AS Level Psychology (9990) - Research Methods

Recall the 5 research methods

- Experiments - Self-reports - Case studies - Observation - Correlations

What are the 3 types of experiments?

- Laboratory - Field - Natural

QUESTIONNAIRE Recall the 2 types of scales used in this type of self-report

- Likert scale: statements that participants read and then state whether they "Strongly disagree, Disagree, Neither agree nor disagree, Agree or Strongly agree" - Rating scales: questions or statements where the participant gives an answer in the form of a number (e.g. On a scale of 0-10, how happy are you today? 0 = not happy at all, 10 = very happy)

Define what order effects are and give 3 examples

- Order effects: consequences of participating in a study in a study more than once (e.g. in a repeated measures design) causing changes in performance between conditions that are not due to the IV, so can obscure the effect on the DV - Practice effect: a situation where participants' performance improves because they experience the experimental task more than once (e.g. due to familiarity or learning the task) - Fatigue effect: a situation where participants' performance delinks because they have experienced an experimental task more than once (e.g. due to boredom or tiredness) - Boredom effect: repeating similar tasks can bore participants.

Define population & sample

- Population: the group, sharing one or more characteristics, from which a sample is drawn - Sample: the group of people selected to represent the population in a study.

Recall the 3 types of correlations

- Positive correlation: if one variable increases, the second variable is also likely to increase - Negative correlation: if one measured variable increases, the other measured variable decreases - No correlation: no definite trend occurs and the two measured variables do not appear to be related to each other

Explain the difference between qualitative & quantitative data

- Quantitative data: numerical results, about the quantity of a psychological measure (e.g. pulse rate or a score on an intelligence test) - Qualitative data: descriptive, in-depth results indicating the quality of a psychological characteristic (e.g. responses to open questions or case studies and detailed observations).

What are the 2 types of self-report?

- Questionnaire - Interview

LABORATORY EXPERIMENT Evaluate the reliability, validity and ethics for this type of experiment

- Reliability: high level of reliability due to controls and standardised procedures which allow for replication - Validity: high "internal" validity as the level of control means the researcher is certain it is the IV that is directly affecting the DV. Low "external" validity as it may be difficult to apply the findings to a real life situation - Ethics: usually easy to gain informed consent, and deception can be dealt with through debriefing. Participants can withdraw at any time.

DATA ANALYSIS Define the measures of central tendency

- Central tendency: a mathematical way to find the typical or average score from a data set, using the mode, median or mean. - Mean: the average, add all the scores collected then divide by the number of scores - Median: rank the scores from smallest to largest, the median is the score at the middle - Mode: the most common score in the data set.

Recall the main features of an observation

- Overt or covert - Participant or non-participant - Structured or unstructured - Naturalistic or controlled

NATURAL EXPERIMENT Evaluate the reliability, validity and ethics for this type of experiment

- Reliability: low levels of reliability due to a lack of controls or standardisation (making replication difficult) - Validity: these experiments have low "internal" validity due to a lack of control over extraneous variables, high "external" validity as they take place in participants' natural environment - Ethics: informed consent is very difficult to obtain, people may not know they are part of a study (making debriefing hard), participants do not know they are in a study so their right to withdraw is invalidated.

CASE STUDIES Evaluate the strengths & weaknesses of this type of research method

Strengths: - Rich data: researchers focus on one individual/unit of individuals, leading to in-depth data that has a high level of validity - High ecological validity: participants are usually studied as part of their everyday life Weaknesses: - Difficulty generalising: focus on one individual or a unit of individuals means the case could be unique, making it hard to generalise to the population - Conflict with objectivity: participants are studied in depth, and an attachment between them and the researcher may form, reducing objectivity.

Recall the methods of plotting data

- Bar chart: a graph used for data in discrete categories and total or average scores. There are gaps between each bar that is plotted on the graph because columns are not related in a linear way - Histogram: a graph used to illustrate continuous data, e.g. to show the distribution of a set of scores. It has a bar for each score value, or group of scores, along the x-axis. The y-axis has frequency of each category - Scatter graph: a way to display data from a correlational study. Each point on the graph represents the point where one participant's score on each scale for the two measured variables cross.

Define correlational and experimental hypotheses

- Correlational: "there will be a significant relationship/correlation between..." - Experimental: "there will be a significant difference between..."

