Business Ethics: Test 2
Journey through Ethical Principles: Justice
-Fair distribution of benefits and burdens
Malden Mills Factory: The rest of the story...
-Fire in 1995 -Bankruptcy in 2001 -Bankruptcy in 2007 -Plant closes in 2015 -Do the subsequent actions suggest the original decision was wrong?
Journey through Ethical Principles: Care
-Focus on relationships
Criticisms of Utilitarianism
-Utilitarianism is unable to deal with the moral issues relating to rights and justice
Criticism of Kant
-Vague. -What happens if there are competing rights? -Can lead to nonsensical results. -John Mills on Kant
Manuel Velasquez, "Business Ethics"
"At this time we have no comprehensive moral theory capable of determining precisely when utilitarian considerations become "sufficiently large" enough to outweigh limited infringements on a conflicting right, a standard of justice or the demands of caring. Nor can we provide a universal rule that will tell us when considerations of justice become "important enough" to outweigh infringements on conflicting rights or on the demands of caring. Moral philosophers have been unable to agree on any absolute rules for making such judgments."
Aaron Feuerstein's Decision
"I think it was a wise business decision, but that isn't why I did it. I did it because it was the right thing to do."
Second Formulation of Kant's Categorical Imperative
"So act as to treat humanity, whether in thine own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end withal, never as means only." An action is morally right for a person if, and only if, in performing the action, the person does not use others only as a means for advancing his or her own interests, but always (1) treats them as they have freely and rationally consented to be treated, and (2) contributes to their ability to pursue what they have freely and rationally chosen to pursue.
Carol Gilligan: Justice v. Care
-"... danger arises primarily from anything that disrupts dependable, predictable and nourishing relationships" -Management Implications
Ethical Standards for "Separated" v. "Connected": Connected Self
-"... someone's behavior becomes unethical when it falls short of responsibilities, betrays someone's trust, or in some other way implies that he or she is a weak strand in the web."
Ethical Standards for "Separated" v. "Connected": Separated Self
-"...behavior is usually labeled unethical by this outlook when it violates some law or someone's rights (no matter what the circumstances). It is compounded when such a transgression proceeds from emotional partiality ..."
First Formulation of Kant's Categorical Imperative
-"Act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become a universal law." An action is morally right for a person in a certain situation if, and only if, the person's reason for carrying out the action is a reason that he or she would be willing to have every person act on, in any similar situation. -Universalizing test: Is it possible for everybody to make the same choice? -Reversibility test: How would I feel if the act were done to me?
An argument for virtue in the business world ...
-"Value based decision making means that circumstances, pressure, and expediency do not guide the decision, pre-established values do." -"Virtue standards incorporate absolutes. ... they do not vary with circumstances. With virtue standards, the resolution of an ethical dilemma is not found in weighing the consequences of choosing one course of action over another. ... Rather, virtue standards require the resolution of a dilemma according to a pre-determined set of absolute values."
The Case of Ford Pinto
-1968 - Ford Executives decide to produce a new subcompact auto in response to foreign competition -Cost no more than $2,000 for consumers -Pinto was a "rush project" -Rear End Collision Results
Train and people on Railroad Tracks: -Related to ethics and Utilitarianism
-5 people on railroad tracks and train is coming there way -1 person on other part of tracks but train wouldn't hit him -Should a person change the angle of the train to hit the 1 person and kill him or leave it and have it hit 5 people and kill them. -Utilitarianism would say let the 1 person die -And is it fair for a person to change the tracks just to say I killed 1 person but saved 4 more people -Should the person have the obligation to decide whether 1 person is killed or the 5 people -90% of people that looked at this said they would flip the switch to save the 5 people but kill the 1 person -Also 2 people on top of a bridge and train is going under the bridge. A person could shove the other person off the bridge and onto the tracks and it would stop the train, saving the 5 people, but costing that one man's life. -The bridge is much more personal because you were the one that shoved him. -How do we program driverless cars? -This car might have to be programmed with ethics -What if a 5 year old kid is running across the road and an elderly person on the sideway and the car either swerves onto the sidewalk kills the elderly person and saves the kid or just hits the kid. -Also the question on military drones, programmed with ethics.
