APEURO Test- Period 2

Urbanization

-huge migration from the rural village to the cities -communal values were eroded when families that did not know each other migrated from villages to the big cities -at first, there were areas in cities with concentrations of many poor people, which led to a greater awareness of poverty, crime, prostitution, and other social problems, causing many to want better policing of those living on the margins of society -cities experienced overcrowding and filthy living conditions -rural areas suffered labor shortages and weakened communities -social activists brought the problems of the poor to light -cities were redesigned with urban planning and zoning -labor unions were established -govs responded to the problems of urbanization

The Philosophes: Thomas Hobbes

-humans are natural evil

The Philosophes: Baron de Montesquieu

-in Spirit of Laws, he argued that the powers of government must be separated in order to avoid despotism -when these functions are divided among various groups or individuals, each checks and balances the powers of the others -shown in Britain: House of Commons, House of Lords

Leisure Time

-enjoying the parks -attending sporting events -going to the beach -shopping -museums -operas and theater

The Enlightenment Ideals

-equality -fraternity -liberty -progress -tolerance

Family patterns and ideas about privacy change

-explosion of illegitimate births -labor became more mobile; and social punishments for moral infractions were no longer easy to enforce -infant and child mortality decreased, and commercial wealth increased; families could dedicate more space and resources to children and child-rearing, as well as to private life and comfort

the expansion of europe: enclosure movement

-fenced off the open fields to enable landowners to employ crop rotation -by planting nitrogen-fixing crops in soil that had been used for other crops, the soil remained fertile and little land lay fallow -many small or inefficient farmers were displaced to the towns and cities, but ultimately, food production rose dramatically

Paris redesigned

-first urban planning in Europe -slums destroyed -public transportation created -zoning laws passed -shopping districts at street level with housing above -large town homes -many large roundabouts -parks and open spaces added -sewage and water systems added -soon followed by electricity

Reform Laws

-The Factory Act= to improve conditions for children in factories (limiting hours, age restrictions) -Mines Act=women cant be in mine -The Ten Hours Act

taille

-land tax

Reaction to the French Revolution: Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindication of the Rights of Man

-rejected Burke's thinking

Marx's Theories: Class Struggle

-the dominant class in every society id a thesis with an antithesis who will overthrow the old order

The Second or Radical Stage of the Revolution: First Coalition

-alliance of the Netherlands, Spain, England, Prussia, and Austria to fight against France

The Second or Radical Stage of the Revolution: The Directory

- a five member executive, was established by the National Convention to run the government

The Second or Radical Stage of the Revolution: Thermidorian Reaction

- the execution of Robespierre, returned the moderate bourgeois reformers to power

Jean Baptiste Colbert

-"the father of french mercantilism": -revitalized trade as Louis's finance minister by abolishing internal tariffs and creating a free trade zone in most of France -he stimulated industry by subsidizing vital manufacturing and by building up the military -he hoped to make France self-sufficient by building a large fleet that would rival that of the English and Dutch and enable the French to acquire an overseas empire -since even France could not afford both a powerful army and navy, Louis opted for the army -result= British naval superiority

Legislative Assembly

-A French congress with the power to create laws and approve declarations of war, established by the constitution of 1791.

tithe

-A family's payment of one-tenth of its income to a church

Tennis Court Oath

-A pledge made by the members of France's National Assembly in 1789, in which they vowed to continue meeting until they had drawn up a new constitution

deism

-A popular Enlightenment era belief that there is a God, but that God isn't involved in people's lives or in revealing truths to prophets.

utilitarianism

-A theory associated with Jeremy Bentham that is based upon the principle of "the greatest happiness for the greatest number." Bentham argued that this principle should be applied to each nation's government, economy, and judicial system.

Battle of Leipzig

-Also known as the Battle of the Nations; in October 1813, the combined armies of the fourth coalition decisively defeated Napoleon and the French army

War as an Instrument of Louis's Foreign Policy: War of the Devolution

-France's unsuccessful attempt to seize the Spanish Netherlands as part of a feudal claim

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

-Freedom of speech, thought, and religion were guaranteed, as was due process of law; taxes could be imposed only consent of the governed; the right to rule was said to belong not just to the king, but to the whole nation

Transportation and Communication: railroad steam locomotive

-George stephenson's Rocket -both the steamboat and steam locomotive enhanced the efficient system of river transportation -the canals meant that transportation was cheap and easy for most of the nation, leading to trade networks and higher demands for goods and higher transportability of resources -together they opened new sources of raw materials and new markets for manufactured goods, and they made it possible to locate factories in pop centers -the railroad boom brought massive and social and economic changes -the ease of transport encouraged rural workers to move to the cities -the lower costs of shipping goods in bulk fostered expanding markets -the railroad was a culminating invention of the Industrial Rev because it utilized steel and a steam engine, and was so massive that many workers worked on it -it allowed the creation of mass marketing through the use of catalogs -refrigerated rail cars added the ability to feed the world quickly -easily gather raw materials -led to trolleys, streetcars, and eventually subways, which opened new city designs -more integrated national economies, a higher level of urbanization, and a truly global economic network -streetcars and trolleys revolutionized cities and allowed their redesign -bikes were a common people thing -communication advanced, first the telegraph, then the radio and telephone

Bastille Day

-July 14,1789 -spark of French revolutio - A large armory and state prison in the center of Paris that a mob of sans-culottes sacked on July 14, 1789, giving the masses arms for insurrection. had little practical consequence, but it was an enormous symbolic act against the ancien régime, inspired the revolutionaries, and is still celebrated today as the French holiday.

Confederation of the Rhine

-League of German States organized by Napoleon in 1813 after defeating the Austrians at Austerlitz. The league collapsed after Napoleon's defeat in Russia.