Recall the 3 types of hypotheses

- Directional (one-tailed): a statement predicting the direction of a relationship between variables (e.g. in an experiment, whether the levels of the IV will produce an increase or decrease in the DV, or in a correlation, whether an increase in one variable will be linked to an increase or a decrease in another variable). - Non-directional (two-tailed): a statement predicting only that one variable will be related to another (e.g. that there will be a difference in the DV between levels of the IV in an experiment, or that there will be a relationship between the measured variables in a correlation) - Null: a testable statement saying that any difference or correlation in the results is due to change, i.e. that no pattern in the results has arisen because of the variables being studied. Examples: "That participants who have...will have a significantly different... compared to participants who have..." (non directional) "That participants who have... will have a significantly higher...compared to participants who have..." (directional) "There will be no significant difference between condition 1 and condition 2 in their DV, and any difference found will be due to chance." (null)

Recall the different types of validity

- Ecological validity: the extent to which the findings of research in one situation would generalise to other situations. This is influenced by whether the situation (e.g. a laboratory) represents the real world effectively and whether the task is relevant to real life (has mundane realism) - Mundane realism: refers to the reality of the task set for participants in any study, something that is likely to happen in everyday life is said to have high mundane realism - Population validity: this refers to how well the sample used in the study can be extrapolated to the target population and then the population as a whole.

Describe ethical guidelines as used in psychological research in relation to human participants

- Ethical issues: problems in a research that raise concerns about the welfare of participants (or have the potential for a wider negative impact on society) - Informed consent: knowing enough about a study to decide whether you want to agree to participate - Protection from harm (physical & psychological): participants should not experience negative effects (e.g. injury or embarrassment) - Right to withdraw: a participant should know that they can remove themselves, and their data, from the study at any time - Deception: this is a study where a participant is not told the true aims/nature of the study - Confidentiality: participants' results and personal information should be kept safely and not released to anyone outside the study - Privacy: avoiding the invasion of participants' emotions and physical space. They should not be observed in situations or places where they would not be expected to be seen. - Debriefing: giving participants a full explanation of the aims and potential consequences of the study at the end of a study so that they leave in at least as positive a condition as they arrived.

Define and describe the main features of each type of experiment

- Laboratory experiment: a research method in which there is an IV, DV and strict controls. It looks for a causal relationship and is conducted in a setting that is not in the usual environment for the participants with regard to the behaviour they are performing - Field experiment: an investigation looking for a causal relationship in which an independent variable is manipulated and is expected to be responsible for changes in the dependent variable. It is conducted in the normal environment for the participants for the behaviour being investigated (note: the main criticism of lab experiments is that they do not reflect real life, field experiments try to rectify this) - Natural experiment: an investigation looking for a causal relationship in which the independent variable cannot be directly manipulated by the experimenter. Instead, they study the effect of an existing difference or change. Since the researcher cannot manipulate the levels of the IV it is not a "true experiment".

Recall the 3 types of experimental design

- Matched pairs measure: where participants are arranged into pairs. Each pair is similar in ways that are important to the study and one member of each pair performs in a different level of the IV - Repeated measures: where each participant performs in every level of the IV (cannot be done if the IV is naturally occurring) - Independent measures: where a different group of participants is used for each level of the IV (condition) (e.g. one group of participants do condition A and a second group do condition B, then results are compared)

DATA ANALYSIS Define the measures of spread

- Measures of spread: a mathematical way to describe the variation or dispersion within a data set. - Range: rank the data from smallest to largest, then subtract the smallest number from the largest number - Standard deviation: a calculation of the average difference between each score in the data set and mean. Bigger values indicate greater variation. A normal distribution is normally referred to as a "bell-shaped curve".

QUESTIONNAIRE Recall the difference between open questions and closed questions

- Open questions: questionnaire, interview or test items that produce qualitative data, participants give full and detailed answers in their own words (i.e. no categories or choices are given) - Closed questions: questionnaire interview or test items that produce quantitative data, they have only a few, stated alternative responses and no opportunity to expand on answers.

Recall the 3 sampling techniques

- Opportunity: participants are chosen because they are available (e.g. university students are selected because they are present at the university where the research is taking place) - Random: involves every participant in the target population having an equal chance of being chosen (all members of the population are allocated numbers and a fixed amount of these are selected in a unbiased way, e.g. taking numbers from a hat) - Volunteer (self-selecting): involves the researcher advertising for participants, participants choose whether they want to participate or not.