Grimshaw v. Ford Motor Co. (1981)
-6 month jury trial•$2,516,000 compensatory damages -$125 million in punitive damages -Ford appeals punitive damages -Court of Appeals: "... we have concluded that Ford has failed to demonstrate that any errors or irregularities occurred during the trial which resulted in a miscarriage of justice requiring reversal."
Virtue Ethics (aristotle):
-A different perspective on ethics -Focus is on a person's character, not the person's actions -Character is evaluated based on virtues and vices
The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas -What was it about? -Relationship it has to ethics?
-A group of people live in the city of Omelas. -The people are happy and are content. -These people's happiness is at the sacrifice of a child who has to live alone, not a kind word can be spoken to the child, he is pretty much a prisoner and is innocent. -Is it worth having a great city with happy people in it if it comes at the cost of making an innocent child's life terrible? -There's the benefit of a large group of people but at the sacrifice of just one person. -Is it ethical to have the boy suffering just so they can live in this kind of world. -One group left the child which was unethical -Taking away that Childs liberties -Allowing the people to live in a great world except at the cost of this child living a terrible life -There's no ethic of care in this -Does this violate the ethic of care for the child: yes
Rawl concludes that utilizing this approach, 2 principles of justice would emerge from the hypothetical contract:
-Equal basic liberties for all citizens, such as freedom of speech and religion -A concept of social and economic equality
Application of Rule Utilitarianism
-A moral rule forbidding murder without due process of law, in the long run produces greater utility for society than other kinds of rules -It would be wrong to kill your uncle (or the cabin boy) because doing so would violate a correct moral rule. -The fact that murder would, in this situation, maximize utility is irrelevant.
Malden Mills Factory
-Aaron Feuerstein operated a mill that his family had operated for generations -He was making textiles in the factory -The factory blew up and burned down December 11, 1995 and hundreds lost their jobs. -Many of the workers that lost their jobs moved south or overseas to find work. -He had the choice whether to leave and move south or over seas to find another job like the other workers. -From a Utilitarian point: Go over seas because it provides the most benefit -Feuerstein decided to stay and rebuild the company. -During all of this Feuerstein continued to fully pay the workers that lost their jobs in the fire even though they weren't working for him at the time -Shareholders, employees, potential employees were affected by the company getting destroyed
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) view on traditional utilitarianism
-Actions are right in proportion they tend to promote happiness and wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness
What is a moral virtue?
-An acquired disposition to behave in a certain way, -That is valued as part of the character of a morally good human being, and -That is exhibited in the person's habitual behavior.
Virtue Theory provides
-An action is morally right if in carrying out the action the agent exercises, exhibits, or develops a morally virtuous character, and it is morally wrong to the extent that by carrying out the action the agent exercises, exhibits, or develops a morally vicious character.
Justice
-Based on principles that identify the fair way of distributing benefits and burdens among the members of society -Is the decision just?
Testing the Limits
-Can significant enough utility benefits lead to a decision that overrides moral rights? Justice considerations? -Can the need to correct a significant injustice be sufficient to justify limitations on rights? -If an injustice, violation of rights, or social harm is significant enough, does demand for caring have to give way to impartiality?
How do we define "caring"?
-Caring about something. -Caring after someone. -Caring for someone: a.This is the kind of caring demanded by the Ethic of Care b.Focused on persons and their well being - not on things c.Does not seek to foster dependence, but nurtures the person's development
In an Ethic of Care:
-Caring is not detached -Impartiality is not required -We take care of the group of people with whom we have significant connections: a. The limited interpersonal relationships that spring up between individuals b. The broad web of concrete relationships that make up a particular community
The Case of Philip Morris
-Commissioned a cost benefit analysis of the effects of smoking on the Czech national budget. -Conclusion: *Government gains more money than it loses from smoking. -The Reason: *Although smokers impose higher medical costs on the budget while they are alive, they die early saving the government money on health care, housing and pensions. -Became a public affairs disaster for Philip Morris
According to Rawls...