War as an Instrument of Louis's Foreign Policy: War of the Spanish Succession

-Louis threatened to upset the Balance of Power in Europe by laying claim to the Spanish throne for his grandson -the Grand Alliance, which included the major states of Western Europe, fought to prevent the union of the French and Spanish thrones -the Treaty of Utrecht: Restored the balance of power by allowing Philip V, Louis's grandson, to remain on the Spanish throne as long as France and Spain were never ruled by the same monarch

Junkers

-Members of the Prussian landed aristocracy, a class formerly associated with political reaction and militarism.

Battle of Waterloo

-NAP's FINAL DEFEAT BY THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON

Hohenzollern

-Name for the leading family of Prussian rulers

Russia&Napoleon

-Nap invaded Russia in 1812 when the Russians withdrew from the Continental System that was preventing Russia from trading with Great Britain and causing economic leadership -Nap assembled more than 600,000 soldiers and marched into Russia, only to be met by scorched earth tactics rather than pitched battle -the Russians destroyed all materials that could be foraged for Napoleons' army and only attacked in skirmishes at strategically advantageous points -Napoleon's army took Moscow, but due to the city being burned, his stretched supply lines, and the oncoming winter, he retreated -devastated his army and diminished his image

Napoleon's Domestic Reforms

-Nap was committed to the ideals of the French Rev -raised on Crosica -reached his status because the Rev opened society to men of ability -his reformed assured the dissolution of the Old regime by establishing egalitarianism in government, before the law, and educational opportunity -the Concordat of 1801, in which the papacy renounced claims over Church property seized during the rev and Nap was allowed to nominate bishops -in return, those priests who had resisted the Civil Constitution of the clergy would replace those who had sworn an oath to the state -since the pope gave up claims to Church's lands, those citizens who had acquired them pledged loyalty to Nap's gov -Code Napoleon: he replaced varied and inequitable medieval law with a uniform legal system -became a model for code of law -instituted a state supported educational system with rigorous standards and made available to the masses -merit system to recruit and reward those in gov (even tho he practiced nepotism by putting his family on the thrones of the places he conquered) -lowered taxes on farmers -guaranteed the redistributed Church lands would remained in the hands of their new owners (farmers) -independent peasantry

Prussia: intro

-Prussia was an army before it was a nation b/c of its origin was an outpost of the HRE and its Hohenzollern rulers cultivated a superbly trained and well-equipped army drawn from all areas of their domain -local loyalties were transferred to the army, which then served as the focal point for Prussian nationalism -Brandenburg, an electorate of the HRE, was able to gain a degree of independence as a result of the weakening of the Habsburg rule during the Thirty Years' War

the First or Liberal Stage of the Revolution (1789-1792): Timeline

-The Estates General met in Versailles -supported by a few members of the First Estate, the Third Estate broke a voting deadlock in the Estates-General by declaring itself the National Assembly -after being locked out of their meeting place by the king's troops, members of the NA swore the "Tennis Court Oath" not to disband until they had written a new constitution for France -after food riots in the cities, peasant rebellions in the countryside, and the inaction of Louis and his minister, a Parisian mob stormed the Bastille, a fortress that symbolizes royal injustice (Bastille Day=Spark of Rev) -August 4,1789: the Decrees of this date mark when the NA abolished feudalism and manorialism -The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen were passed. Freedom of speech, thought, and religion were guaranteed, as was due process of law; taxes could be imposed only by the consent of the governed; the right to rule was said to belong not just to the king, but to the whole nation -the "Great Fear" swept through the countryside as the Third Estate rose up against the nobility and destroyed feudal records and noble residences. This movement lent strength to the movement to end feudalism -A Paris mob, mostly women, was incited by Jean Paul Marat to march on Versailles and force the king to relocate to Paris. The NA also went to paris and was intimidated by Parisians -the Assembly seized Church and monastery lands for revenue -The Civil Constitution of the Clergy was drafted. Convents and monasteries were abolished; all clergymen were to be paid by the state and elected by all citizens; the clergy was forbidden to accept the authority of the pope. Alienated by this decree, half of the priests of the Gallican Church refused to accept it. -the NA drafted a new constitution that instituted an elected Legislative Assembly, which made the king chief executive officer, largely responsible to the Assembly; the latter established voting qualifications for male citizens -the Le Chapalier Law was passed banning guilds and the right to strike, which enraged the sans-culottes, the poorest people of the city -the Flight to Varennes of the royal family in order to raise a counterrevolutionary army, was stopped, and the king and the queen became prisoners of the Parisian mob -the Declaration of Pillnitz by the king of Austria threatened military action to restore order in France and encouraged the radical revolutionaries who wanted to overthrow the monarchy in defiance of the declaration from foreign aristocrats

Concordat of 1801

-This is the agreement between Pope Pius VII and Napoleon that healed the religious division in France by giving the French Catholics free practice of their religion and Napoleon political power

Russia: Peter the Great

-a Romanov -gained vast territories from the Baltic Sea in the north, the Black Sea in the southern and eastern toward the Pacific Ocean -he westernized Russia -expanded the power of the state and of the czars by establishing a powerful standing army, a civil service, and an educational system to train technicians in the skills developed by western science and technology -imposed economic burdens, Western ideas, and social restrictions on the peasants to further his power -erected and planned the city of St. Petersburg on the Baltic -built magnificent baroque palaces, churches, and public buildings to glorify his reign -Russia became one of the major powers during his reign -he recruited many Western artisans -St.Petersburg= "window to the west" -reformed the government bureaucracy and the Russian Orthodox Church, reorganized and equipped the army with modern weapons, and encouraged commerce and industry -did not achieve dream of warm water port

The Second or Radical Stage of the Revolution: Reign of Terror

-a dictatorial Committee of Public Safety launched the "Reign of Terror". Over 20,000 people (mainly working class and peasants) were executed

Theories of a nations economy

-a nation's wealth was measured by the amount of precious metals it hd accumulated (bullionism) rather than its productivity -idea is often credited to Jean Baptiste Colbert, the finance minister of Louis XIV -a favorable balance of trade (exports exceed imports) increases the flow of gold and silver into the national economy, and therefore increases the store of precious metals -overseas colonies supplied he mother country with essential raw materials for manufacture and trade -the goal of mercantilism is national economic self-sufficiency -overseas colonization (old imperialism) was encouraged by mercantilism -Spain and Portugal monopolized colonization in the sixteenth century -by the seventeenth century, the balance had shifted to the Dutch, French, and British, whose internal disorders of the previous century had stabilized and whose inroads in Asia and North America overcame the supremacy of the Spanish and Portuguese -the British colonial empire far surpassed any other nation -"sun never sets on the British empire"

Enlightened Despotism

-a ruler who aimed for the advancement of society by fostering education, aiding the economy, and promoting social justice -A system of government supported by leading philosophes in which an absolute ruler uses his or her power for the good of the people. Enlightened monarchs supported religious tolerance, increased economic productivity, administrative reform, and scientific academies. Joseph II, Frederick the Great, and Catherine the Great were the best-known Enlightened monarchs.

