opinion of the name is that, because of its vaulted roof, it resembles the heavens. There are coffers (sunken panels) that lightened the load, in the dome's ceiling to the light entering the oculus, which illuminates a brilliant circle against the surface of the dome. They make the coffers smaller to make an illusion of the dome look much bigger. This disk of light moves around throughout the day like a sun and clouds can also be seen traveling across the opening on some days. That's why it resembles the heavens, becuase its circular and the bottom of the floor is like the earth. BUT It is now an open question whether the building was ever a temple to all the gods, as its traditional name has long suggested to interpreters. The OG Pantheon was not a temple in the usual sense of a god's dwelling place. Instead, it may have been intended as a dynastic sanctuary, part of a ruler cult emerging around Augustus, with the original dedication being to Julius Caesar. -DT: perfectly symmetric and geometric, oculus (round central opening that brings in light), detailed and percise. Agrippa's original building was not a small rectangular temple, but contained the distinctive hallmarks of the current building: a portico (porch leading to the entrance of a building, or extended as a colonnade) with tall columns and pediment and a rotunda (circular hall) surmounted by a vast, bowl shaped dome. The top of the dome on the outside is layered by corbeling. **They are drawing on greek ideas but using their own techniques -Meaning: Used to show the power of the emperor and the importance of Roman Gods in Roman society. This is a building that combines tradition with innovation -Pantheon has such innovative design

Ancient Greece Time Period

Archaic: 600 - 480 BCE Early Classical: 480 - 450 BCE High Classical: 450 - 400 BCE Late Classical: 400 - 323 BCE Hellenistic: 323 - 31/30 BCE

#19 The Code of Hammurabi. Babylon (modern Iran). Susian. c. 1792-1750 B.C.E. Basalt.

Artist: Hammurabi -Patron: The people of ancient Mesopotamia -Material: Diorite and basalt, which is very hard a stone that comes from volcanic action -Tech: the laws are all written using cuneiform in Akkadian lang and they're written in a lang. that was very accessible -Func: The function was to set down a reasonable and unchanging set of laws that addressed the problems in the high kingdom; maybe a source for biblical texts? -Context: Hammurabi was babylonian king who is known for creating the Code of Hammurabi. This probably predates the legal codes, the commandments of the Old Testament. The upper portion of this is Hammurabi himself receiving the laws from Shamash, god associated with both the sun and with law. We can tell its Shamash bc he's seated on a throne showing his authority and his feet are on the mountains. Those scales rep. the mountains from which the god emerges. Hammurabi is almost as equal, but not quite the god's height, but he is addressing him directly, but he's standing & the god is seated. Hamm. is receiving a ring and sceptor, symbols of power; three pieces of writing in small registers: 1. the king's investiture, his right to be king 2. an ode to his glory 3. over 300 specific laws that actually governed Babylonia. -Meaning/Content: The meaning of the Code of Hammurabi is to keep a formal legal code for the people of ancient Mesopotamia; Hamm. really wanted this to be a legacy so that everyone can read and understand this; an idea that laws are somehow immutable & divine - that they are somehow above humanity

Ancient Egypt Time period

Early Dynastic Egypt: 2950 - 2575 BCE Old Kingdom: 2575 - 2150 BCE Middle Kingdom: 1975 - 1640 BCE New Kingdom: 1539 - 1075 BCE

Veneer

In architecture, the exterior facing of a building, often in decorative arts, a thin exterior layer of finer material laid over the form

#13 Palette of King Narmer. Predynastic Egypt. c. 3000-2920 B.C.E. Greywacke.