-Conflicts involving justice should be settled by first devising a fair method of choosing the principles by which the conflicts are resolved. -Once a fair method of choosing principles is devised, the principles we choose by using that method should serve as our own principles of distributive justice
Strengths and Weaknesses / Best Use? -Utility (Bentham and Mills)
-Considers aggregate social welfare -Ignores how that welfare is distributed as well as moral claims of individuals -Use Where decisions involve limited but valuable resources that can be used in many different ways
Strengths and Weaknesses / Best Use? -Justice (Rawls)
-Considers distribution issues -Ignores aggregate social well being and the individual -Use when distributing benefits and burdens
Strengths and Weaknesses / Best Use? -Rights (Kant)
-Considers rights of individuals -Discounts aggregate well being and distribution -Use when actions are likely to impact individuals positive or negative rights
Strengths and Weaknesses / Best Use? -Care (Gilligan)
-Considers standards of care for those close to us -Ignores impartiality -Use when our moral decisions involve persons with whom we have close personal relationships
Legal Right
-Derives from legal system and confer rights only on those that live within that legal system.
Distribution based on Contribution: Capitalism / Capitalistic Justice
-Distribute benefits in proportion to what each individual contributes -The more you contribute, the more you get -Value of contribution measured by effort, production, and market value
Capitalism
-Distribution based on contribution
Egalitarianism
-Distribution based on equality
Response To Criticism (4 of them)
-Do the best you can -Assign greater value to instrinsic goods (good in themselves) than instrumental goods (lead to good things) -Assign greater value to satisfying needs than satisfying wants -Use monetary values
What are some of the Common Misunderstanding of Utilitarianism?
-Don't focus on the person performing the action but focus on all persons affected by the action. -Don't consider only direct and immediate consequences but also look to all foreseeable future costs and benefits. -Don't weigh the benefits and costs of only the action at issue but consider the benefits and costs of every other action. -Over time, respecting individual liberty (and the right to dissent) will lead to the greatest human happiness: *Dissenting view may turn out to be true *Even if it doesn't turn out to be true, dissent allows for vigorous contest of ideas
Distributive Justice according to Rawls:
-Equal Liberty -Equal Opportunity -Difference Principle
What factors can we look to in deciding the appropriate distribution of benefits and burdens?
-Equality -Need -Effort -Contribution -Ability -Incentive -Freedom
Nature of Relationships in Ethic of Care
-Focus on relationships that concern love, friendship and loyalty - these should be maintained and nurtured. -Do not focus on relationships where one person attempts to dominate, oppress, or harm another - these should not be maintained and nurtured.
Caring
-Focuses on judgments about the importance of human relationships -Does the decision express caring?
Virtue
-Focuses on virtues that are encouraged and vices that are discouraged -Does the decision flow from virtue and not from vice?
What's relationship of consequences and morality for Kant?
-For Kant, morality is not about consequences, its about principle. -For Kant, the duty to tell the truth holds regardless of the consequences
Socialism
-From each according to ability; to each according to need
Distribution based on Needs: Socialism
-From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs -Distribute work based on ability -Distribute goods based on needs
Libertarianism
-From each as they choose, to each as they are chosen
Distribution based on Choice: Libertarianism
-From each as they choose, to each as they are chosen -People should be allowed to keep everything they make and everything they are freely given -Wrong to take one person's property and distribute it to someone else
Unocol / Burma
-Gas pipe that needed to be built in Burma -Gas pipe would create great revenue for stolkholders and would help Burma as a whole -The pipe was getting built through a people who were being discriminated against. -Utilitarian Standpoint: improved Burma as a whole so it was worth it -The people were then forced to have the pipe built through where they lived.