Marx's Theories: Dialectical materialism

-adapted the Hegelian dialectic to argue that society is a reflection of economics -history progress from agrarian communalism to slaveholding, feudalism, bourgeois commercialism, capitalism, socialism, and finally to communism -communism= a classless society in which the workers own the means of production and gov is unnecessary -saw this as an inevitable process

Napoleon's Conquests and Defeats: Germany

-after defeating Austria and Prussia (two most powerful German states) he reorganized Germany -consolidated many of the nearly 300 independent political entities (confederation of the rhine) -abolished feudalism and carried out reforms -awakened German nationalism

Napolean

-after military victories, Nap overthrew the Directory in a coup d' etat and formed a new government, the Consulate, made up on consuls, with Nap as head council

The Agricultural Revolution in Britain

-after the Glorious Revolution of 1688, British landowning aristocrats dominated Parliament and passed the Enclosure Acts, which fenced off the medieval common lands -the Enclosure Movement put into place the last four needed ingredients for capitalism: land, labor, capital, and markets -allowed the struggle for money to be based on factors other than just birth and luck -opportunities for advancement were there for anyone who had a profitable idea and a work ethic -the modern economy began -the struggle between labor and capital began

anarchists

-all forms of gov unnecessary and should be overthrown and replaced with a society based on voluntary cooperation

War as an Instrument of Louis's Foreign Policy: Nine Years War

-also called the War of the Grand Alliance or the War of the League of Augsburg was a major war -France, was opposed by a European wide coalition, the Grand Alliance, fought primarily mainland Europe and surrounding waters -a campaign in North America between French and English settlers and their respective Indian allies, called "King William's War" by the English colonists was a part of this war -Louis's ambitions were lost

Summary of Louis XIV's reign

-although his reign solidified the central gov and marked the height of absolutism in France, his wars exhausted the treasury -this left the bourgeoisie and the peasantry with an enormous tax burden (clergy and nobles exempt from taxes) -Versailles cost alot of $$$ -defanged the nobles by making participation in court life a social requirement -suppressed religious dissent, outlawing Jansenism, a form of Catholic Calvinism, revoked the Edict of Nantes (granted toleration for Huguenots), and instead made Catholicism mandatory -the bourgeoise was given a role in administration -the economic system was successful: -agriculture and trade were stimulated -the seeds for rev were sown in the national debt that had to be paid off by the Third Estate -tax collected was systematized -royal edicts were enforced

The Technological or Second Industrial Revolution

-application of science to industry -industrial processes and activity increased in scale and complexity -mechanization of the factory system -mass production lowered the cost of goods and made them available to the general public; consumer goods became part of the mass market -small companies merged and consolidated until whole industries were dominated by big business -high wages in the cities caused a population shift from the countryside -electricity improved quality of life -new industries emerges: chemical, electrical, leisure travel, pro sports, automobile industry -new means of communication, telegraph and telephone changed culture -new transportation -increased consumerism changed leisure and home life with the spread of advertising, department stores, and catalogs

The Collapse of the Napoleonic Empire

-army was in disarray after Russian defeat -his defeated powers united together to defeat him -lost 500,000 of his 600,000 Grand Army in Russia -riots in Italy against his rule -British invasion of southern France by Wellington's army -Nap was defeated by the combined forces of Russia, Prussia, and Austria at the Battle of Leipzig, also known as the Battle of Nations -Nap abdicated in 1814 -the Bourbons were restored to the throne of France by Louis XVIII -Nap was exiled to Elba in the Med -France surrendered all territory gained since the International Wars of the French Rev began -King Louis created a legislature that rep only the upper classes -the restoration maintained most of Nap's reforms, such as Code Nap, the concordat with the Pope, and the abolition of feudalism

Le Chapalier Law

-banned guilds and the right to strike, which enraged the sans-culottes, the poorest people in the city

Prussia Industrialization

-became a leader of a unified Germany, which rapidly industrialized -the Zollverein (Prussian trade unions) of German states allowed them to unify their efforts of industrialization -Friedrich List was a writer and philosopher who believed manufacturing was the primary means of increasing people's well-being and relieving poverty, hence it is the duty of the gov to improve industry -goods were allowed to move within German states without tariffs -still-high protective tariffs on foreign goods -helped to develop growing German nationalism

the 100 days

-began when Nap escaped from Elba and made it to the south of France with a small honor guard marching into Paris -he raised an army -defeated a Prussian army in Belgium -was defeated at WATERLOO in Belgium by the duke of Wellington and the Prussian general -imprisoned on the island of St. Helena and stayed there

The Scarcity of Energy

-by the 18th century, most of Britian's forests were gone, and its supply of wood for fuel nearly depleted -the British were importing wood from Russia -coal, plentiful, gradually replaced wood as both a fuel and for industrial process -fossil fuels became the way for Europe to power a way to reshape the world -profitable resource