Location: Hierakonpolis, Egypt -Material: smooth greyish green siltstone -Tech: carefully carved with relief sculpture. Many of the figures on palette are shown in composite poses, so each part of the body is portrayed from its most chracteristic viewpoint (ex. head is profile view, while eyes are shown frontal view); Twisted perspective: walklike egyptian stature - legs & head shown in profile, while torso is turned towards us; Narmer is larger than any other figure in the palette, so that shows hierarchical scale -Func: represents unification of Upper and Lower Egypt; Used for mixing cosmetics; OG func. as ritual object dedicated to a god, & complexity of the imagery clearly indicate that this was significant object -Context: found among a group of sacred implements (devices) ritually buried in deposit within early temple of falcon god Horus @ site of Hierakonplois -Content: so valuable that it has never been able to leave the country; Represents the unification of Lower & Upper Egypt & the beginning of the country's growth as a powerful nation state, Narmer wears the white crown connected to Upper Egypt on one face of the palette and the red crown of Lower Egypt on the other; Another interpretation: the daily journey of the sun god that becomes a central aspect in Egyptian religion; In one scene, Narmer wears Lower Egyptian Red Crown (with its distinctive curl)* depicts him processing towards the decapitated bodies of his foes. The two rows of prone bodies are placed below an image of a high-prowed boat preparing to pass through an open gate. This may be an early reference to the journey of the sun god in his boat. In later texts, the Red Crown is connected with bloody battles fought by the sun god; Another scene shows him wearing the Upper Egyptian White Crown* (which looks rather like a bowling pin) as he grasps an inert foe by the hair and prepares to crush his skull. The White Crown is related to the dazzling brilliance of the full midday sun at its zenith as well as the luminous nocturnal light of the stars and moon; Narmer has a symbol of strength: the bull's tail. Servant holds Narmer's sandals, as he stands on sacred ground; Two gods are also depicted in the Palette, Horus (bird on papyrus reed) and Hathor (2 bull heads/horn sets). This further shows the divine power Narmer has. -Meaning: king's superhuman strength, king = supreme = larger than ordinary man, pharaoh is the divine ruler; By wearing both crowns, Narmer may not only be ceremonially expressing his dominance over the unified Egypt, but also the early importance of the solar cycle and the king's role in this daily process

#39 House of the Vettii. Pompeii, Italy. Imperial Roman. c. second century B.C.E.; rebuilt c. 62-79 C.E. Cut stone and fresco.

Material: Cut stone and fresco -Tech: (wall paintings: first, second, third and fourth style) -Func: provide sheltering for the Vetti brothers (also serves as an example of daily life in Rome since the house was so well preserved) -Content: The house was built atop the remains of an earlier house that survives, in part, in the form of the wings (alae) and a doorway. The plan of the House of the Vetti has two large central halls (atria) and, significantly, lacks an office space (tablinum). Entry to the house was gained from the east by way of a vestibule that granted admission to the larger atrium. The stone-lined basin for collecting rainwater (impluvium) lies at the center of the atrium. -Context: The House of the Vettii is a Roman townhouse located within the ruined ancient city of Pompeii, Italy. A volcanic eruption destroyed Pompeii in the year 79 C.E., therefore, preserving archaeological remains of the Roman town as it was at the time of its destruction. The house is named for its owners, two successful freedmen: Aulus Vettius Conviva and Aulus Vettius Restitutus. Its careful excavation has preserved almost all of the wall frescos, which were completed following the earthquake of 62 C.E., in the manner art historians term the "Pompeiian Fourth Style." Those remains constitute a nearly unparalleled resource for the study of the Roman world -DT: alae, atria, tablinum, impluvium -Meaning: To convey the wealth of the brothers

#15 Seated scribe. Saqqara, Egypt. Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. c. 2620-2500 B.C.E.

Material: Painted Limestone with inlaid eyes of rock crystal, calcite, & magnesite mounted in copper Tech: expressed Egyptian realism by making the statue natural and humanized; Realistic features, not idealized. -Func: Signify the high social status of scribes; funerary sculpture or meant for afterlife? -Content: This man is not of kingly, divine status, but he's a scribe so he's still imp. in hierarchy of egyptian society: he can write which was imp. skill & was high class bc he had sculpt. made of him, but still nto divine figure, so he can be rep. in more naturalistic fashion. He's meant only to be seen from front (but this is for the interior of the tomb, so no one was meant to see it @ all; this statue was meant for afterlife.. this sculpt. truly surpasses human life). It shows how scribes were generalyl wealthy and and respected members of society; the scribe's sedentary vocation has made his sagging body flabby, his condition advertises a life free from hard physical labor bc he has fat around stomach and that signifies wealth & intellectual power. -Context: Ancient Egyptian culture was based heavily on the afterlife and death, as such those higher up on the social scale, such as the literate scribes, would create images of themselves for the journey into the afterlife. -DT: relaxed, alert exp. on his face reveals more than lively intelligence, irregular contours in his face project a sense of individual likeness & human prescence, Contrasts with the idealized features of the pharaoh. -Meaning: Scribes had to go through extensive training in order to become one and were respected by the level of work that they went through.

#12 White Temple and its ziggurat. Sumerian. c. 3500-3000 B.C.E. Mud brick.

