Applied Climatology
What are the 3types of data? Give examples
#1 Proxy, historical and instrumental Proxy: Perserved physical characteristics of environment that can stand in for direct environment Oxygen and isotopes- form ice corals, corals and sea sediment. Proxy data 2- pollen grains, tree rings #2 Historical Data: Both qualitative and quantitative that are direct or inferred. Some examples of historical data are dairies, newspaper, government #3 Instrumental Data is the longest record from the mid-1600s. In the 1970s we first had continuous weather observations. We do have problems with this data because of primitively or malfunctions instruments.
What is a monsoon? Describe how the dry and wet seasons develop.
*Monsoons cause wet and dry seasons throughout much of the tropics. *A wet monsoon typically occurs during the summer months (about April through September) bringing heavy rains, according to National Geographic. *On average, approximately 75 percent of India's annual rainfall and about 50 percent of the North American monsoon region (according to a 2004 NOAA study) comes during the summer monsoon season. *The wet monsoon begins when winds bringing cooler, more humid air from above the oceans to the land, as described above.
How do climate and weather differ?
- weather: minutes-to-months changes in the atmosphere - climate: the long term pattern of weather in a particular area
#5- what are the 6 climate controls and how is America influenced by them
1-Latitude: Basic distribution of heat across the earth Which is why locations are climate determined. 2-Elevation/aspect/slope: Temperature, pressure and moisture content decreases with elevation. Higher elevations are cooler and drier. Wetter windward climates and drier rainshadow climates. 3-Distribution of land vs water: water takes longer to heat and cool while land heats more rapidly. 4-Ocean Currents: General circulation is warm and cold climates -Warmer currents flow towards the poles and colder climates flow to the equator. 5- Pressure and prevailing winds Global, Synoptic mesoscale levels PREVAILING WIND SPEED and direction speed Onshore vs onshore SEE NOTES
11 - what are the 7 forms of energy --page 24
1-Radiation: The emission and propagation of energy in the forms of waves. 2-Kinetic Energy: The energy due to motion- one half the product of the mass of a body and square of its velocity. 3-Potential Energy: Energy that a body possesses by virtue of it's position and that is potentially converted to another form, usually kinetic energy. 4- Chemical Energy: Energy used or released in chemical reactions 5- Atomic Energy: Energy released form an atomic nucleus at the expense of its mass. 6- Electrical Energy: Energy resulting from the force between two objects having the physical property of charge 7- Heat Energy: A form of energy representing aggregate internal of motions of atoms and molecules in a body. RADIATION: Only means of energy transfer through space without the aid of material medium. Three means of energy transfer: Convection, Conduction and radiation.
10) average warming do the US since 1980
1.7 degrees
3) what is true about 2008 based on graph?
2008 is coolest year since 2000 2008 was cooler than 1990 Constitsant with global warming
6) What is a typical sun sport cycle? What reduction in radiation absorbed is necessary to reduce temperatures by 1.2 to 1.5 degrees? Are sun spots and volcanic eruption effects considered long-term or short-term, changes.
A bright faculae radiate more enegery 11 and 22 year cycles. A decrease of absorption of 1% can reduce temperatures by 1.2 to 1.5c which 2-2.7F Any cooling is considered short term,.
1. What is the difference between a passive and active remote sensor?
A passive sensor receives info while an active sensors sends energy and recieved back. Satellites are good examples of a passive sensors while active sensor would be a radar.
What is orogeny? What impacts did/do they have on climate?
A process in which a section of the earth's crust is folded and deformed by lateral compression to form a mountain range. Orogeny tends to occur during a relatively short time in linear belts and results in intensive deformation.,, Regional metamorphism and magmatic activity are often associated with an organic event as well.
List and describe the three Milankovitch cycles
A series of long-term-term changes in Earth's climate resulting from changes in planetary orbital parameters. Eccentricity Axial tilt Precession These three cycles combine to affect the amount of solar heat that's incident on the Earth's surface and subsequently influence climatic patterns.
1. How much has global temps warmed up over the last century? Where is warming the strongest?
Above normal 25 years/ higher over land than water and high latitudes then tropics.
What is aerosol? Which type is the most abundant? How does distribution, type, change with increasing distance from the surface?
Aerosol: Partical matter suspended in the air LIKE: Soil particles, smoke residue, ocean salt, ash, particles. Table on page 15- vegetation 25.8 Particle matter decreases rapidly with altitude. High altitude particles occur from meteoric dust, volcanic eruptions, and nuclear explosion in the atmosphere.