Define participant, situational and investigator variables

- Participant variables: variables that a participant brings to the study that can affect the DV rather than the IV (to overcome this: participants can be randomised to each level of the IV, or repeated measures can be used where possible, allowing all participants to take part in all levels of the IV) - Situational variables: a confounding variable caused by an aspect of the environment (e.g. the amount of light or noise) - Investigator characteristics: the ways in which researchers may unwittingly/unconsciously influence the results of research (e.g. physical characteristics, accent or tone, bias).

Define and describe the main features of each type of self-report

- Questionnaire: a research method that uses written questions - Interviews: a research method using verbal questions asked directly e.g. face to face or on the telephone.

FIELD EXPERIMENT Evaluate the reliability, validity and ethics for this type of experiment

- Reliability: medium levels of reliability as some elements of the study are controlled but full replication may be difficult - Validity: lower "internal" validity as the researcher can control some variables but not all, stronger "external" validity than lab exp. due to the "field" setting of the study - Ethics: informed consent can be obtained, but not always. Participants may not know they are part of a study (makes debriefing hard), therefore their right to withdraw is invalidated.

Describe ethical guidelines as used in psychological research in relation to animal participants

- Replacement: can alternatives be used? - Species and strain: should be the species that is least likely to experience pain/distress - Number of animals: only a minimum of animals should be used - Anaesthesia, analgesia and euthanasia: animals should be protected from pain and killed if in long term-pain - Procedures: research that could cause pain and distress should receive daily care - Housing: isolation and crowding should be avoided - Rewards, deprivation and aversive stimuli: deprivation should be used and received carefully.

INTERVIEW Recall the 3 types of interview

- Structured: set questions are used. Each participant will be asked the same questions in the same order - Unstructured: involves the interviewer having theme or a topic that needs to be discussed. Much more flexible, an initial question may be posed, and following questions will be based on responses given - Semi-structured: involves certain questions that must be asked of participants, but the interviewer can ask them in any order and ask additional questions outside the set.

Define what the control condition is

A level of the IV in an experiment from which the IV is absent. It is compared to one or more experimental conditions.

Define subjectivity

A personal viewpoint, which may be biased by one's feelings, beliefs or experiences, so may differ between individual researchers. It is not independent of the situation.

Define what a study is

A practical investigation that is conducted, analysed and written up to build a bank of knowledge about human behaviour.

Define what case studies are

A research method that provides in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community. They provide rich qualitative data. - Note: case studies are not a unique research method, they simply use other research methods in a quest for drawing a conclusion.

Define what correlations are

A research method which looks for a causal relationship (cause-effect) between two measured variables. A change in one variable is related to a change in the other (although these changes cannot be assumed to be causal).

Define what self-reports are

A research method which obtains data by asking participants to provide information about themselves (e.g. questionnaire or interview).

Define non-participant observer

A researcher who does not become involved in the situation being studied (e.g. by watching through a one-way glass or by keeping apart from the social group of the participants).

Define participant observer

A researcher who watches from the perspective of being part of the social setting.

Define what the aim is within a study

A statement that tells people what the purpose of a study is.

Define controlled observation

A study conducted by watching the participants' behaviour in a situation in which the social or physical environment has been manipulated by the researchers. It can be conducted in the participants' normal environment or in an artificial situation.

Define naturalistic observation

A study conducted by watching the participants' behaviour in their normal environment without interference from the researchers in either the social or physical environment.

Define structured observation

A study in which the observer records only a limited range of behaviours.

Define unstructured observation

A study in which the observer records the whole range of possible behaviours, which is usually confined to a pilot stage at the beginning of a study to refine the behavioural categories to be observed.

Define what the hypothesis (plural: hypotheses) is within a study

A testable statement predicting a difference between levels of the independent variable (in an experiment) or a relationship between variables (in a correlation). - Alternative hypothesis: the testable statement which predicts a difference or relationship between variables in a particular investigation.

Define what an extraneous variable is

A variable which acts either randomly, affecting the DV in all levels of the IV or systematically, i.e. on one level of the IV (called a confounding variable) so can obscure the effect of the IV, making the results difficult to interpret.

Define what the control variable (CV) is

A way to keep potential extraneous variable constant. In an experiment, this would prevent the variable from affecting the DV in addition to instead of the IV. - This makes the study more valid because it means the experimenter would be more likely to be able to find a cause and effect relationship.