P/S: 1st Period Mesopotamian art Artist: Sumerians Patron: Inanna, the goddes of love and war & sky god, Anu -Material: mud bricks for Ziggurats/ the temple gets its name for the fact that it was entirely white washed inside and out, which would have given it a dazzling brightness in strong sunlight; -Tech: Layering, with rubble from one structure serving as the foundation for the next to create its massive structure. Elevating the buildings protected the shrines from flooding. -Func: Ziggurats towering above the flat plain proclaimed the wealth, prestige, & stability of a city's rulers & glorified its gods. They symbolized lofty bridges b/w the earth & the heavens - a meeting place for humans & their gods; Place to perform various rituals to the sky god, Anu; sacrifice animals and pray to gods. Exclusive to few high religious authorities. Shows massive power. -Context: Polytheistic civilization with the temples focus being on the God Anu -Content: Huge in size and white color atop allowed for it to be spotted from a distance. The flat top of the ziggurat was coated with bitumen (asphalt—a tar or pitch-like material similar to what is used for road paving) and overlaid with brick, for a firm and waterproof foundation for the White temple; The White Temple had three entrances, none of which faced the ziggurat ramp directly. Visitors would have needed to walk around the temple, appreciating its bright façade and the powerful view, and likely gained access to the interior in a "bent axis" approach (where one would have to turn 90 degrees to face the altar), a typical arrangement for Ancient Near Eastern temples. -DT: Base ziggurat on bottom and white temple atop. Large, located on flat surroundings. -Meaning: signified importance of pharoahs and their connection with gods. Built as a "stairway to heaven"; shows how advanced the Sumerian people were. It's complexity with unique entrances and the ziggurat (high platform) signify the talents of the earlier people.

#18 King Menkaure and queen. Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. c. 2490-2472 B.C.E.

P/S: 4th Dynasty Royal Sculpture OL: Menkaura Valley Temple Material: Greywacke; durable stone with high relief by the subtraction method in which pieces of stone are removed from a single block and the grid method (draw a grid around the block to mark where to cut) -Func: Menkaure represents the epitome of kingship and ideal human form. The queen represents the ideal female form; This pair represents a prime example of Old Kingdom Royal tomb sculpture; ensure rebirth for the king in the afterlife; Menkaure's physique and stride symbolize his kingship; substitute houses for Ka for protection of immortality -Content: Broad shouldered & youthful body of the king is covered with traditional kilt, & his head has on primary pharaonic insignia of the ionic striped nemes headress and fake royal beard. In contrast, her narrow shoulders and slim body, whose contours are apparent under the tight fitting sheath dress, represents the Egyptian ideal femininity -Context: Menkaure's arms hang straight down and close to his body, hands clenched into fists; -DT: Statues both are striding forward w left foot - entirely expected for king, as males in Egyptian sculpture almost always do so, but it is unudual for the female since they are generally depicted w feet together, making it appear as if they are emerging from the structure; Vertical Grid, counter balancing horizontals, stiff, artificial posture; conventional postures suggest timeless nature -Meaning: emphasis on her breasts and pubic triangle shows fertility, symbol that she's a woman; Although they stand together sharing a common base and back slab, and she embraces him, they remain aloof and share no emotion, either with the viewer or each other.

#33 Niobides Krater. c. 460-450 B.C.E.

P/S: 5th to 4th centuries B.C.E./ Early Classical A: Anonymous Greek painter known as the Niobid Painter -Material: Clay, Terra Cotta -Tech: Red-figure (white highlights) -Func: Calyx kraters were used to dilute wine with water; Amphoras are used to transport and storage of various products, both liquid and dry, but mostly for wine; Kylix are used for drinking wine -Context: The early Classical was characterized by the beginning of the development of motion, but the characters still retain some stiffness, evidence of previous times. This vase may have been influenced by greek frescoes -Content #1: Hercules in center & Athena on left & around them several warriors. We may be seeing warriors of Marathon coming to place themselves under protection of the hero Hercules before battle. We know Hercules had helped Marathon to victory in battle & he was maybe object of a cult in Athens -Content #2: Murder of the children of Niobe by Apollo & Artemis. Niobe brags that her kids are more beautiful than Apollo & Artemis, who were kids of Goddess Leto. A&A decided to avenge their mom by killing all 14 kids of Niobe. In the vase, this is the moment that the painter had chosen to rep. - the divine archers shooting down the kids w their arrows. This side of the krater shows the power of the gods. Depicts the consequences of for arrogance -DT: Violent, military, contrasting, slightly stiff, no hierarchical scale (figures are the same size), has no background -Meaning/Content: This krater shows the power of the gods. It shows that they were vengeful if humans boasted or insulted them but would aid the humans if the humans respected the gods.

#31 Temple of Minerva and sculpture of Apollo. c. 510-500 B.C.E. Original temple of wood, mud brick, or tufa (volcanic rock); terra cotta sculpture.