The Rise of Capitalism

-capital=money used as an investment -instead of investing labor, an individual invests capital in order to make a profit -the bourgeoisie, having accumulated more money than was needed to maintain a subsistence standard of living, and used the money to make money -they invested in chartered companies that were given a monopoly on trading rights by nations within a certain area -joint stock companies which sold shares of stock publicly in order to raise large amounts for various ventures, provided limited liability to the shareholders, and offered a profitable return for the original investment -in the bourse, a kind of stock exchange, profit made from investment enabled more investment -private banks were able to turn private savings into venture capital that allowed investment in overseas trade and other capitalist ventures -new defs of property rights such as limited liability for owners of stocks and protections against the confiscation of property due to bad stock investments encouraged greater investment -insurance companies emerged to make overseas trade less risky -the Bank of England was founded to provide venture for English firms -the expansion of money created prosperity, advanced science and technology, and supported the growth of the nation-state -the rise in wealth led first to the emergence of a market economy and eventually to the emergence of a consumer economy, and then a consumer society after WWII -overseas products led to the emergence of a consumer culture

The Legislative Assembly declares war on Austria (Cause&Effects)

-cause: the Declaration of Pillnitz saw Austria try to intervene in French affairs by pursuing military action to protect the monarchy -effect: the sans-culottes and the radicals came together with the support building all over France against foreign invasion

The Estates General meets for the first time (Cause&Effects)

-cause: the French nation had seen famine and economic collapse. The Estates General had not met in 175 years, but was convened in order to raise taxes after the Parliament of Paris refused to do so -effects: the meeting unified the nobility with the Third Estate and they took the Tennis Court Oath, promising not to leave until they had created a constitution for France

Formation of the National Assembly (Cause&Effects)

-cause: the disintegration of order in France and the Declaration led to the formation of the National Assembly, or Constituent Assembly, in order to make a constitution and rule the country -effect: they created a constitution that allowed for election of a legislative assembly with the king at the helm. The king then tried to escape with his family

Declaration of the Rights of Man (Cause&Effects)

-cause: the monarchy had consolidated power through the intendant system; also, the failure of crops and the economy. These woes along with the ideas of the Enlightenment and the American Revolution, led to the demand for a French constitution at the Storming of the Bastille, which helped to create it. -effect: the French Rev began in earnest with the Great Fear, and the path was cleared for the creation of the National Assembly

The National Convention is formed (Cause&Effects)

-cause: the new constitution, which created the First Republic, called for a national assembly to be formed -effect: this body was vert politically biased with the radical Jacob party in power

Radicals and sans-culottes gain power (Cause&Effects)

-cause: the pendulum of change had been held to the right for so long that it swung far in the other direction. Pent up aggression from the Third Estate led to the most demagogical leaders gaining power: marat, danton, and robespierre -effects: revolutionary zeal swept the common people of France. Society was turned upside down, and the Reign of Terror would eventually result

The Great Fear (Cause&Effects)

-cause: the pent up aggression of the Third Estate was unleashed as a reaction to the Declaration of the Rights of Man -effect: clash developed between the nobility and the peasantry, and factions formed in France about what the new government should look like and how it should act

Attempted escape of Louis XIV and family (Cause&Effects)

-cause: the revolutionary mood in France made them fear more for their lives than for their titles and possessions -effect: this further cemented national sentiment against the royal family

Prussia: Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick I, and Frederick William I

-centralized the government and encouraged industry in order to support the state's large standing army

consumer revolution

-changed the lives of European people as it spread from the Dutch and the British -consumers demanded new items such as porcelain, mirrors, manufactured cotton goods, and even printed art -new leisure venues, such as taverns and opera houses, attracted these emerging consumers -blood sports and betting began to be entertainment for the working class

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

-church land being secularized, bishops and priests elected by people, state funds bishops and priests

Seven Years War

-competition for colonies and for hegemony on the continent culminated to the Seven Years' War -the first war that Europeans fought on multiple continents with battles in North America, Europe, and Asia -the British won a decisive battle in India at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, which led to oBritish dominance of India until after WWII -the war resulted in the loss of France's North American possessions and in the growing independence of the British North American colonies

France develops Europe's first modern army

-continuation of the military rev begun by France during the Habsburg-Valois Wars -Artillery, usually supplied by civilian private contractors, was made part of the army -the gov, instead of officers, recruited trained, equipped, and garrisoned troops -a chain of command was established: largest in Europe

The Concert of Europe

-created by the "Quadruple Alliance": Prussia, Great Britain, Austria, and Russia -its aim was to maintain the status quo that the Congress of Vienna had established, upholding the territorial boundaries and shoring up the monarchies of Europe against the spread of revolutionary ideas, such as republicanism -the Holy Alliance of Austria, Prussia, and Russia was formed to prevent the dual economic and political revolutions from occurring anywhere in Europe -members of this alliance pledged to send their armies to any are intent on destroying monarchies and the status quo -the Holy Alliance, the Concert of Europe, and the Quadruple Alliance, were effective in the short term at preventing republican and economic revolutions in Poland, Italy, and Spain, as well as contributing to the failure of the Decembrists in Russia -Belgium gained independence -1848: short revolutions in Europe -balance of power from this alliance prevented war for 100 years

Criticism of Napoleon

-curtailed the freedoms of his own people through police censorship, limitation of women's rights, and his use of his secret policy to spy on his own people -used nepotism -ignited nationalism across the Continent

Adam Smith

-discredited mercantilism -argued that free competition, limited government regulation, and individual self-interest expressed through a supply and demand market economy which would foster growth

the expansion of europe: open field system

-divided the arable land available to a farming community into narrow strips, which were designated to the individual families of the community (medieval) -a large portion of the land remained fallow

Russia: intro and Ivan the Terrible

-expansion and consolidation of Russia continued in a sporadic fashion with some advances and some reversals -in order to attain soldiers, the empire gave aristocratic landowners, the Boyars control over their peasants, who gradually fell into serfdom -the Boyars influenced government policy through a council, the Duma

French Estates

-first estate= the clergy -second estate= the nobility -third estate= bourgeoisie or middle classes, the artisans, commoners, and peasants -was predominately agrarian (most lived on farms)