Business, Ethics, and Carol Gilligan's 'Two Voices'"
-Gilligan claims that women speak about ethics differently than men do. -Her theory is that women's view of moral development adds feeling to reason, talks about right and wrong in terms of what's appropriate in particular circumstances, and how they're more personal and caring and focus their responsibilities to others. -3 different cases supported her claim on men and women. -The studies showed that females "are more ethical than males" in the way they handled some of the different scenarios. -The women are harsher than the men on actions that ignore responsibilities to assist others and that weaken a sense of trust among people.
"Front Page" of Newspaper Test
-How would I feel if the course of action I am considering were fairly reported on the front page of the local newspaper or blog? -If you would have a hard time defending something to a reporter who is on a short deadline, then maybe, just maybe, you need to ponder some more. But limitations: -Sometimes even ethically good decisions are ones that we would not want on the front page-Requires the person asking the question to have perspective and a moral compass
Second Formulation of Kant's Categorical Imperative (continued)
-Humans are an end unto themselves, never a means to obtain an end. -We respect other humans regardless of where they live or how well we know them. -Humans are capable of reason, and therefore, are deserving of respect. -"To treat a person only as a means is to use the person as an instrument for advancing one's own interests while disregarding the person's choices and interests." -"Both formulations come down to the same thing: people are to treat each other as beings who should be equally free to pursue what they themselves choose to pursue." -People should be free to pursue their interests - those that we would not be willing to have everyone deprived of he freedom to pursue and those that are needed to allow us to live as free and rational beings.
Journey through Ethical Principles: Rights
-Individual entitlements to freedom
What's Rule Utilitarianism?
-It is a form of Utilitarianism that says that an action is right from an ethical point of view if and only if the action would be required by those moral rules that are correct. -A moral rule is correct if and only if the sum total of utilities produced if everyone were to follow that rule is greater than the sum total of utilities produced if everyone were to follow some alternative rule. ***-an action is right as it conforms to a rule that leads to the greatest good.
In support of an Ethic of Care
-It is in my relationship with others that I form an understanding of who and what I am. -"...to whatever extent the self has value, to that same extent the relationships that are necessary for the self to exist and be what it is, must have value and so should be maintained and nurtured."
Criticism of Ethic of Care
-Leads to favoritism: -Response: •So what? •Conflicting moral demands are an inherent characteristic of moral choices. -Leads to burnout: -Response: •Adequate understanding of ethic of care will acknowledge the need of the caregiver to care for him or herself.
What makes Utilitarianism Attractive? (5 of them)
-Matches our evaluation of public policies. -Intuitive to many people. -Basis for economic analysis - the cost/benefit analysis. -Leads to efficiency. -Impartiality considers everyone's interests.
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) view on traditional utilitarianism
-Maximize Happiness -Pleasure and Pain are our "Sovereign Master"
Journey through Ethical Principles: Utility
-Maximize net benefit to society and minimize harm
Criticisms of Utilitarianism
-Measurement Problems -Difficult to determine how much utility an action produces for different people -Some benefits - like life and death - seem impossible to measure -Some disagreement over what is benefit and what is cost -Are all goods commensurable?
Care: -Based on premise that women make ethical decisions differently than men
-Men view moral issues from a rights/justice approach (impartial): -a. Ethical behavior results from unbiased decisions that eliminate favoritism and protect rights -Women approach moral issues with a focus on relationships and caring ("web" concept): -a. Moral person is one who helps others; trust is key; goodness is service and meeting one's obligations.
Rights
-Moral principles that advocate respect for people's freedom and well being -Does the decision respect people's rights?
Characteristics of Moral Rights
-Moral rights can be violated even if no one is hurt. -Tightly correlated with duties. -Provide individuals with autonomy (self government) and equality in the free pursuit of their interests. -Provide a basis for justifying one's actions and for invoking the protection or aid of others.
What are the interrelationships? Generally speaking...