Define random allocation

A way to reduce the effect of confounding variables, such as individual differences. Participants are put in each level of the IV such that each person has an equal chance of being in any condition.

Define what an experiment is

An investigation looking for a causal relationship in which an independent variable is manipulated and is expected to be responsible for changes in the dependent variable.

Define objectivity

An unbiased external viewpoint that is not affected by an individual's feelings, beliefs or experiences, so should be consistent between different researchers.

Define generalisability

Applying the findings of a study more widely (e.g. to other settings and populations).

Define counterbalancing

Counterbalancing is used to overcome order effects in a repeated measures design. Each possible order of levels of the IV is performed by a different sub-group of participants. This can be described as an ABBA design, as half the participants do condition A then b, and half do B then A.

Define what a confounding variable is

Extraneous factors that affect the performance of participants. In an experiment, they would therefore affect scores on the DV, and so could obscure the effect of the IV.

Define demand characteristics

Features of the experimental situation which give away the aims. They can cause participants to try to change their behaviour (e.g. to match their beliefs about what is supposed to happen, which reduces the validity of the study).

Define standardisation

Keeping the procedure for each participant in an experiment (or interview) exactly the same to ensure that any differences between participants or conditions are due to the variables under investigation rather than differences in the way they were treated.

Evaluate the strengths & weaknesses of the 3 sampling techniques

OPPORTUNITY Strengths: - Large numbers of participants can be obtained relatively quickly and easily Weaknesses: - Lack of variety of participants to allow for generalisation because this technique draws one type of person in the main RANDOM Strengths: - The researcher can generalise to the target population with more confidence, as the sample is more likely to be representative of it Weaknesses: - Obtaining details of the target population from which draw the sample may be difficult, you cannot guarantee a representative sampling VOLUNTEER Strengths: - Drop-out rate should be low, making generalisations potentially stronger Weaknesses: - Lack of variety, leading to issues with generalisability. Instead, the group will consist of only one type of person.

Evaluate the strengths & weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative data

QUANTITATIVE Strengths: - Easy to compare: data is numerical so statistical analysis is easy - Objectivity: data is numerical, therefore there's a low chance of drawing invalid conclusions - Reliable: scales or questions are often very reliable. Weaknesses: - Lack of insight: data is only numerical, doesn't tell us why participants behaved the way they did - Reductionist approach: reduces complex ideas and behaviour to mere numbers and percentages. QUALITATIVE Strengths: - Rich in data: in-depth, detailed representation of what the participants believe - Insightful data: comes directly from participants, so we can understand the "why" (increasing validity) Weaknesses: - Subject to misinterpretation: depends on what the researcher will interpret and therefore can be biased against the participant's views - Researcher bias: the researcher may only select data that sits into their hypothesis or aim - Generalisability: data from one or few individuals may not generalise to the majority.

Recall the different types of reliability

Reliability generally concerns itself with consistency over time and whether replicating the study would produce similar results - Inter-rater reliability: the extent to which two researchers interpreting qualitative responses in a questionnaire (or interview) will produce the same records from the same raw data - Inter-observer reliability: the consistency between two researchers watching the same event (i.e. whether they will produce the same records) - Test-retest: testing the participants more than once, to be a reliable test, one person should get the same or very similar scores on the same test on two or more separate occasions

INDEPENDENT MEASURES Evaluate the strengths & weaknesses of this experimental design

Strengths: - Demand characteristics reduced: participants only take part in one condition, therefore they are less likely to guess the aim of the study - Order effects reduced: participants only take part in one condition, therefore poor validity is avoided Weaknesses: - Participant variables: issues may occur with the participant variables affecting the DV instead of the IV (e.g. even by chance, all people of a certain personality type may form one condition, and therefore personality could be affecting the DV rather than the IV) - Large sample required: more participants are required for this type of design

FIELD EXPERIMENT Identify the strengths & weaknesses of this type of experiment

Strengths: - High ecological validity: due to the fact that they take place in a realistic setting - No demand characteristics: participants do not know they are taking part in a study, therefore behaviour is more natural and valid Weaknesses: - Situational variables: these can be hard to control so sometimes it is difficult to know whether the IV Is affecting the DV - Ethical issues: participants do not know they are taking part in a study (issues w/ informed consent + deception)