P/S: Ancient Greek Sculptor of statues: Master sculptor Vulca -Materials: The Temple of Minerva and the sculpture of Apollo was built most likely from wood, mud, brick, or tufa (volcanic rock), and stone as the flooring. Because of the materials used the buildings didn't not serve the elements well. Leading to the destruction of all temples. -Tech: Much of the technique used was described in, De Architecture by Vitruvius. The building laid on a thick stone layer with tufa, wood, etc., for the walls and roofs. This particular temple is the foundation that lead to the understanding of all similar temples. The building had two parts: a deep front porch with widely-spaced Tuscan columns then a back portion divided into three separate rooms. Many terracotta sculptors would line the buildings, evidently some of these sculptors did survive. -Func: A place of worship to the female Goddesses Minerva. This was a new style of worship to have a temple specific to the god or goddesses. -DT: colorful, ornate, weak -***: What also made Etruscan temples noticeably distinct from Greek ones was a high podium and frontal entrance

#28 Peplos Kore from the Acropolis. Archaic Greek. c. 530 B.C.E

P/S: Archaic period, Attica style Patron: Possibly the goddess Athena -Material: Marble, painted details -Tech: Sculpture -Func: serve as a statue of the goddess Athena/Artemis; Idealize the beauty of the human body. -Context: This figure was named after the characteristics that describe it. A Peplos is a Greek costume of rectangular clothe and a kore is a clothed, female figure. The figure is believed to be a representation of the Greek goddess Athena/Artemis, and many examples prove this to be true - the sculpture was once fully painted, and the figure originally held a bow and arrows, both contributing to the possibility that the figure could have been a depiction of a goddess. The intended message behind the erection of this figure was to most likely promote the worship of this goddess and encourage the practice of the state religion throughout the area. The fact that a representation of a Greek goddess was incorporated into form of a kore, a standard female figure that was widely erected throughout Greece during the Archaic period, shows that the artist felt it quite necessary to make the goddess's presence felt throughout the region. Also, the fact that she is fully clothed and that the kore was a commonly sculpted figure during that period shows that women were hardly displayed in art as nude figures during that time (this sculpture isn't an offering, which most Korai were) -DT: Symmetrical balance shown through posture, organic, curvy lines, rough texture felt by the hardness of the marble, archaic smile suggests that she did not live in world full of emotion, but rose above that level to a more divine state of being. -***: holes crowing her head meant maybe she wore metal diadem, and that would've suggested her divinity

#26 Athenian agora. Archaic through Hellenistic Greek. 600 B.C.E.- 150 C.E.

P/S: Classical Greece Arist: organized by Peisistratos, tyrant of Ancient Athens Patron: Peisistratos -Material: Plan -Tech: carving of marble to the precision and excellence characteristic of Greek architecture -Func: serve as the center of political and public life in Athens -Context: Peisistratos, during his reign, attempted to assert his tyranny over Athens; this is exemplified by his destruction of the primitive Agora in another part of the city and the construction, he ordered, of a new Agora in the center of the city -DT: was a large, open area surrounded by buildings of various functions, all utilized for commercial, political, religious, and military activity; buildings included the Peristyle Court, Mint, Strategeion (where Athenian generals convened), and multiple temples dedicated to the Olympian deities, with individual temples for Ares, Zeus, Apollo, and Hephaestus -Stoa (covered porch with columns): people would've conducted business here & have political discussions -Meaning: The destruction of private homes, along the general construction of the new Agora served as a political statement to strengthen and consolidate Peisistratos' political influence before assertion of his tyranny. Also, the expansive range of temples to the Olympian gods and goddesses, as well as the Agora's relative proximity to the Acropolis, displays the cultural significance of the Greek religion. Furthermore, the central positioning of the Agora along the main road of Athens was a shrewd decision by Peisistratos, as it further supported his political legitimacy by displaying that the Agora was both a literal and figurative "heart" of the city-state

#35 c. Helios, horses, and Dionysus (Heracles?)

P/S: Classical, 5th century BC -Material: Marble -Artist: Iktinos and Kallikrates -Func: deity observing the birth of Athena -Form: Contrapposto/stylized, realistic, forms into a pediment, increases in height -Content: A scene where Athena is being born; On the right is Hestia, Aphrodite, and Selene. On the left side is Helios and Dionysus. the center is depicted with Athena being born from Zeus's head bc he had headache and so Hephaestus to striked him in the head with a hammer; the middle figures are completely missing -Context: Found inside the Parthenon; part of the east pediment of the Parthenon -DT: Pediment is triangular piece on either end of ancient greek temple; the figures rise and you can still see the triangle; triangular composition; THIS IS NOT RELIEF SCULPTURE