French Revolution: The Old Regime

-first estate= the clergy. Despite comprising a tiny fraction of the population, the RCC of France (Gallican Church) owned 20 percent of the land. The clergy and the Church were exempt from taxes. -second estate= the nobles, owned about 20 percent of the land. Also exempt from taxes. -third estate= the middle class, urban artisans, and peasants. Although France had developed a significant commercial or middle class, the bourgeoisie, the mass of the people were peasants who lived on the land. Were subject to a variety of taxes: taille (land tax), tithe (Church tax equivalent to 10 percent of annual income), income tax, poll tax, gabelle (salt tax), local duties paid to the feudal lord -Burdened by debts run up by the wars and extravagances of Louis XIV, by the corruption and inefficiency of the administration of his successors, and by France's support of the American Revolution, the government of Louis XVI attempted to tax the previously exempt clergy and nobility. A high court of France, the Parliament of Paris, ruled that new taxes could not be levied unless approved by the Estates-General, the legislative body of Parliament, that had not met for 175 years

The Philosophes: Jean Jacques Rousseau

-founder of the Romantic movement -despising the rigid and inequitable class structure of the ancient regime, he developed the idea of the noble savage: that civilization corrupted humankind and that life in the state of nature was purer, freer, and more virtuous than "civilized man" -the goal of the individual was to attain full expression of natural instincts by stripping away the artificial restraints of society and returning as far as possible to nature -believed that the goal of people was to achieve self-determination -in the Social Contact, he shared that property, when regarded as more important than people, causes social injustice (later seen in the communist manifesto) -the general will, a kind of consensus of the majority, he thought should control a nation -this was intended a support a democratic view of gov, but because it does not recognize minority viewpoints and since it has no clear way to show itself, it could be used to rationalize extreme nationalism and repression -his distrust of civilization and its institutions led him to criticize rigid educational practices and the strict discipline of children -arguably the first socialist

The Philosophes: Immanuel Khant

-freedom of the press will result in the Enlightenment -he separated science and morality into distinct branches of knowledge -science can describe natural phenomena but could not provide a guide for morality

Declaration of Pillnitz

-from the king of Austria threatened military action to restore order in France and encouraged the radical revolutionaries who wanted to overthrow the monarchy in defiance of the declaration from foreign aristocrats

Industrialization

-gradual an continuous process throughout human history -new forms of energy from coal and other fossil fuels powered machines rather than muscles, water, or wind -the advent of the steam engine allowed massive amounts of energy to be exerted by machinery, such as the water frame and power looms, that appeared in large factories, where most textile workers began to work -this contrasted with pre- industrial society -industrialization began in England and spread

Louis Blanc

-had amore practical approach than other socialists -urged workers to fight for universal suffrage and to overthrow the state peacefully -believed he gov should set up workshops and factories to guarantee full employment

Theories of Economics: Adam Smith

-his Wealth of nations is the foundation of laissez-faire economics, which opposed the regulations imposed by mercantilism by arguing that certain natural laws, such as supply and demand, govern an economy and should be free to operate -people follow their own interest without the interference of gov in the economy -this private initiative will result in benefits to all in society

Napoleon's Conquests and Defeats

-his aim was to unite Europe under French leadership -the people he battled with and conquered arose their nationalism, and they would eventually break away from his empire -his new military tactics allowed him to exert direct or indirect control over much of the continent, spreading French Rev ideas as well -tactics: light artillery; forcing a pitched battle from the front and then sending a cavalry charge from behind; the use of professional ambulance corps, and a pro supply system

Napoleon's Conquests and Defeats: Italy

-his victories led to a northern Italian republic, the Cisalpine, and to several satellites in central and southern Italy under French control -1809: he controlled all of Italy, abolishing feudalism and reforming the social, political, and economic structures -practiced nepotism -decided against national unity for the Italians, who had been divided into competing city-states and kingdoms during the Middle Ages, because unity might pose a threat to French dominance in that region

James Watt

-improvements in the steam engine led to its wide use in industry (1736-1819).

Women's Role in the French Revolution

-in October of 1789, the revolution was at a turning point -in the midst of a continuing shortage of bread, rumors of counterrevolution spread among the guards and royalty at Versailles. In response, many women gathered to Paris to march to the royal palace at Versailles to demand an accounting from the king. -the next day the crowd became rowdy and eventually broke into the royal apartments, killing two of the king's bodyguards. To prevent further bloodshed, Louis agreed to move his family to Paris **-the discussion of women's rights arose during the French Rev**

Marx's Theories: Hegelian dialectic

-in every historical period a prevailing ideal, thesis, conflicts with an opposing ideal, antithesis, and results in a new ideal, synthesis

The Expansion of Europe: Agricultural Revolution

-included selective breeding of animals, utilization of fertilizer, rotating crops, and generally improving the land for farming -it resulted in huge crop yields and surpluses of food, which freed up labor and allowed population to rise -a greater variety of food -better quality food -four field system

Results of the Industrial Rev

-increased production and availability of manufactured goods -material prosperity increased because there were cheaper high-quality goods -increased consumption led to more jobs -factory workers lived in poverty on low wages -housing was in dismal tenements -entire families worked for hours a day -the concentration of population made conditions horrible -the visibility of poverty in the cities led thinkers to ponder the causes of poverty and prompted the institutions of society to push for alleviation -Sandler Commission in Great Britain helped initiate legislation to improve working conditions in factories -urbanization: -working class injustices, gender exploitation, and standard of living issues -tens of millions moved from the country side to cities -family structure changed in that productive work was taken out of the home and to the factory, and children were separated from their families and rural settings -gender roles changed -women's work was seen as less valuable and was increasingly associated with domestic duties -men were separated from wives and children

Enlightened Despots: Russia: Catherine the Great

-patron of many of the French philosopher and considered herself an Enlightened Despot -when a rebellion of the Cossacks, the Pugachev Rebellion, gained some ground with the peasantry, Catherine at first tried to dismiss the rebellion; later she took it more seriously and ended her enlightened reforms -she did continue Peter the Great's work of territorial expansion by annexing both Polish and Ottoman land -got a warm water port at the Black Sea

