Business Ch. 9
Matching People and Jobs Person-Job Fit
matching of the employee's contributions, needs, job-related behaviours and abilities to ... VS. ... the needs of the job Person-job fit: The extent to which a person's contributions and the organization's inducements match one another
Individual Differences among Employees Attitudes
Attitudes: -reflection of our beliefs and feelings about ideas situations and other people Job Satisfaction: -extent to which people have positive attitudes toward their jobs Organizational (job) Commitment: -reflects an individual's identification with the organization and its mission
Recent Trends in Leadership Canadian versus US Leadership Styles
Canadians are: -more subtle and subdued -more committed to their companies -less willing to follow mindless fads -more accustomed and open to diverse cultures -Canadian managers are very oriented toward fairness, are less likely to protect their own interests above those of their teams, and put more emphasizes on long-term goals rather than short-term gratification.
Recent Trends in Leadership Charismatic Leadership
Charismatic Leadership: -have a high level of confidence -possess a strong need to influence others -communicate high expectations of subordinates -generally more successful at influencing subordinates Charismatic Leadership: Type of influence based on the leader's personal charisma
Motivation in the Workplace Classical Theory Scientific Management
Classical Theory workers are motivated primarily by money if money motivates, then paying employees more would result in higher levels of production Scientific Management analyze jobs and find more efficient ways to perform them time-and-motion studies: The use of industrials-engineering techniques to study every aspect of a specific job to determine how to perform it most efficiently -E.g., studies of workers loading iron on rail cars showed that productivity tripled when scientific management principles were used.
Strategies for Enhancing Motivation Compressed Workweek
Compressed Workweek -employees work less days but complete the same amount of hours E.g., 8hrs. in 5 days or 10 hours in 4 days. Both equal a 40hr. work week
Motivation in the Workplace Early Behavioural Theory
Early Behavioural Theory: Group of Harvard researchers began a study at the Hawthorn Works of the Western Electric Company . Their intent was to examine the relationship between changes in the physical environment and worker output, with an eye to increasing productivity. In essence, the researchers determined that almost any action on the part of management that made workers believe they were receiving special attention caused worker productivity to rise. This result, known as the Hawthorn effect, convinced many managers that paying attention to employees is indeed good for business. Hawthorne Effect: The tendency for workers' productivity to increase when they feel they are receiving special attention from management 1. Human-Resources Model: Theory X and Y 2. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Model 3. Two-Factor (Motivator-Hygiene) Theory
Individual Differences among Employees Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence (EQ — Emotional Quotient): The extent to which people are self-aware, can manage their emotions, can motivate themselves, express empathy for others, and possess social skills. Social Skills Self Awareness Self Regulation Motivation Empathy
Contemporary Motivation Theory Expectancy Theory Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory: people are motivated to work towards rewards that they want and believe they have a reasonable chance of obtaining Equity Theory: The theory that people compare (1) what they contribute to their jobs with what they get in return, and (2) their input/output ratio with that of other employees Equity theory focuses on social comparisons- people valuating their treatment by the organization relative to the treatment of others. This approach says that people begin by analyzing what they contribute to their jobs (time, effort, education, experience, and so forth) relative to what they get in return (salary, benefits, recognition, security). The result is a ratio of contribution to return. Employees compare their own ratios to those of "comparison others" (employees who are similar in terms of experience and training)
Strategies for Enhancing Motivation Flextime
Flextime -adjusts the standard daily work schedule to fit employees' needs -all must be available during the core time -start and end times can vary
Recent Trends in Leadership Gender and leadership Cross-cultural leadership
Gender and leadership: -more women in management roles -women tend to be more democratic when making decisions whereas makes tending to be more autocratic Cross-cultural leadership: -new leaders are coming from diverse backgrounds -these new leaders may have different leadership styles E.g., Japan is characterized by collectivism (group before individual) whereas Canada is more based on individualism (individual before group)
Strategies for Enhancing Motivation Goal Setting Theory
Goal Setting Theory focus on setting goals top help motivate employees SMART Goals Specific Measurable Achievable Realistic Time framed
Early Behavioural Theory: 3. Two-Factor (Motivator-Hygiene) Theory
Hertzberg Two-Factor Theory highlights two sets of factors associated with satisfaction and dissatisfaction in the workplace Motivating Factors (Satisfaction vs. No Satisfaction): Recognition Responsibility Advancement Achievement Work itself Hygiene Factors (Dissatisfaction vs. No Dissatisfaction) Supervisors Working Conditions Pay and Security Interpersonal Relations Company Policies and Procedures Motivation factors cause movement along a continuum from no satisfaction to satisfaction. E.g., if workers receive no recognition for successful work, they may not be satisfied, but neither will they be dissatisfied. If recognition is provided, they will likely become more satisfied. Hygiene factors cause movement along a different continuum, one from no dissatisfaction to dissatisfaction. E.g., workers will be dissatisfied if they feel that working conditions are poor, but if working conditions are improved, workers will not become satisfied; rather, they will no longer be dissatisfied. This theory suggests that managers must first ensure that hygiene factors are acceptable (to avoid worker dissatisfaction) and then offer motivating factors (to improve satisfaction and motivation)
Strategies for Enhancing Motivation Job Enrichment Job Redesign
Job Enrichment: -expanding or adding one or more motivating factors to a job -used to increase job satisfaction E.g., Making them feel as part of a team Job Redesign: increases job satisfaction by improving the employee-job fit -combining tasks -creating natural work groups -establishing client relationships useful for individuals with strong needs for growth or achievement
Recent Trends in Leadership Leaders as Coaches
Leaders as Coaches: -help select team members and other new employees -provide some general direction -help train and develop the team -help the team get the information and resources -Leaders today are being asked to become coaches instead of overseers. -Consider the parallel with an athletic team. The coach selects the players for the team and decides on the general direction to take (such as emphasizing offence versus defence). The coach also helps develop player talent and teaches team member how to execute plays and get the job done. While the coach may get some of the credit for the victory, he/she did not actually score the points.
