C2 Oral Study Set

Different ways of obtaining a weather briefing

(1-800-WX BRIEF) [Leidos online] Telephone Information Briefing Service (FSS) Weather and aeronautical information from numerous private industry sources (i.e. ForeFlight, Garmin Pilot) The Direct User Access Terminal System (DUATS)

Commercial Pilot Eligibility (61.103)

(i) Be at least 18 years of age (ii) Can read, speak, write, and understand the English language. (iii) Hold at least Private Pilot certificate (iv) Third Class Medical (v) Received Ground and Flight Training endorsements (vi) Passed knowledge tests (vii) Meet aeronautical experience requirements

Class 1 Medical (61.23)

(i) When exercising the privileges of a commercial pilot certificate; (ii) Under age 40 - 12th month after the month of the date of examination shown on the medical certificate. 40 or Older -12th month after the month of the date of examination shown on the medical certificate (iii) After the 12th month, commercial pilot privileges expire, and private pilot privileges may still be exercised (iv) ATP under 40 - 12 cal. months (v) ATP over 40 - 6 cal. months

Hypemic Hypoxia

(lack of blood) occurs when the blood can't transport enough oxygen to cells in the body. Due to reduce blood volume. Commonly found in carbon monoxide poisoning. Loss of blood due to donations requires several weeks to return to normal. Effect slight at ground level increase when flying.

Stagnant Hypoxia

(not flowing) oxygen rich blood in the lungs is not moving. Arm or Leg going to sleep is an example. Can result in shock, heart not pumping blood properly, or constricted artery. Caused by excessive G's, Cold temps reducing circulation and blood supplied to extremities.

Speeds:

. Stall speed in the landing configuration (VS0) 55 KIAS 2. Minimum control speed critical engine inoperative (VMC) 56 KIAS 3. Stall speed clean (VS) 57 KIAS 4. Rotation speed (VR) 75 KIAS 5. Best angle-of-climb speed (VX) 82 KIAS 6. Best angle-of-climb single engine speed (VXSE) 82 KIAS 7. Safe intentional one engine inoperative speed (VSSE) 82 KIAS 8. Best rate-of-climb speed (VY) 88 KIAS 9. Best rate-of-climb single-engine speed (VYSE) 88 KIAS 10. Maximum flap extended speed (VFE) 111 KIAS 11. Maximum landing gear operating speed (VLO) [up] 109 KIAS 12. Maximum landing gear operating speed (VLO) [down] 140 KIAS 13. Maximum landing gear extended speed (VLE) 140 KIAS 14. Maximum structural cruising speed (VNO) 169 KIAS 15. Never exceed speed (VNE) 202 KIAS 16. Maximum demonstrated crosswind speed 17 KIAS 17. Best glide speed 88 KIAS

How to get an MEL

1) You will need to schedule an appointment with your local FSDO to meet with an airworthiness inspector. The FSDO inspector will provide you an MMEL and other pertinent documentation that will help you develop your MEL. 2) The FSDO inspector will discuss the differences between operating under 91.213(d) and operating with an MEL to be certain that you understand what you're getting involved in. 3) After the FSDO inspector discusses the operator's responsibilities when operating with an MEL, and the operator understands his or her requirements, the FSDO will issue a Letter of Authorization (LOA). The operator may begin operations under an MEL authorization while developing the procedures

Commercial Pilot Limitations

1. A commercial pilot must also be qualified and comply with the applicable parts of the regulations that applies to the particular operation being conducted such as Part 91, 121 or 135. 2. A commercial pilot certificate by itself does not allow you to act as a commercial operator. It only allows you to work for a commercial operator and be paid for your service, with certain exceptions. 3. As a commercial pilot, certain commercial operations are allowed without being in possession of an "Operating Certificate." Examples of such operations include student instruction, certain nonstop sightseeing flights, ferry or training flights, aerial work operations including crop dusting, banner towing, aerial photography, powerline or pipeline patrol. These operations are listed in 14 CFR 119.1.

Autopilot Limitations

400 feet AGL during takeoff and subsequent climb operations. 1000 feet AGL during cruise and descent operations. 200 feet AGL during approach operations. On Approach - 90 KIAS Other than Approach - 80 KIAS Autopilot maximum approved operating speed - 190 KIAS Maximum fuel imbalance during autopilot operations - 10 gal. Autopilot coupled go-around prohibited with one engine inoperative. Maximum autopilot engagement limits: a. Pitch axis: +/-50º b. Roll axis: +/-75º

Fuel Specs

55 gal tanks (54 usable) 100 LL (blue) or 100 (green)

Required aircraft documents

A - Airworthiness Certificate (Does not expire) R - Registration Certificate (Must carried in the aircraft always and expires about every 3 years) R - Radio Certificate or Radio Station License (if operating outside of the US) O - Operating Limitations (AFM/POH, supplements, placards, markings, compass deviation card) or Operating Manual W- Weight and Balance (current) S - Serial Number or External Data Plate

Required Inspections: AV1ATE

A - Annual (12 calendar months) and Airworthiness Directives An aircraft overdue for an annual inspection may be operated under a Special Flight Permit to fly the aircraft to a location where the annual inspection can be performed. All applicable ADs must be complied with before the flight. V - VOR (IFR only) 30 Days I - 100-hour Inspection (for hire or instruction 100 Tach Time) 100 hours may be exceeded by not more than 10 hours while enroute to a place where the inspection can be done A - Altimeter + Pitot-static, Altitude reporting equipment (IFR only) 24 calendar months T - Transponder (IFR Class C and Class B) 24 calendar months E - Emergency Locator Transmitter - 12 Calendar months / after 1 cumulative hour / 50% life