The Commercial Revolution: inflation in Spain

-influx of gold and silver from the Americas -inflation: "too much money chasing too few goods", resulted because while the money supply had vastly increased, productivity had remained stable, giving money reduced purchasing power -the inflation stimulated production though, because craftsmen, merchants, and manufactures could get good prices for their products -the middle class, the bourgeoisie, acquired much of this wealth by trading and manufacturing, and their political influence and social status decreased -peasant farmers benefited when their surplus yields could be turned into crash crops -the nobility, whose income was based on feudal rents and fees, actually suffered a diminishing standard of living in this inflationary economy -the rise in population and the flight of entrepreneurs and industries people to the New World further increased this inflation as industry in Spain declined and new opportunities for the middle classes to make money emerged -the transatlantic slave-labor system expanded as demands for New World products increased -Triangle Trade, Middle Passage, and the Plantation System

Theories of Economics: David Ricardo

-introduced the Iron Law of Wages: the natural wage is that which maintains a worker's subsistence -when labor is in demand, the wage will increase, the worker will prosper, the size of families will increase, and the general population will grow -this result will be more workers competing for fewer jobs and inevitable starvation -believed gov attempts to change this only led to greater suffering

technological advances

-inventions of new machines and improvement of production processes throughout the 18th century made large-scale production possible in textile manufacturing and coal mining -the steam engine revolutionized transportation

Southern and Eastern Europe Industrialization

-lack of resources, feudal traditions, geography, the persistence of serfdom in some areas, and lack of government sponsorship accounted for eastern and southern Europe's lag in industrial development

The Philosophes: Adam Smith

-laissez-faire economic policy in "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" -the economy is governed by natural laws, such as supply and demand; in a free economy, competition will induce producers to manufacture most efficiently in order to sell higher-quality, lower cost good than competitors -government regulation only interferes with this natural self-governing practice

Results of the Enclosure Movement

-large landowners became prosperous; they invested in technology, meaning machinery, breeding, improved planting methods. Crop yields and livestock production soared -surplus production enabled agriculture to support a larger population in the cities -small farmers who were displaced by the Enclosure Movement moved to the cities and made up the growing force of factory workers (the industrial proletariat)

proletariat

-lower class -top of the lower tried to emulate the upper classes' Victorian behavior -many diff levels of lower classes

philosophes

-man of the Enlightenment (writers) -argued that once the natural laws that governed nature and human existence were discovered, society could be organized in accordance with them and progress was inevitable

Enlightened Despots: Prussia: Frederick II (Frederick the Great

-military genius who made Prussia a major power in Europe, an urbane and educated man who patronized the great Voltaire, a domestic reformer who improved educated, codified laws, fostered industry, invited immigration, and extended religious tolerance

Steam Engines

-mines kept filling with water, so pumps were needed to empty them -the early stem engines, such as Thomas newcomen's clumsy contraption used heat from burning coal to boil water that made steam power to set the engine in motion; they were employed as pumps in mines -James Watt saw the problems of the earlier engines and created an improved stead engine -revolutionized every mode of production and transportation -could now accomplish sm more w these machines

Te Second or Radical Stage of the Revolution: Girondists

-moderate Jacobins

Mercantilism

-monarchs of the early modern period needed money to maintain the standing armies that would dominate the powerful nobles of the realm and protect the state against foreign enemies -the commercial rev and the growth of capitalism enriched a sizable segment of the population; personal riches translated into good tax revenues -mercantilism prevailed as the economic policy -offered a way for the monarchs to consolidate their centralized authority

The Enlightenment: Issac Newton

-natural laws of motion account for the movement of heavenly bodies and earthly objects -these laws are unchangeable and predictable -God's active participation is not needed to explain the operations of the forces of nature, a repudiation of the medieval belief -works in astronomy and physics convinced people that human reason, unaided by the tenets and rituals of religion, could uncover the immutable laws of nature

Reforms Began in the Cities

-need for improved conditions: poor sanitation and other services, overcrowded housing, inadequate transportation -influenced by Jeremy Bentham whose philosophy of utilitarianism emphasized the greatest good for the greatest number, city planners and urban reformers redesigned the many European cities and initiated a public health movement -the Chadwick Report of 1842 indicated that British citizens were living in filthy, unsanitary conditions that were spreading disease -calculated that installing sewage and water systems in British cities would be less expensive than exporting the filth by other means -Cholera epidemic broke out -Cholera led to the Public Health Act -standard of living improves -disparities in wealth between classes led to conflict between them -encouraged the growth of political radicalism -hierarchies of wealth and status existed among both the middle and working classes -regulation of women to menial jobs or to child raising fostered a women's rights movement -first wave of feminism emerged -goals included gender equality in opportunity, legal, and voting rights

Frondeurs

-nobles who sought to limit the powers of the monarch and to decentralize the government in order to extend their own influence -with the support of the bourgeoise and the peasants, who had little to gain in a return to the feudal order, Mazarin was able to subdue the Frondeurs and their ally, Spain

Karl Marx

-proponent of the class struggle -his Communist Manifesto, written with Friedrich Engels during the revs of 1848 called for radical solutions to the dilemma of mass poverty in the industrialized world

The Enlightenment: John Locke

-provided a philosophical apology for the supremacy of Parliament during the Glorious Rev with his Two Treatises On Civil Gov: -in the state of nature, before governments existed, humans lacked protection -governments replaced individual action with the rule of law -governments rest upon the consent of the governed -the social contact: the agreement between a fair government and responsible individuals -if government oversteps its role in protecting the life, liberty, and property of its citizens, the people have the right to abolish and replace it -challenged the ancien regime

Bishop Jacques Bossuet

-provided the philosophical justification for the divine right theory to rule -claimed that Louis, just like any other absolute monarch, was given the right to rule from God and therefore owed his authority to no person or group