How do volcanic eruptions and sunspots impact climate. What characteristics of volcanic eruption tend to have a greater impact on global climate
After a major eruption it can lower annual temperature and a decrease of absorption of 1 percent can reduce temperatures by 1.2 and 1.5 percent. Magnetic storm spots appear as dark spots on sun 1400c lower than surrounding areas. Colder periods in history correspond to low sunspot activity.
3. What is albedo? What is the average albedo of the earth?
Albedo is radiation absorbed at the surface depends upon surface albedo and angle of radiation. Albedo is the percentage of radiation radiation reflected or obsorbed. Earth's albedo is 30%
11) how have min and max temps increases in us
Annual state warming in every state when it comes to min/max temperatures
What are some common errors to the measurement of precipitation and temperature?
Bad equipment, wrong placement, by trees, out dated information, ect
9) how have pine Beetle CLIMATE?
Causes forest to admit more carbon then it absorbs.
12) 4 sources of c02
Fossil fuels Burning forest grassland Agriculture Cement manufacturing
4.What are GOES and POES? List the types of data each one gathers. What are the differences? Where do they orbit? What are the differences between each? Where do they orbit? What is AVHRR? What are the current GOES SATELLITES? Describe GOES-R.
GOES stands for Geostationary orbit while POES stands for Polar Orbit. GOES is placed in in Earth's orbit at the same rate at the equatorial spin in a fixed postoion above the Earth's equator. POES circle the Earth from North to South, at a lower level then GOES, about 800 to 1500 in above surface. According to NOAA, AVHRR is a radiation-detection imager that can be used for remotely determine cloud cover and surface temperatures. The US has two GEOS - GOES-11 over the Eastern Pacific and GOES 12 over the Amazon Basin. According to goes-r.gov, GOES-R series is the nation's most advanced fleet of geostationary weather satellites. It's a four-satellite system that will extend the availability of the GOES satellite system through 2036. The Satellites will provide advance imaging and faster coverage.
3.Compare and contrast the distribution of surface weather observation stations between 100 years ago and present day. Which areas have consistent distribution? Which areas have seen greatest increase over 100 years?
In the US continuous weather observation began in 1779 in New Haven, CT. 100-150 years ago weather data wasn't as solid or standardized as it is now. Currently, we don't have huge gaps between weather readings compared to 100-150 years ago. While places like Europe, North America, East Asia have always been represented we have even more representation now. Some issues we will always be concerned about: Human Error and malfunctioning instruments. We have made progress in standardization to get a more well rounded, fair observation.
13) highest co2 emissions in 2007? PER CAPITAL?
JAPAN, CHINA,EU-15, US CHINA, RUSSIA, E15, US
19) How have the changes in temperature affected precipitation?
LAB This temperature increase has had a wide variety of effects. For example, warmer temperatures lead to more moisture in the atmosphere, which has increased precipitation over much of the U.S. However, there are important regional and seasonal differences. Increasing temperatures can also affect the timing of spring or early summer runoff. For many western rivers, the initial pulse of water from snowmelt is occurring about 2-3 weeks earlier. Although some of these changes can be explained by natural variability, it appears that most of the shift is probably due to global warming.
18) How have the annual "normal" temperatures (low and high) changed from the (1971-2000) period to the (1981-2010) period? Describe these changes spatially. How do they vary from state to state?
LAB- Recently, the National Climatic Data Center issued its new Climate Normals data—30-year averages of climatological variables, such as temperature and precipitation, that serve as reference points. These are used for everything from energy use projections to choosing crops and planting times. This graphic depicts the differences between the new normal, which averages annual temperatures for the period from 1981-2010, and the previous 30-year average that ended in 2000. The graphics indicate that, on an annual basis, every state has experienced warming in both the minimum temperatures (shown on the left) and the maximums (on the right), although some have warmed more than others. Average annual lows are now warmer, particularly in the desert Southwest, the Northeast, and the Great Lakes. Daytime highs have increased the most in the Southwest, Rocky Mountains, and Michigan, Wisconsin, and New Jersey
4) what did lower temps in the Pacific coincide with?
La Niña
2. Describe the history of climatology with a particular emphasis on Applied Climatology.
Let's start with the basics: Meteorology is about instantaneous condition of the atmosphere at a certain place and time. While Climatology is the state of atmosphere for any given place over a long period of time. Applied meteorology is a field of study where weather data, analyses, and forecasts are put to particle uses like when we apply the data to housing, agriculture and human health issues. There are four basic areas of applied climatology: Design, Assessment, Study of Relationships and Operation.