-Moral rights have greater weight than either utilitarian standards or standards of justice -Standards of justice have greater weight than utilitarian standards -Standards of caring seem to be given more weight than impartiality where there are close relationships
Rawl: How do we evaluate the adequacy of moral principles in a fair way?
-Original Position: •An imaginary meeting of rational self-interested persons who must choose the principles of justice by which their society will be governed -Veil of Ignorance: •The requirement that persons in the original position must not know particulars about themselves which might bias their choices -Universality, Reverse, Ends not means ... Kant
Application of Kantian Philosophy in the Business Context
-Perhaps focusing on issues other than profits, such as meaningful work for employees, a democratic work place, non-deceptive advertising, and a non-coercive relationship with suppliers will actually enhance the bottom line ... perhaps profits can be enhanced if we do not focus so exclusively on the bottom line ... To put this in more Kantian terms, perhaps profits will be enhanced if the manner focuses on respecting the humanity in the person of all the corporate stakeholders. Perhaps we should view profits as a consequence of good business practices rather than as the goal of business.
Rawls' Theory: Why it makes sense...
-Preserves basic values that are embedded in our moral beliefs -Fits into basic economic institutions of Western civilization -Balances community and individual concepts -Takes into account various criteria -Its foundation is the essence of morality
Justice and Fairness are essentially comparative
-Questions of distributive justice arise when different people make claims on society's benefits and burdens and all the claims cannot be satisfied.
Rights: What is it? What are the kinds of rights?
-Rights is an individual's entitlement to something -Legal rights and moral rights
Moral Right
-Rights that belong to all human being by virtue of our humanity and regardless of the legal system. *We have rights because we are rational beings worthy of dignity and respect
Separated Self v. Connected Self: Separated Self
-Safety comes from ordered movement of people on the hierarchy and from having a protected zone that keeps us separated from one another -Argues for an impartial, objective, rule-based ethical outlook that denies the importance of the emotional content of relationships between individuals unless they are codified according to rule based morality
Separated Self v. Connected Self: Connected Self
-Safety comes from our connections in a network of caring, protecting, nourishing relationships -Argues for an outlook steeped in the emotional dynamics of personal relationships and in a realistic assessment of harm. Rights are less important than the responsibility people have to assist each other and preserve the web -safety from connection, not from distance.
Virtue standards applied to business organizations ... (8 of them)
-Saying things you know are not true -Giving or allowing a false impression -Buying influence or engaging in a conflict of interest -Hiding information -Divulging private information -Violating rules -Condoning unethical action -Taking unfair advantage
Steps to Solving Problems using a Rights/Kant Approach: (3)
-Step1: Identify course of action you could take. -Step 2: For each alternative:-Universalize - What if everyone made the same choice?-Reverse - How would you feel if someone did that to you?-Ask yourself - Are you treating people as an end or as a means to an end? -Step 3: Pick the action that you could will to be a universal law, and that treats humans as an end unto themselves.
Rights and Duties - according to Kant
-The Categorical Imperative: an unconditional duty that exits regardless of the circumstances -Motive matters: We act because it is the right thing to do, not because it is useful or convenient.
Aristotle: Desires
-The ability to regulate our desires is not instinctive, but learned both from teaching and practice -If we regulate our desires too much or too little we create problems -Desired regulating virtues are character traits and are not to be understood as either emotions or mental facilities
Rawls' Theory: What the critics say...
-The fact that a set of principles is chosen by hypothetical parties tells us nothing about whether those principles are morally justified -Assumes the parties to the original position would choose the principles Rawls believes they would choose. -What about incentives? -What about effort?
Utility
-The moral view that in any situation the right course of action is the one that will provide people with the greatest amount of benefits while minimizing harms. -Does the decision maximize the good and minimize the bad?
What 2 competing approaches to justice did this demonstrate?
-The morality of an action depends on the consequences it brings about; the right thing to do is whatever will produce the best state of affairs, all things considered -Consequences are not all we should care about, morally speaking; certain duties and rights should command our respect, for reasons other than social consequences.