The Philosophes: Cesare Beccaria

-published On Crimes and Punishments which added to Montesquieu's ideas by outlining proportions between crimes and punishments, and arguing against torture -he focused on deterring men from committing crimes

Theories of Economics: Utopian socialists

-rejected the dismal science of the classical economists and sought solutions to the plight of the masses -the Comte de Saint-Simon, one of the early French founders of socialism -helped define the movement by advocating public ownership of factories -wanted a professional managerial crops to run factories -planned economy

The Congress of Vienna

-reps of the major powers of Europe, including France, met to redraw territorial lines and to restore the social and political order that existed before the French Rev and Nap -the rule of legitimacy: to return the "rightful" rulers of Europe to their thrones was a goal -a return to a balance of power that would guarantee peace was another -assembly: Metternich (chancellor of Austria), Castlereagh (Britain), Czar Alexander of Russia, Prince Hardenberg of Prussia, and Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, foreign minister of France -Metternich, Castlereagh, and Tallyrand consisted the first Big Three in Europe

Treaty of Utrecht

-restored the balance of power, by allowing Philip V (Louis's grandson) to remain on the Spanish throne as long as France and Spain were never ruled by the same monarch

Marx's Theories: Inevitable Revolution

-result of the capitalists' increasing profits gained by lowering the workers' wages for labor to the point that the proletariat cannot afford consume the products of manufacture -economic depression occurs and lays hardship on the working class until it carries out a revolution -a dictatorship of proletariat will establish a socialist gov to wipe out capitalism

War as an Instrument of Louis's Foreign Policy: The Dutch War

-revenge for the Dutch role in defeating France in the War of Devolution and an attempt to seek France's "natural boundary in the west," the Rhine River-largely unsuccessful

Revolt in haiti

-revolutionary ideas inspired a slave revolt led by Toussaint I' Overture in the French colony of Saint Domingue, which became Haiti in 1804, despite Napoleon sending troops to put down the rebellion

gabelle

-salt tax

The Philosophes: Voltaire

-served at the height of Louis XIV's reign -he preached against injustice and bigotry and for human rights and science -"Crush the infamous" was his rallying cry against religious cry against religious zealotry, governmental abuse, and vestiges of medievalism -imprisoned briefly in the Bastille, he visited England, lived in the court of Frederick the Great (Enlightened Despot of Prussia) -raised on Christianity but came to reject organized religion as corrupt in its leadership, and remote from the urgent message of Jesus -advocator of deism -his reforms fit the deist notion that human reason alone could uncover the natural law and guide humans to comply with it -DEISM AND EMPRICISM

Reaction to the French Revolution: Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France

-set the stage for conservatism as practiced by Klemns von Metternich after Napoleon's reign

salons and coffee houses

-sights of meeting of great enlightenment thinkers -supported a discourse of ideas without the censorship that was so prevalent in the writing of the day, and which Voltaire rebelled so strongly against -caffine replaced alcohol

France Industrialization

-slower industrialization with less dislocation of traditional methods of production in order to try to prevent societal upheaval -the gov supported banks, canals, and a national railroad

Prussia: Frederick William I

-solidified autocratic rule over Prussia and the Rhine territories with a strong army and an efficient bureaucracy, and with policy of weakening the nobles (Junkers) and suppressing the peasants -the Junkers served as elite officers of the army, and absolutist rule was established in Prussia

Britain was first in industrialization

-stable govs and gov institutions supported business -availability of coal, iron ore, and shortage of wood -high levels of economic freedom -economic institutions and human capital available -no wars at home -enclosure made land, labor, markets, and entrepreneurship available -the British gov supported industrialization with financial rewards for investors -already had a strong network of roads and canals -did not spill their secrets until after the defeat of Nap when industrialization spread -continent slowly caught up to Britain

Coal

-steam pump (Thomas Newcomen) rid coal mines of water seepage -condensing chamber steam engine (James Watt) -plentiful coal boosted iron production and gave rise to heavy industry

The Expansion of Europe: Mercantilism

-system developed to guarantee a favorable balance of trade with other European nations or with other American colonies -by creating an imbalance of exports over imports, the difference was made up in gold or silver payments -mercantilism was pursued as an attempt to get precious metals from indigenous peoples to pay for the costs of minting standing armies and government bureaucracies

Oil

-used as a fuel for the newly developed internal combustion engines that propelled automobiles, locomotives, and even ships

Mazarin

-was a capable administrator, and he protected Louis's claim to the throne during tumultuous Wars of the Fronde, which reached their height from 1650 to 1652

Textiles

-textile industry was the first to be industrialized -everyone needs clothes, so making them more quickly and less expensively allowed for huge profits and generated a consumer market and a feeling of consumerism -the fly shuttle (John Kay) cut manpower needs on the looms in half -the spinning jenny (James Hargreaves) mechanized the spinning wheel -the water frame (Richard Arkwright) improved thread spinning -use of the steam engine (Arkwright) powered the looms and required factory production of textiles instead of domestic industry

The Second or Radical Stage of the Revolution (1792-1795): Timeline

-the Legislative Assembly, the legislature under the new constitution, declared war on Austria in response to an ultimatum. The international Wars of the Wars of the French Revolution began -the commander of a Prussian army, about to invade France, issued the Brunswick Manifesto, threatening the people of Paris if harm came to the king. Jacobins (radical republicans) leaders aroused the Paris mobs -the Tuileries were stormed, and the king was taken prisoner; the mobs slaughtered over a thousand priest, bourgeois, and aristocrats who opposed the radicals' ambitions -France was proclaimed a republic -an appeal to nationalism inspired the French people to drive back invaders and the First Coalition, an alliance of Austria, Great Britain, Netherlands, Prussia, and Spain, was organized to combat any French advance. Revolutionary armies, raised by mass conscription, sought to bring the changed initiated in France to the rest of Europe. -the Jacobins supported the Paris mobs, and the Girondists, supported by the peasants in the rural areas, battled for control of the National Convention, which was the new assembly under the republic -Maximilien Robespierre, leader of the Jacobins, pushed for the execution of the king, and both Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were guillotined in January 1793 -a dictatorial Committee of Public Safety launched the "Reign of Terror". Over 20,000 people (mainly working class and peasants) were executed -when public opinion turned against the excesses of the Reign of Terror, both Danton an original Jacobin, and Robespierre, leader of the Republic of Virtue, were executed by the National Convention -the Thermidorian Reaction, which was the execution of Robespierre, returned the moderate bourgeois reformers to power -the Directory, a five member executive, was established by the National Convention to run the government -when a Paris mob threatened the new government, Napoleon Bonaparte, a young general who by chance was in Paris at the time, put down the riot and was rewarded with command of the French armies fighting the Austrians in Italy