Leadership and Motivation
Leadership -the process of motivating others to meet goals Leadership is necessary to create and direct change and to help the organization get through tough times, and management is necessary to achieve coordination and systematic results and to handle administrative activities during times of stability and predictability.
Approaches to Leadership
Leadership Styles: -Autocratic: A form of leader behaviour in which the manager issues order and expects them to be obeyed without question. -Democratic: A form of leader behaviour in which the manager requests input from subordinates before making decisions, but the manager retains the decision-making power -Free Rein: A form of leader behaviour in which the manager serves as an adviser to subordinates who are given a lot of discretion when making decisions -many managers use one style but some may use a combination of styles depending on the situation
Early Behavioural Theory: 2. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Model
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Model: -Theory of motivation describing five levels of human needs and arguing that basic needs must be fulfilled before people work to satisfy higher-level needs 1. Physiological needs: survival needs; food, water, shelter & sleep . Businesses address these needs by providing both comfortable working environments and salaries sufficient to buy food and shelter 2. Security needs: Include the needs for stability and protection from the unknown. Many employers thus offer pension plans and job security 3. Social needs: include the needs for friendship and companionship. Making friends at work can help to satisfy social needs, as can the feeling that you "belong" in a company 4. Esteem needs: include the needs for status, recognition, and self-respect. Job titles and large offices are among the things that businesses can provide to address these needs 5. Self-actualization needs: are needs for self-fulfillment. They can include the needs to grow and develop one's capabilities and to achieve new and meaningful goals. Challenging job assignments can help satisfy these needs.
Strategies for Enhancing Motivation Modified Work Schedules
Modified Work Schedules: allow individuals to fulfill work commitments more effectively around personal or community obligations 1. flextime: A method of increasing employees' job satisfaction by allowing them some choice in the hours they work 2. compressed workweek: Employees work fewer days per week, but more hours on the days they do work 3. telecommuting: Allowing employees to do all or some of their work away from the office 4. workshare programs: A method of increasing employee job satisfaction by allowing two people to share one job
Motivation in the Workplace
Motivation: -the set of forces that cause people to behave in certain ways Motivational Theories Overview: Classical Theory & Scientific Management Behaviour Theory Contemporary Motivation Theories
Strategies for Enhancing Motivation Participative Management and Empowerment
Participative Management and Empowerment -employees are more satisfied if they have a say in how they do their jobs and how the company is managed E.g., WestJet, frontline staff have the right to issue travel credits to customers they feel have not been treated properly. WestJet thinks that the goodwill generated by the practice will increase repeat business. Wikis: Websites that allow employees to add content on issues that are of use to the business Quality Circle: A technique for maximizing quality of production. Employees are grouped into small teams that define, analyze, and solve quality and other process-related problems within their area E.g. At Great-West Life Assurance company, quality circles are made up of volunteers who meet once a week to consider ways to do higher quality, more effective work. employees feel more committed to goals not desired by all employees
Forms of Employee Behaviour Employee Behaviour
Performance behaviour: -The total set of work-related behaviours that the organization expects employees to display. Organizational citizenship: -Positive behaviours that do not directly contribute to the bottom line. Counterproductive behaviours: -Behaviours that detract from organizational performance absenteeism: When an employee does not show up for work turnover: Annual percentage of an organization's workforce that leaves and must be replaced. Employee Behaviour: The pattern of actions by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences the organization's effectiveness.