#181 Petra, Jordan: Treasury and the Great Temple. Nabataean Ptolemaic and Roman. c. 400 BCE - 100 CE. Cut rock

P/S: Classical/Nabataean, Ptolemaic and Roman. Artist: Nabataeans Patron: Aretas IV Philopatris, Nabataean king -Material: Cut rock, monumental tomb facades are cut into pink sandstone cliffs. -Tech: embodies the Hellenistic style and reflects the influence of Alexandria, the greatest city in the Eastern Mediterranean at this time. Its architecture features a broken pediment and central tholos (a circular building) on the upper level; this architectural composition originated in Alexandria. Ornate Corinthian columns are used throughout. Above the broken pediments, the bases of two obelisks appear and stretch upwards into the rock. -Function: Metropolitan city and shows prosperity. -Content: Sculptures of mythological figures associated with afterlife are shown. On the upper level, Amazons (bare-breasted) and Victories stand, flanking a central female figure (on the tholos), who is probably Isis-Tyche, a combination of the Egyptian Goddess, Isis, and Tyche, the Greek Goddess of good fortune. The lower level features the Greek twin gods, Castor and Pollux, the Dioscuri, who protected travelers and the dead on their journeys. -Context: Petra was capital of the Nabataean Kingdom and remained independent until it was incorporated into the Roman province of Arabia under the emperor Trajan in 106 CE. Nabataeans were great traders, & controlled luxury trade during the late Hellenistic and early Roman periods. -DT: Stone carvings, camel carvans and betyls (the famous god blocks) set in niches. -Meaning: Serves as a funerary tomb for the wealthy and the dead are guided by the gods/goddesses of the dead. A symbol of Jordan, eleborate carvings leading to "the treasury" or the monumental tomb.

#43 Augustus of Prima Porta. Imperial Roman. Early first century C.E.

P/S: Early Roman Empire. Classical Greek style. Patron: Emperor Augustus. -Material: White marble -Tech: Marble sculpture. -Func: Used to send a political message and spread propaganda for the emperor -Content: Original was dedicated to Augustus by the Senate and placed in a public place, probably to help spread support for him. Augustus was old at the time bc he was portrayed as a young man in order to help strengthen his political message. Cupid was depicted at Augustus's feet to show his divinity. (Cupid was the son of the God Venus from whom Augustus's family was supposed to be descendants of). -DT: Organic shapes and lines, extremely detailed, and roughly symmetric except for Augustus's raised arm and cupid at his feet. -Meaning: to spread Augustus's image in order to gain the support of the people.

#35 Acropolis. Athens, Greece. Iktinos and Kallikrates. c. 447-424 B.C.E. Marble. a. Acropolis plan

P/S: Height of Athenian Power/ Classical Greek Style A: Iktinos and Kallikrates Pa: Goddess Athena (deity built for) M: Marble stone T: Ionic columns, elaborate friezes, religiously biased art, scale of construction, vertical columns and horizontally placed slabs of rock. F: Religious Temple to worship Athena (goddess of wisdom) -Context: During this time period Athenian power was at its strongest so they built structures to demonstrate this control and dominance. Just before introduction of Roman style on a large scale, so was able to keep from Roman style influences. The temples design was made to give it a heaven on earth feel, Gods and humans at same level, empowerment. -DT: grand, religious, equal, balance, solid -Meaning/Content: Its grand stature can be contributed to the period in which it was built because during 500-400 B.C.E Athenian power was at its peak and this is one of the many landmarks that demonstrated this power. This temple is also very significant because it was dedicated to the Athena, the Greek goddess of Wisdom. This luxurious temple is completely made out of marble and features simple stylistic techniques, such as vertical columns with horizontally laid stone to show balance and equality. Also there is a very unique and technical design on the horizontally laid stone which was most likely placed on there to give the temple a grand and unearthly feeling (to make it feel suitable for only the gods).

#35 d. Temple of Athena Nike, c. 425 BCE

P/S: High Classical Artist: Kallikrates -Material: Marble -Func: house for Athena, dedicated to Athen's victory -Content: Nike guardian of strength, speed, and victory, servant to Athena, at entrance to Acropolis; -Context: this temple was surrounded by a parapet or wall faced with sculptured panels depicting Athena presiding over the preparation of a celebration by winged Nikes (victory figures) -DT: small ionic temple, one doric influence of Athena nike would be the walls and columns incline slightly,

#36 Grave stele of Hegeso. Attributed to Kallimachos. c. 410 B.C.E.