Rights v. Utilitarianism
-The rights approach to morality focuses on the protection of the individual - not society as a whole. -The rights approach to morality is not about maximizing happiness - it is about respecting persons as ends in themselves. -The rights approach to morality does not focus on outcome - it focuses on the morality of individual choices.
Grimshaw v. Ford Motor Co. - Appellate Decision
-There was evidence that Ford could have corrected the hazardous design defects at minimal cost but decided to defer correction of the shortcomings by engaging in cost-benefit analysis balancing human lives and limbs against corporate profits
The challenge according to Aristotle is ...
-To do the right thing -to the right person, -to the right extent, -at the right time, -with the right motive, -and in the right way.
How does virtue fit with utility, rights, justice and care?
-Virtues enable us to do what ethical principles require -Virtue ethics requires that we look at the disposition of the individual; the four ethical principles focus on the action chosen by the individual -Virtue ethics examines the virtues associated with the ethical principles
How do we explain the Company's decision to rebuild? -Ethic of Care
-We have an obligation to exercise special care toward particular persons with whom we have valuable close relationships, particularly relations of dependency -Feuerstein's action "was a response to the imperative of preserving the concrete relationships he had formed with his employees ...[and] the imperative of exercising special care for the special needs of those individuals who were economically dependent on him"
Negative Rights
-creates duty in others of non-interference; freedom from interference.
Positive Rights
-creates positive duties in others.
Equal Liberty
-each citizen's liberties are protected from invasions by others and are equal to others
Equal Opportunity
-everyone should be given an equal opportunity to qualify for privileged positions
Retributive Justice
-focuses on appropriate punishment for those that have done wrong.
Distributive Justice
-focuses on how society's benefits and burdens should be allocated.
Compensatory Justice
-focuses on restoring a person for what she lost when she was wronged.
Contractual or Special Rights
-imposed by agreement
The aim of moral life is...
-to develop those general dispositions called moral virtues and to exercise and exhibit them in the many situations that human life sets before us.
Difference Principle
-we acknowledge inequalities, but they are just ONLY to the extent they work to the advantage of the least well off members of society
Aristotle: Character traits that make a person a morally good human being (4 of them)
1. A habit or disposition that enables a human being to live according to reason 2. Choosing the reasonable middle ground between going too far and not going far enough 3. Prudence is the virtue that enables us to determine the reasonable middle ground. 4. Virtues are acquired through repetition and training
According to Rawls... the distribution of benefits and burdens in society is just, if and only if...
1. Each person has an equal right to the most extensive basic liberties compatible with similar liberties for all and 2. Social and economic inequalities are arranged so that they are both: a. To the greatest benefit of the least advantaged persons and b. Attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity
What are the different Approaches to Justice: (4 of them)
1. Egalitarianism 2. Capitalism 3. Socialism 4. Libertarianism
Ethical Decision Making Framework
1. Identify Issue/Facts 2. Identify Alternatives 3. Apply Ethical Standards Does this alternative: -Produce the most benefit and/or least harm to society (UTILITY) -Preserve other's human dignity and moral rights (RIGHTS) -Treat people equally or fairly? (JUSTICE) -Appropriately account for my relationships with others (CARE) -Make me the sort of person that I want to be? (VIRTUE) 4. Make a decision 5. Test Decision (red face test) 6. Execute
Types of Moral Rights: What are they (3)?
1. Negative Rights 2. Positive Rights 3. Contractual or Special Rights
Journey through Ethical Principles: (4 of them)
1. Utility 2. Rights 3. Justice 4. Care
An Overview of the 5 Ethical Principles
1. Utility 2. Rights 3. Justice 4. Caring 5. Virtue
Ethic of Care emphasizes two moral demands
1. We each exist in a web of relationships and should preserve and nurture those concrete and valuable relationships we have with specific persons. 2. We each should exercise special care for those to whom we are concretely related by attending to their particular needs, values, desires, and concrete well-being as seen from their own personal perspective, and by responding positively to these needs, values, desires, and concrete well being, particularly of those who are vulnerable and dependent on our care.