Individual Differences among Employees Personality
Personality: five fundamental traits that are especially relevant to organizations Personality: The relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another. 1. Agreeableness: is a person's ability to get along with others 2. Conscientious: refers to the number of things a person tries to accomplish. (More organized) 3. Emotionality: refers to the degree to which people tend to be positive or negative in their outlook and behaviours toward others. 4. Extraversion: refers to a person's comfort level with relationships. Extrovert/introvert 5. Openness: reflects how open or rigid a person is in term of his/her beliefs
Matching People and Jobs Psychological Contract
Psychological Contract -expectations held by employees concerning their contribution to an organization and what the organization will provide in return Contributions from the Individual Vs. Inducements from the Organization
Strategies for Enhancing Motivation
Reinforcement/Behaviour Modification Theory Goal Setting Theory Management by Objectives Participative Management and Empowerment Team Management Job Enrichment and Job Redesign Modified Work Schedules
Strategies for Enhancing Motivation Reinforcement
Reinforcement: -applying (or withholding) positive (or negative) consequences in order to motivate employees (Reinforcement: Controlling and modifying employee behaviour through the use of systematic rewards and punishments for specific behaviours) -(1) positive reinforcement: apply positive consequences when employees exhibit desired behaviours -(2)punishment: apply negative consequences when employees exhibit undesirable behaviours -(3) omission: withhold positive consequences when employees exhibit undesirable behaviours -(4) negative reinforcement: withhold negative consequences when employees exhibit desired behaviours Managers generally prefer positive reinforcement because it contributes to good employer-employee relationships
Approaches to Leadership Situational (Contingency) Approach
Situational (Contingency) Approach: Leaders behave differently in different situations Based on: characteristics of the leader characteristics of the subordinates characteristics of the situation Situational (Contingency) Approach: -Leadership approach that assumes that appropriate leader behaviour varies from one situation to another E.g., If worker productivity is high, but workers are stressed about their jobs and have low levels of job satisfaction, the leader should most likely concentrate on employee-focused behaviours so as to improve their job satisfaction. Each point on the continuum is influenced by characteristics of the leader (including the managers values, confidence in subordinates etc.),
Recent Trends in Leadership Strategic Leadership Ethical Leadership Virtual Leadership
Strategic Leadership: -able to see the whole picture and envision necessary changes (Leader's ability to understand the complexities of both organization and its environment and to lead to change in the organization so as to enhance its competitiveness. E.g., MP3 advancements to the Apple iPod) Ethical Leadership: -follows high standards of ethical leadership Virtual Leadership: -involves communication electronically rather than face to face
Strategies for Enhancing Motivation
Team Management: individual employees are given decision-making responsibility for certain narrow activities Types of teams: Problem Solving Teams: -Teams that focus on developing solutions to specific problems a company faces. E.g., how to reduce the companies energy bill Project Teams (Venture): -Teams that work on specific projects, such as developing new processes, new products, or new businesses. Transnational Teams: -Teams composed of members working in different countries Virtual Teams: -Teams of geographically dispensed individuals who use telecommunications and information technologies to accomplish specific tasks Self-Managed Teams: -Teams that set their own goals, select their own members, evaluate their own performance, and generally manage themselves
Strategies for Enhancing Motivation Telecommuting
Telecommuting -employees do all or some work away from the office home-based office technology is used - computers, voicemail, email, modems, smart phones, overnight delivery services
Early Behavioural Theory: 1. Human-Resources Model: Theory X and Y
Theory X: -A management approach based on the belief that people must be forced to be productive because they are naturally lazy, irresponsible, and uncooperative Theory Y: A management approach based on the belief that people want to be productive because they are naturally energetic, responsible, and cooperative
Approaches to Leadership Trait Approach
Trait Approach: -identifies traits that would distinguish leaders from non-leaders Behavioural Approach: -determines how the behaviours of successful leaders differs from those of unsuccessful leaders -task oriented vs. employee oriented Two basic forms of leadership behaviour: Task-oriented behaviour: Leader behaviour focusing on how tasks should be performed in order to met certain goals and to achieve certain performance standards Employee-Oriented Leader Behaviour: Leader behaviour focusing on satisfaction, motivation, and well-being of employees
Recent Trends in Leadership Transformational Leadership Transactional Leadership
Transformational Leadership: -the ability of the leader to recognize the need for change, create a vision to make that change happen E.g., building a Disney Cruise line Transactional Leadership: -emphasizes routine, regimented activities that focus on maintaining stability or the status quo
Strategies for Enhancing Motivation Work share Programs (job sharing)
Workshare Programs (job sharing) -two people share a single, full-time position -useful for those who wish to stay in the workforce part-time mothers with young children partially retired persons most workshare employees are university-educated women in professional occupations E.g., One person works Monday through Wednesdays, and the other works Wednesdays through Fridays. OR E.g., 5 five people can share one job with each person working one day a week, such as in Air Canada's case.
Strategies for Enhancing Motivation Management by Objectives
system of collaborative goal setting that extends from the top to the bottom of the firm -employees learn more about company-wide objectives -feel as though they are part of a team - see how they can improve company performance by achieving their own goals