P/S: High Classical Patron: Hegeso -Material: Marble and paint; carved in high relief -Func: grave marker or stele -Content: She is seated, opening a box of jewelry presented to her by her servant & examining a necklace that is no longer there. Her foot is on a foot rest, so theres no part of her that's tocuhing the ground -Context: Women's fear was the home, Women weren't allowed to be citizens of Athens; Hegeso is shown in domestic setting. Women in ancient Greece led very restricted lives that were defined by their relationship with men, first their father & then their husband. -DT: precise rendering of the chair she is sitting on; this is a style that resembles the kind of carving we see on the parthenon friezse. Drapery that closely follows the form of the body that creates elaborate folds & swirls that have a visual interest; hierarchy of scale

#40 Alexander Mosaic from the House of Faun. Republican Roman. c. 100 B.C.E

P/S: Late Classical Arist: Philoxenos of Eretrea (only believed to be) -Material: Small mosaic tiles -Tech: Tesserae mosaic -Func: To portray the Battle of Issus -Context: Made in the House of Faun which was the Largest house found in Pompeii. The house is thought to be built shortly after the Roman conquest of Pompeii and the mosaic proves the wealth and power of the most likely Roman ruling class inhabitant of the home -Content: Alexander challenges the Persian leader, who stretches out his arm in a gesture of defeat as his chariot whisks him back in retreat. -DT: Mosaic, Battle, Roman, Ruling class; creates an illusion of solid figuress through modeling, mimicking the play of light on 3D surfaces by highlights & shading which show depth -Meaning: It is believed to show the Battle of Issus between Alexander the Great and the Persian King Darius III in the year 333 BCE

#47 the Ludovisi (discoverd in renaissance or baroque period but this was bought by cardinal Ludovisi) Battle Sarcophagus (mouth of flesh). Late Imperial Roman. c. 250 C.E. Marble

P/S: Late Imperial Roman empire/Anticlassical -Material: Marble that has been carved in this deep high relief -Tech: Drill work, figures out completely out of the background. This deep carving created sharp contrasts of light and dark. -Funtion: Sarcophagus for burying a dead person. -Content: a chaotic scene of battle between Romans and barbarians, depicting the message of triumph over death. The Roman soldiers are represented as ideal and clothed, while their enemies are caricatured and ignoble. The man in the middle is a general and on his forehead he has a symbol or a tattoo, that meant he was part of a religious cult, mithrau, so this symbol was keeping him safe which is why he is so fearless. The sculptor piled up the writhing, emotive figures in a emphatic rejection of Classical perspective. -Context: Romans traditionally cremated their dead, but by the 2nd century, burial of the dead in sarcophaguses was common. This specific one might have belonged to someone wealthy and powerful becuase of it's enormous size -DT: Intertwined, anticlassical, background-less, free-standing. This is very unrealistic bc tangeled bodies, a mass of bodies = you don't know where to look. Real lack of classical interest bc there is no perspective. Sense of movement. There is no ground plane, so no sense of depth. Artist doesnt care about classical proportion.. he is bringing attention to his head, which is huge.

#44 Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater) Imperial Roman. 70-80 C.E. Stone & concreate

P/S: Roman Empire (Roman Amphitheatre) -Material: Concrete core, brick casing, and travertine facing -Mortar Tech: Use of concrete, elaborate support pillars -Function: Source of entertainment for the roman peoples, athletic events, blood sports, & spectacles took place -Content: Used as a place for entertainment for the peoples of Rome after the successful conquest of Jerusalem. -Context: not used for religious persecution. in ruins, seating = station Patricians at the bottom; women and slaves at top -DT: Ionic, Doric, Corinthian, Tremendous, Concrete, Mortar, Circular, Tunnels, Hypogeum, Arena

#45 Forum of Trajan. Forum and markets: 106-112 C.E.; Brick and concrete (architecture)

P/S: Roman Realism Artist: Apollodorus of Damascus -Patron: King Trajan -Tech: Practicalism. There was originally a hill and they excavated it and built it. -Content: large open square generally surrounded by colonnades leading to a temple and sometimes a basilica -Context: Placed in the middle for all to see -Meaning: The meaning was to celebrate the kings victories over the dacians -Func: use of architecture as propaganda; commemorate Trajan, city center; Used as a town square, for both business and special events

#22 Akhenaton & his family. New Kingdom (Amarna style), 18th Dynasty. c. 1353-1335 B.C.E.