The Wall Street Journal Model
1.COMPLIANCE: Does the action comply with the law?2.CONTRIBUTION: How does the action contribute to stakeholders?3.CONSEQUENCES: What are the short and long term consequences of the decision including impact on corporate image?
How many kinds of justice are there and what are they?
3 Kinds of Justice: 1. Distributive Justice 2. Retributive Justice 3. Compensatory Justice
How many Steps are in Utilitarian Analysis?
4 steps
John Rawls (1921-2002): Who is he and what theory is he the father of?
Contemporary Harvard philosopher John Rawls is known as the father of an ethical theory called distributive justice, which holds that ethical acts or decisions are those that lead to an equitable distribution of goods and services.
Outcome Based Ethics
Critic: -"... Utilitarianism renders men cold and unsympathizing; that it chills their moral feelings toward individuals; that it makes them regard only the dry and hard consideration of the consequences of actions ..." Mill's Response: -Do not allow judgment on action to be influenced by opinion of the person who does it -"the best proof of a good character is good actions..."
Criticisms of Utilitarianism - and Mill's Response
Critic: -"... it is exacting too much to require that people shall always act from the inducement of promoting the general interests of society" Mill's response: -Confuses rule of action with motive -"...Utilitarian moralists have gone beyond almost all others in affirming that the motive has nothing to do with the morality of the action though much with the worth of the agent."
Distribution based on Equality: Egalitarianism
Egalitarianism: -Since there are no relevant differences among people that justify unequal treatment -Every person should be given exactly equal share of a society's or group's benefits or burdens
Is equality the same as equity?
Equality is more equal opportunity when equity is more equal results.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): Moral Rights
Kant -attempts to show that there are certain moral rights and duties that all human beings possess regardless of any utilitarian benefits that the exercise of those rights and duties may provide to others.
Response to Critics
People may learn to act on their virtues within certain familiar types of situations, but not beyond: -Miligram, Princeton Divinity Students, and Stanford Prison Experiment placed individuals in unusual and unfamiliar situations -These experiments should not lead us to reject virtue ethics, but to figure out how to widen the range of situations in which people will apply their values
And the critics say...
Some psychological studies suggest that behavior is determined by the external situation, not moral character: -Milgram's Experiment -Princeton Divinity School Students -Stanford Prison Experiment
Utilitarian Analysis: Step 1
Step 1: -Determine what alternative actions or policies are available.
Utilitarian Analysis: Step 2
Step 2: -Identify all persons affected.
Utilitarian Analysis: Step 3
Step 3: -Estimate direct and indirect costs and benefits for all person affected.
Utilitarian Analysis: Step 4
Step 4: -The action that produces the greatest net benefit (or the lowest net cost if there is no net benefit) must be chosen as the ethically appropriate action.
Traditional Utilitarianism: What was it? Who were important?
Traditional Utilitarianism - seeking an objective basis for making ethical judgments Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) & John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
The problems with Rule Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism in disguise *allows for an exception whenever an exception maximizes utility *But will allow the same injustice and violation of moral rights that are found in traditional utilitarianism
What are the 4 kinds of basic moral considerations?
Utility, Rights, Justice and Caring: -each of which emphasizes certain morally important aspects of our behavior, but no one of which captures all the factors that must be taken into account in making moral judgments.
Approaches to Moral Decision Making
Velasque, "Each approach employs distinct moral concepts, and each emphasizes aspects of ethical behavior that are neglected or at least not emphasized by the other."
According to Aristotle: What habits are Virtues and Vices?
Virtues: -habits of dealing with one's emotions and actions in ways that strike the reasonable mean between the extremes of excess and deficiency Vices: -habits of going to the unreasonable extreme of either excess or deficiency.