The Expansion of Europe: urbanization

-the enclosure movement and increased agricultural production led to move to cities to look for economic advancement, starting the trend of urbanization -urbanization changed marriage patterns, and led to more illegitimate births toward the end of the eighteenth century -as people became more crowded, they developed a new sense of privacy and built homes and read books that reinforced those ideas

Demographic Changes Altered Lifestyles

-the population explosion resulted in both food shortages and food gluts, resulting in mortality disasters -the European marriage pattern, which limited family size, became the most important check on population levels, although some couples also adopted birth-control practices to limit family size -by the middle of the 1750s, better weather, improvements in transportation, new crops and agricultural practices, less epidemic disease, and advances in medicine and hygiene meant a reduction of, or end of, the cycle of feast and famine -by the start of the nineteenth century, reductions in chid mortality and increase in life expectancy led to the emergence of new attitudes toward children and families -economic motivations for marriage, while still important for all classes, diminished as the middle-class notion of companionate marriage began to be adopted by the working classes -this demographic revolution, along with the rise in prosperity, produced advances in the general standard of living that allowed cultural and intellectual growth for the masses -greater prosperity was associated with increasing literacy, education, and richer cultural lives -growth of publishing libraries -founding of schools -establishment of orchestras, theaters, and museums -as the nineteenth century began, it was clear that a large percentage of Europeans were better fed, healthier, longer lived, and more secure and comfortable in their material well-being

Class Diversity

-the supper class was created when the newly wealthy industrialists intermarried the nobility -bourgeoisie, middle class, saw diversity -owned homes -victorian behavior emerged

Enlightened Despots: Austria: Maria Theresa and Joesph

-they qualify as Enlightened Despots -The War of the Austrian Secession was fought over the issue of whether or not she could inherit her kingdom, and gave Silesia to Prussia (b/c Frederick II fought her) -the Habsburg Dynasty had been weakened by the time Maria Theresa inherited the throne under a cloud of counterclaims, and she was determined to strengthen the realm by centralizing the government, promoting commerce, and limiting the power of the nobles -Joesph furthered his mother's reforms by guaranteeing freedom of the press and of religion, reforming the judicial system toward greater equality for all classes, making German the official language for the empire's many ethnic minorities in order to foster centralization, and especially abolishing serfdom

The Continental System

-through a series of shifting alliances, the British had consistently opposed the upset of the European balance of power from the French -Nap decided to engage in economic warfare instead of land warfare -unable to overcome British supremacy at sea and invade, Nap decided to starve Britain out by closing ports of the Continent to British commerce -he coerced Russia, then a temporary ally of the French, his defeated enemy, Prussia, neutral Denmark, Portugal, etc. to participate in the boycott -the policy was a complete failure and caused inflation and dissent in his empire, contributing to his downfall

The Settlement

-to prevent future expansion, France was surrounded by a number of strong states -in Germany, Nap's reorganization remained, and the 300 origninally independent states was reduced to 39 -the Habsburg HRE was NOT reestablished

Theories of Economics: Thomas Malthus

-tried to explain why the mass of people did not benefit from the operation of natural laws of economics -poverty existed because the population increased in a geometric rate while the food supply increased arithmetically (he said) -believed that poverty was a divine punishment for humankind's lust

Effects on Class and Gender

-two classes developed: industrialists/ capitalists and factory workers -divide between the bourgeoisie (servant-keeping middle class) and the proletariat (working class) -the division of labor by gender was more pronounced among the upper classes, where women were homemakers -lower classes, women worked outside the home -the gap between wealthy and working classes remained enormous -the competitive nature of markets led many of the factory owners to offer low wages for long hours, to create poor and unsafe working conditions, and to employ child labor -rigid discipline of factory work contrasted with the rural pace of the farm -not until the mid 19th century the working conditions improved -child labor laws were enacted to limit the number of hours children could be required to work -a gender division of labor emerged -men became the main breadwinners, while married women tended to stay home and raise children -jobs available to women were dead end and poorly paid

Absolute Monarchs: Louis XIV

-when Mazarin died, Louis declared himself as his own prime minster -"I am the state" Sun King -ruled over the Golden Age of France -France had a large population and was the strongest nation -its industry and agriculture surpassed any other nation -created Versailles -patronized the arts (artists and writers) -French literature and style (in dress, furniture, architecture) became standards for Europeans -didn't take any crap from anyone

Spain&Napoleon

-when Napoleon tried to tighten his control over Spain by replacing the Spanish king with one of his own brothers -the Spanish waged a costly guerrilla war that was aided by the British under one of their commanders, Duke of Wellington

Reform on the Rise

-white men still in power -societies began to examine the morality and the consequences of these perspectives during this era through works of writers such as Rousseau, Emilie, and Olympe de Gogue -reform came slowly, with England outlawing slavery in all British landholdings first

Marx's Theories: Communism

-will follow next -private property will cease to exist and economic exploitation will stop, ending crime, vice, and injustice; democracy will prevail on local level; Utopia will result

The Philosophes: Mary Wollstonecraft

-women can do anything men can do -first true feminist -she was the defender of the Declaration of the Rights of Men and made her own addition adding the word women next to each phrase -marriage was legalized prostitution -challenged the ideas of Voltaire -Olympe de Gogue also an early feminist