WHAT HAS IS LINKED TO PERMAFROST? WHAT IS SIGNIFICANT ABOUT NITROUS OXIDE?
METHANE LINKED TO PERMAFROST NITRUS OXIDE/ US LINKED TO NATURAL AND HUMAN CAUSES. It's a powerful heat trapper.
Applied Climatology
Notes Uses both biophysical and social realms. Food, water and energy for humans, human society And environment. It's used for things like housing, agriculture, energy and human health. Uses both weather and climate data to make choices. Applied Climatology uses scientific data in light of useful application for operational purpose. Operational purposes are used for spealized endeavors like industrial, manufacturing, agriculture and technology pursuits. In general terms are agriculture Climatology, bioclicatology, and industrial.ect.
5) how much has the top 1000 feet of ocean warmed in last 50 years How much did oceans rise? What are two reasons that were given for oceans rising?
Ocean warmed by .5 degrees 4 to 10 inches in 20th century Sea levels and sea water less akline
Describe the vertical structure of the earth's atmosphere. Describe each layer and the main features of each.
Page 15 The vertical structure of earth's atmosphere changes with height. Troposphere: The lowest zone is the troposphere. It's the turbulent zone that has a uniform decrease in temperature with height. Stratosphere: is a relatively stable and relatively dry, and has relatively little vertical motion. Mesosphere: Temperature decrease with altitude. Layers of oxygen exit outward from there. Thermosphere: the top layer with pressure 10-4 And above 100 KM -SEE page 16
7) What is an isotope? What are the most common oxygen isotopes? How does the ratio of these isotopes explain the climate conditions of the given period?
Page 178 Isotopes of an element have the same numbers of electrons and protons but have a different number of neutrons. The two naturally occurring isotopes of hydrogen are hydrogen 1 and 2. The seperation of of isotopes is a function of temperature. H1 evasporates faster that h2. The ratio may be measured accurately using a mass spectrometer and results are reporter in parts per thousand. Depending on the temps of evaporation and the distance the vapor traveled before undergoing deposition and falling as snow of the two isotopes will vary.
List the proxy data sources used to analyze ancient climate change.
Page 189 Reconstructing climates for the periods prior to instrumention involves proxy data. Early evidence of past climates was derived from studying ice, but newer methods can more accurately describe a given climatic event.
Describe how both wavelengh of maximum emission and energy emitted changes with changes in an object temperature.
Page 24 The characteristics of the radiation varies as the fourth power of absolute temperature. See above for how it changes with temperature
#1 Describe Stephan-Boltzmann and Wiens law
Page 24 Stephan- Boltzmann Law - The hotter an object is the greater the flow of energy from it. SEE PAGE 24 FOR EQUATION F= Flux of radiation emitted per square meter O*= Constant T= Objects surface temp in degrees kelvin Page 25 Wiens Law of radiant energy states the wavelengh of maximum radiation is versley proportional to the absolute temperature. Thus, the higher the temperature the shorter the wavelengh at which maximum radiation occurs. SEE PAGE 25 for EQUATION T= Tamperature in degrees kelvin For the sun: Amax= 2897/6000 = .48 For Earth: Amax= 2897/288=10km
4) What is an atmospheric window
Page 31 THE RESULT OF THESE selective absorption processes is that most earth's radiation that escapes to space does so in a narrow band from 8 to 13pm. This is the atmospheric window for earth's radiation. There is even some absorption of outgoing earth radiation by upper atmospheric ozone at about 10pm.
9- Spefic Heat and substances take to change temperature
Page 46 Spefic heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature Water has higher specific heat because it takes longer to heat and cool Land heats and cools more rapidly. Specific Heat Water 1.0 Air .24 Aluminum:.21 Iron: .11
!1- besides Spefic heat list 3 reasons why the average temp of water changes at different rate than land
Page 49 - Much energy used in evaporation - Water takes a longer time to warm up but does retain heat longer. -Energy may penetrate to great depths -Albedo varies with angles of the sun -low sun high albedo
6) What are drunken trees? What does it have to do with climate?
Permfrost melt the "drunken tress", trees that are tilted and they fall over.
7) What happened in the Artic in 2007
Polar Ice cap melted 30 years faster then predicted.