QUESTIONNAIRE Evaluate the strengths & weaknesses of this type of research method

Strengths: - Honesty: participants are more likely to reveal truthful answers as it does not involve face-to-face interaction - Large sample: many people can answer the questionnaire in a short time-span, increasing representativeness and generalisability of findings Weaknesses: - Social desirability: participants may want to look good, picking dishonest answers - Lack of individuality: lots of closed questions = participants may have to choose an answer that does not reflect their true choice

REPEATED MEASURES Evaluate the strengths & weaknesses of this experimental design

Strengths: - Participant variables avoided: all participants take part in all conditions, therefore they are controlled - Small sample required: less participants needed Weaknesses: - Demand characteristics occur: participants may work out the aim of the study and behave in a way to fulfil that rather than showing their true behaviour - Order affects occur.

CORRELATIONS Evaluate the strengths & weaknesses of this type of research method

Strengths: - Representative: good for showing relationships between two variables, further research like experiments can be conducted to establish a causal relationship - Convenient: correlations do not require any manipulation, researchers just look at the relationship between two measures, so this can be used where experiments are unethical or impractical Weaknesses: - Issues with causality: if a correlation is reported, researchers do not know if variable A is causing a change in variable B, or vice versa, and a third variable may be causing changes in both - Only used for quantitative data: restricted to research where measurements are quantitative, so it cannot be used to explain why behaviours are occurring.

INTERVIEW Evaluate the strengths & weaknesses of this type of self-report

Strengths: - Revealing: lots of open questions = participants reveal more reasons why they behave in a certain way/have a certain opinion Weaknesses: - Social desirability: participants are less likely to give truthful answers as they may not want to be judged.

LABORATORY EXPERIMENT Identify the strengths & weaknesses of this type of experiment

Strengths: - Standardisation: high levels of standardisation so they can be replicated to test for reliability - Control: researchers are confident that the IV is directly affecting the DV due to the level of control Weaknesses: - Low ecological validity: due to an artificial setting - Low mundane realism: participants often take part in tasks that are nothing like real-life ones - Demand characteristics: participants are aware that they are taking part in an experiment, so they may respond to indicatives of the aim of the experiment

MATCHED MEASURES Evaluate the strengths & weaknesses of this experimental design

Strengths: - Demand characteristics reduced: participants only see one level of the IV, reducing the effect of demand characteristics - Participant variables reduced: these are less likely to distort the effect of the IV than in an independent measures design as individual differences are matched - No order effects Weaknesses: - Matching process: the similarity between pairs is limited by the matching process, so the right matching criteria must be chosen in advance for this to be effective - Limited sample: availability of matching pairs may be limited, making the sample size small.

NATURAL EXPERIMENT Identify the strengths & weaknesses of this type of experiment

Strengths: - High ecological validity: experiment is located in a natural setting, exploiting a naturally occurring IV - Natural behaviour: participants are unaware that a study is taking place, leading to a natural and more valid representation of their behaviour Weaknesses: - Lack of control: difficult to know whether the IV is causing an effect on the DV (therefore its important to establish a cause-effect relationship) - Low standardisation: the event is naturally occurring, therefore its difficult to replicate an experiment to test for reliability

Define operationalisation

The definition of variables so that they can be accurately manipulated, measured or quantified and replicated. This includes the IV and DV in experiments and the two measured variables in correlations.

Define reliability

The extent to which a procedure, task or measure is consistent, for example that it would produce the same results with the same people on each occasion.

Define validity

The extent to which the researcher is testing what they claim to be testing.

Define what the dependent variable (DV) is

The factor in an experiment which is measured and is expected to change under the influence of the independent variable. - The DV needs some form of operationalisation, therefore researchers must clearly define how they will measure.

Define what the independent variable (IV) is

The factor under investigation in an experiment which is manipulated to create two or more conditions (levels) and is expected to be responsible for changes in the dependent variable.

Define covert observer

The role of the observer is not obvious, e.g. they are hidden or disguised.

Define overt observer

The role of the observer is obvious to the participants.

Define experimental design

The way in which participants are allocated to levels of the IV.

Define what research methods are

The way we conduct the research study. It is the set of scientific procedures we use to study a phenomenon.

Define social desirability bias

Trying to present oneself in the best light by determining what a test is asking.

Define what observation is

Watching participants' behaviour in a situation or normal environment.