Patron: Akhenaton and Nefertiti -Material: Limestone -Tech: Sunken relief carving (deep chiseled outlines rather than cutting back at the stone itself) -Func: Depicts a family portrait possibly capturing a joyous moment from Akhenaton and his fam -Content: The royal couple receives blessings of God Aten, whose rays end in hands that penetrate the open pavilion to offer ankhs (egyptian sign of life) before their nostrils, giving them the "breath of life". Him & his wife are the only ones w access to this new God, Aten. Akhenaten is also noted for leaving behind traditional Egyptian polytheism. Instead, he encouraged worship around the god Aten. He attempted to leave the traditional religion, but not accepted. -DT: Sunken relief, iconography -Meaning: In the piece, the depiction of the 2 larger human subjects create a sense of a couple, their relationship, and their domestic love. The piece also suggests that god is present. By looking closely into the sun, a cobra can be seen which is the symbol for a supreme deity, the only deity showing his monotheism during this time period. In the sculpture a very intimate moment was depicted; as Akhenaton makes a motion for his daughter to kiss him while Nefertiti is holding the other 2 children in the picture. Lastly, by including the whole family, the unknown artist is able to show that they would be ruling Egypt together. -Egyptian art is dominated by rectangulinear form, but Akenaten seems to be demanding this new style dominated by curvalinear forms.

#25 Lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II. Neo-Assyrian. c. 720-705 B.C.E.

Patron: Assyrian rulers -Material: Limestone -Tech: carved out of monolithic stone, that is there are no cuts. These are single pieces of stone -Func: Literally: show wealth & power of assyrian king, impress foreign visitors, reiterate power over lower class people, depict safety and stregth of the city. Figuratively: used to protect the city's gates from evil spirits -Context: During this time period Assyria was the most influential and powerful empire in Mesopotamia, they created lamassu to demonstrate their power and also to be protected by them. -Content: Guardian figures as winged bulls with heads of men. -DT: Inorganic, spiritual, protective, strong, fearsome, natural, hybrid -Meant to be seen from both a frontal view and profile view. There are 5 legs. When you look at the side, you see that it's moving forward, but when you look at from front, it's stationary.

#35 b. Parthenon

Patron: Athena Artist: Phidias -Material: marble, built on the acropolis -Func: Used as the treasury of the Delian League -Content: Building symbolizes the whole Delian alliance (Ionians, Athens, etc.), it is not a law court -Context: Doric-style temple whose construction was initiated by Pericles shortly after the Battle of Marathon in 447 B.C.E. -The subject that appears on the Parthenon's ionic frieze is the parthenaic procession -Which distortions in the Parthenon were used to create the illusion of physical perfection?: Right angles are not used in the building, the columns expand near their center, the columns are not evenly spaced, the metopes are of differing widths, the stylobate (temple platform) rises near the center.

#21 Funerary temple of Hatshepsut. New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty. c. 1473-1458 B.C.E.

Patron: Hatsheput Artist: Constructed by Hatshepsuts royal architect -Material/Tech: Sandstone, partially carved into a rock cliff, and red granite. Constructed on axial plan; long horizontals and verticals of colonnades and rhythm of light and dark repeat pattern of cliffs -Func: built to honor femal pharaoh Hatshepsut; designed for funeral rites & commemmorative ceremonies & is much larger & more prominent than the tomb itself, reversing the scale relationship we saw in Old Kingdom pyramid complex. -Context: The temple is three stories high, dedicated to her burial area, devoted not only to her funeral cult, but also to the cults of Amon and of other egyptian gods. Thus, guardians have been arranged on each story. A statue of Horus as a falcon stands at each side of the entrance to the ramp. The bottom columns end with both sides depicting huge Osiris statues of the queen. The Hathor Chapel is found on the south side of the second level and the Anubis chapel is found to the north end of the second colonnade. The birth colonnade is on the right hand side of the ramp to the third level. At the birth colonnade, inscriptions written on the walls depict Hatsheptut's divine birth. -***: Structure designed to really compliment ints surroundings. The horizontal base is consistent with the bottom of the cliff and the vertical columns that create darkness in-between themselves are like the vertical crevices in the rock. The rigid structure imposes order on the more free nature just like the king's role was to impose order on chaos. The temple is organic architecture because of how the temple is built into the mountain side and line's match beautifully with the structure of the hill side.

#17 Great Pyramids (Menkaura, Khafre, Khufu) and Great Sphinx. Giza, Egypt. Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. c. 2550-2490 B.C.E. Cut limestone.