5.What is ground truth? List 2 examples.
Rain gauges provide 'ground truth" for satellite or radar-derived estimates. --I also think social media now provides ground truth to weather events too.
8- Explain the difference in climate between a windward and leeward location with regards of annual precip?
Rainfall is wetter windward climates and drier rainshadow climates Example: West WA 70 to 100 inches of rain (windward) East Eas less than 10 inches a year (leeward)
2) US Highs to lows What was the ratio in 1950 2000
Record high is now occurring twice often then record lows 1950 =1.09 2000=2.04
What is the albedo of
Sea Ice: reflects 30-40% Clouds: -Cumuliform 70-90% -Stratus 60-84% -Cirrostratus 44-50% Green field crops: 3-15% Concrete: 17-27% Water: Angle of inclination of the sun * 0= 99+ 10= 35 30= 6 50= 2.5 90= 2 (SEE PAGE 27) WATER covers the largest area of Earth's surface. The reflectivity of water depends on the angle of the solar beam and the roughness of water surface. Reflectivity of water decreases as the sun gets higher and higher in the sky.
Explain what causes seasons on earth? What is aphelion? What is Perihelion? How does insulation vary between them?
Seasons are changes in solar energy. The Earth is tilted on it's axis. Change in day lengh Longer days in summer Shorter days in the winter Change in solar angle Summer you have higher angles which means intense sun Winter has a lower angle which diffuse sunlight. Perihelion: Earth is closest to the sun -January 4 ish Aphelion: Earth has the most distance -July 4 ish The intensity of solar radiation is largely a function of angle of incidence which is the angle at which solar energy strikes the earth. The solar equator moves north and south through the year between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.
16) List and describe the three distinctive local wind patterns discussed in the textbook.
Since the earth rotates, the axis is tilted, and there is more land mass in the northern hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere, the actual global pattern is much more complicated. Instead of one large circulation between the poles and the equator, there are three circulations... 1. Hadley cell - Low latitude air movement toward the equator that with heating, rises vertically, with poleward movement in the upper atmosphere. This forms a convection cell that dominates tropical and sub-tropical climates. 2. Ferrel cell - A mid-latitude mean atmospheric circulation cell for weather named by Ferrel in the 19th century. In this cell the air flows poleward and eastward near the surface and equatorward and westward at higher levels. 3. Polar cell - Air rises, diverges, and travels toward the poles. Once over the poles, the air sinks, forming the polar highs. At the surface air diverges outward from the polar highs. Surface winds in the polar cell are easterly (polar easterlies).
How do temps, water vapor, pressure, and density vary within the troposphere.
The troposphere is a turbulent zone that has a uniform decrease in temperature with height. It has a lower and upper troposphere. Lower troposphere extends upward to about 3 km above the surface. It's the zone where there maximum friction between earth and the atmosphere. It also has a frequent existence of temperature inversion. The upper troposphere extends to a mean height of 11km The primary change that takes place in this zone result from the secondary circulation. The water vapor if the atmosphere at any point in time and space depends on the temperature of the air and to a. Lesser extent on atmosphere pressure, the proximity to a moisture source and history of air mass. Atmospheric pressure at any point on the surface or in the atmosphere is the force over unit area exerted by the mass if the atmosphere above the point, air close to the surface is subject to the mass of gases above.
17) What are the two human responses to global sea level change?
The two potential responses to sea level rise are mitigation and adaptation. To be most effective, mitigating, or reducing, greenhouse gas emissions should occur on a global scale, but individuals can start in their homes and communities. Adaptation happens locally or nationally. The IPCC offers three approaches to adapting to relative sea level rise: planned retreat, accommodation, and protection.
8) List 3 ways that variation in ocean's characteristics impact climate What are the 3 broad ways? What influence does a rise or fall in sea level have on land masses?
The world's ocean is crucial to heating the planet. -While land areas and the atmosphere absorb some sunlight, the majority of the sun's radiation is absorbed by the ocean. Particularly in the tropical waters around the equator, the ocean acts a as massive, heat-retaining solar panel. Earth's atmosphere also plays a part in this process, helping to retain heat that would otherwise quickly radiate into space after sunset. The ocean doesn't just store solar radiation; it also helps to distribute heat around the globe. -When water molecules are heated, they exchange freely with the air in a process called evaporation. Ocean water is constantly evaporating, increasing the temperature and humidity of the surrounding air to form rain and storms that are then carried by trade winds, often vast distances. In fact, almost all rain that falls on land starts off in the ocean. The tropics are particularly rainy because heat absorption, and thus ocean evaporation, is highest in this area. Outside of Earth's equatorial areas, weather patterns are driven largely by ocean currents. -Currents are movements of ocean water in a continuous flow, created largely by surface winds but also partly by temperature and salinity gradients, Earth's rotation, and tides (the gravitational effects of the sun and moon). Major current systems typically flow clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere, in circular patterns that often trace the coastlines.