Patron: Pharaoh Khufu, Pharaoh Khafre, Pharaoh Menkaure Material: cut limestone -Tech: Carved out from rock; pyramids with limestone casing, still seen on Khafre's pyramid, made of sandstone, limestone and granite -Func: Created to honor the pharaohs and display their political power; served as tombs for the Ka -Content: The shape of the pyramid was a solar reference, perhaps intended as a solidified version of the rays of the sun. Texts talk about the sun's rays as a ramp the pharaoh mounts to climb to the sky to enter into afterlife and to be reborn. -Context: Egyptians needed to provide for the Ka, or the spirit and its afterlife. The Ka needed the same things the living human needed during his lifetime during the afterlife. Giza and its funerary complexes are the high spot of the pyramids or, to say it simply, every structure and piece of art deal with the concept of providing for the Ka; The three primary pyramids on the Giza plateau were built over the span of three generations by the rulers Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure. Each pyramid was part of a royal mortuary complex that also included a temple at its base. -Meaning: To represent the enudrance of the land and the people of Giza throughout the invasions and times of trouble; Egyptian emphasis on death and the afterlife lead many Pharaohs to construct massive works of art for their journey into the land of the dead

#37 Winged Victory of Samothrace. Hellenistic Greek. c. 190 B.C.

Patron: the kings of fourth century Macedonia -Material: Parian marble for the statue and gray Rhodian marble for the boat and base. -Tech: Each section was separately carved then assembled, a characteristic of the Hellenistic period. -Func: statue for worship to the goddess of Victory -Context: The woman sculpted is the Greek goddess of Victory, and she is presented here with wings and on a battleship. The Hellenistic period was abundant with naval battles so these ships played an important role in society as well in the art society, because these new naval innovations prompted architects to create better warships. The Greek gods and goddesses also played a huge role in society. The Greeks represented concepts such as Peace, Fortune, Vengeance, and Justice as goddesses at a very early date. Victory (the goddess in the statue) was one of the earliest of these. She is a female figure with large wings that enable her to fly over the earth spreading news of victory, whether in athletic competition or in battle. -DT: symmetrical balance, organic lines, gold and silver color spectrum, geometric naval ship design -Meaning/Content: statue worshiped by citizens of Samothrace in hope of bringing victory in battles to them, a good luck statue. -P/S: very Hellenistic - extremely dramatic and real (wind, wet clothes, stance)

#39 b. Death of Pentheus

Pentheus, the king of thieves; the cult of dionsyus was popular among women and the king worries that this cult is becoming too powerful, so he bans the cult. he wants to make sure that his ban is being observed, so in middle of night he dresses up in costume and goes into the hills @ night to observe and see what's going on his kingdom. the poeple who are members of cult, bacchante, are drunk and high on the cult and in union with dionysus and they mistake the king for a lion so they attack him and they rip him apart and stone him. This woman in the pic on the left is the king's own mother, who is part of the cult, which is sad. Dionysus is getting revenge on the king for trying to repress his cult. -Connection: Vettii brothers made their fortune from wine bc they are wine merchants. It's going to be vettii brothers who are supporting dionysus so that's why they have this in the house

Metopes

The carved or painted rectangular panel between the triglyphs of a doric frieze

Keystone

The central voussoir of an arch

Composite order

The fifth Classical order; favored in late Roman architecture. On the capital, large conjoined Ionic volutes are combined with the acanthus leaves of the Corinthian order.

Ionic

The flutes on the columns are deeper and are separated by flat surfaces called fillets. The capital also has spiral scrolled volute

Apse

The termination of the nave of a basilica or the choir in the basilican church

Triglyph

Vertically grooved blocks, separated by metopes, which form a distinguishing feature in a Doric frieze.

#39 a. Hercules strangles the serpent

Zeus and a mortal woman had a baby named Hercules and so Zeus' wife Hera was jealous and sent serpents to kill Hercules, but Hercules killed the serpents -Connection: Vettii brothers came from illegitamate union just like Hercules, so that's why this painting is significant

Pilaster

a flattened, rectangular version of a column, sometimes load-bearing, but often purely decorative

Groin vault

a vault formed when two barrel vaults meet at right angles

Relieving Arch

an arch built over a lintel to relieve or distribute the weight of the wall above

Doric

columns that stood directly on the flat pavement (the stylobate) of a temple without a base; their vertical shafts were fluted

#38 Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon. Hellenistic Greek. c. 175 B.C.E.

p/s: Hellenistic -Material: Marble (architecture and sculpture). -Tech: altar surrounded by ionic colonnades, portrait sculptures; narrative -Func: Honor the Greek victories against barbaric warriors. Also a place of sacrifice -Meaning/ Content: The frieze sculptures show the fight of the gods (Greeks) and the giants (barbarians). Zeus defeats mother Earth, Gaia, which symbolizes the end of matriarchy government and culture. The win also represents a switch of a barbaric world to a more civilized one. -DT: Godly, heroic, ideal, adventure; victorious

Spolia

pieces of other monuments reused on different monument

Corinthian

sylized with acanthus leaves tgat rise from a convex band called astragal