8) how much intense rain increased over the last half century?
US = 20 percent/ 7 percent higher all together
14-- Discuss the semi-permanent pressure features which develop in the Northern Hemisphere.
What role do continentality and maritimity play in their development? How do these features shift during the year? • Semi-permanent highs and lows are persistent pressure systems that appear over an area during the year and affect how storms and weather systems enter the United States. • Places in "Severe mid latitude" climates exhibit large annual temperatures range. what causes this **Maritime: exposed to the open sea, either from coastal reaches or from inland areas. very diverse in terms of race, culture, and language **Continentality: characterized by extreme climates and vast distances from the open seas, suffer from lack of intensive interaction with other parts of the world. Economies are more self-sufficient that maritime, gov't tend to develop as closed and autocratic.
Thermohaline circulation page 111
When ocean currents previously mentioned are driven by the winds and tides the circulation is that part of the global ocean circulations that. Is caused by differences in temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline) of seawater this determines. Density.
Describe what went wrong with snowzilla
When the National airport snow count was wrong. NWS requires snow board to minimize the effects of gravity to the snow count but the National airport didn't use them. Without the snowboard snow will accoumulate for the show storm, compacting old snow which is why the actual snow was undercounted. When you use snowboards people rake a reading every 6 hours, wipe it clean and then add all 4 reading at the end of the day,
) What are the terms used for the following isolines: thunderstorm incidence, temperature pressure tendency sunshine amounts of rainfall degree of cloudiness and snowfall?
isolines: thunderstorm incidence: isokeraun temperature: isotherem pressure tendency: isallobar sunshine: Isohel amounts of rainfall: Isohyets degree of cloudiness: Isoneph and snowfall: Isonif
20) How can regional climate modeling be utilized?
lab- regional changes that have already been observed. If greenhouse gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere, we can expect even more impacts. Some of these can be beneficial, but many can be problematic, and the effects can vary from location to location. To help determine what might happen in different areas, scientists turn to computer models.
how is climate change expected to impact hurricane intensity?
lab--Observations indicate an increase in hurricane intensity in the Atlantic and West Pacific (but a decrease in the eastern Pacific). Experts and models project those tendencies are likely to continue in the future. Scientists are working to clarify what these changes might mean regionally or locally. For more information, see the modules, "Climate Change and Regional Impacts" and "Climate Change and Sea Level Rise."
21)With regards to cold extremes and warm extremes, what are the current trends in the United States? Are these trends likely to continue?
lab-Nonetheless, we are already seeing the effects of climate change. For example, in the United States, record high temperatures are now occurring more than twice as often as record low temperatures, and similar patterns have been observed across the planet.
15. What are 3 sources of global sea level changes?
land/sea topography polar ice caps seawater density
16) What are the two different measurements of sea level? Please describe them.
relative sea level: Height of ocean relative to land elevation at at location. absolute sea level height of ocean above the center of the earth
13. Describe the global circulation from pole to pole, including all wind belts and pressure cells.
• The circulation of wind in the atmosphere is driven by the rotation of the earth and the incoming energy from the sun. Wind circulates in each hemisphere in three distinct cells which help transport energy and heat from the equator to the poles. The winds are driven by the energy from the sun at the surface as warm air rises and colder air sinks. • The circulation cell closest to the equator is called the Hadley cell. Winds are light at the equator because of the weak horizontal pressure gradients located there. The warm surface conditions result in locally low pressure. The Coriolis force impacts the direction of the wind flow. In the Northern Hemisphere, the Coriolis force turns the winds to the right. In the Southern Hemisphere, the Coriolis force turns the winds to the left. • Ferrel and polar circulations that run along north-south lines, the Walker circulation is an east-west circulation. Over the eastern Pacific Ocean, surface high pressure off the west coast of South America enhances the strength of the easterly trade winds found near the equator. The winds blow away from the high pressure toward lower pressure near Indonesia.