91.205 VFR DAY

A - Anti-collision light (for aircraft certified after March 11, 1996) T - Tachometer O - Oil pressure gauge M - Manifold pressure gauge (for each atmospheric engine) ** A - Airspeed indicator T - Temperature gauge (for each liquid cooled engine) ** O - Oil temperature gauge (for air cooled engine) F - Fuel gauge (for each tank) L - Landing gear position indicator (for retractable gear) ** A - Altimeter M - Magnetic compass E - Emergency locator transmitter S - Seat belts

Main Battery

A 13.6 ampere-hour, 24-volt battery provides current for starting, for use of electrical equipment when the engines are not running, and for a source of stored electrical power to back up the alternator output. The battery, which is located in the nose section is normally kept charged by the alternators. Main Battery - Minimum (25V) Max (32V)

Anti-feather pins

A feathering lock, operated by centrifugal force, prevents feathering during engine shutdown by making it impossible to feather any time the engine speed falls below 950 RPM. For this reason, when feathering a propeller in flight, the pilot must move the propeller control into the FEATHER position before the engine speed drops below 950 RPM.

Commercial Pilot Privileges

A person who holds a commercial pilot certificate may act as pilot-in-command of an aircraft: a) Carrying persons or property for compensation or hire. b) For compensation or hire.

Propellor governor

A propeller governor on each engine, supplies engine oil at various pressures through the propeller shaft to maintain constant RPM settings. The governor controls engine speed by varying the pitch of the propeller to match load torque to engine torque, in response to changing flight conditions. Each propeller is controlled by the propeller control levers located in the center of the power control quadrant. Feathering a propeller is accomplished by moving the control fully aft through the low RPM detent, into the FEATHER position. Unfeathering is accomplished by moving the propeller control forward. This releases oil accumulated under pressure and moves the propeller out of the FEATHER position.

MEL

A specific inoperative equipment document for a particular make and model aircraft by serial number and registration number. The MEL permits operation of the aircraft under specific conditions with certain equipment inoperative

STC

A supplemental type certificate (STC) is a type certificate (TC) issued when an applicant has received FAA approval to modify an aeronautical product from its original design. The STC, which incorporates by reference the related TC, approves not only the modification but also how that modification affects the original design.

Histotoxic Hypoxia

inability to use oxygen effectively. Enough oxygen is transported but cells are unable to use it. Can be caused by alcohol and drugs.

14 CFR 137

Agricultural Aircraft Operations

Special Event TFR

Air Shows and Sporting Events - operation of aircraft in the vicinity of aerial demonstrations and major sporting events. To protect people or property on ground or in the air. To prevent unsafe congestion of aircraft Stadiums - prevent aircraft or parachute operation below 3000 AGL within 3NM radius of any stadium with seating capacity 30,000 or more for MLB, NFL, NCAA Div 1 football game Major mote event. Takes effect one hour before scheduled event time until one hour after it is finished. Disaster/ Hazardous Areas - restrict aircraft operation in designated areas unless anticipating disaster/hazard relief. TFR is to protect person or property, provide safe environment for disaster relief aircraft. Prevent unsafe congestion Space Flight - restricting flight in designated space flight operations

Cabin Pressurization

Aircraft are pressurized by sealing off a strengthened portion of the fuselage (pressure vessel) and pumping air into it. Pressure is controlled by an outflow valve usual at the rear. The outflow valve is controlled by the cabin pressure controller and it maintains the desired cabin pressure. Small Recip engine aircraft receive their pressurization air from the compressor of the engine turbocharger. Large recip engine aircraft have engine driven air compressors. Turbine powered aircraft use engine compressor bleed air.

ADIZ

Airspace over land or water in which the identification, location, and control of civil aircraft is performed in the interest of national security. They may extend beyond a country's territory to give the country more time to respond to possibly hostile aircraft. Must file, activate and close IFR flight plan before crossing, have an operational radar transponder and have two way radios. Give position reports 1 hour before entering, Overland position tolerance is 5 minutes from eta over reporting point, and within 10 NM of centerline of an intended track. Over water it's plus or minus 5 minutes within 20NM of centerline.

ALSF-1

Approach Lighting System with Sequence Flashing Lights (ALSF-1) NORED TERMINATING BARS

ALSF-2

Approach Lighting System with Sequence Flashing Lights (ALSF-2) RED TERMINATING BARS

Landing Gear Extension

As the landing gear swings to the down and locked position and each downlock hook moves into its locked position, microswitches located in the landing gear system determine when the gear is in the full up position or in the down and locked position. Activation of all three downlock switches will also shut the hydraulic pump off.

AHRS

Attidude and heading from GRS and Altimetry and Airpseed from GDC The AHRS uses rate sensors, air data, GPS data and magnetic variation, to calculate pitch, roll, heading and sideslip. The AHRS incorporates internal monitors to continually validate the information it sends to the flight displays

Auxiliary Fuel Pump

Auxiliary electric fuel pumps serve as a back-up feature. The electric fuel pumps operate at 14 VDC. They are controlled by rocker switches on the switch panel below and to the right of the pilot's control column. The electric fuel pumps should be ON during takeoff and landing. An inverter converts 28 VDC aircraft power to the required fuel pump voltage (14 VDC).

Taxiway Edge Lights

Blue

Private carriage

Carriage for hire that does not involve holding out is "private carriage." Private carriage for hire is carriage for one or several selected customers, generally on a long-term basis.

14 CFR 125

Certification and Operations: Airplanes having a seating capacity of 20 or more passengers or a maximum payload capacity of 6,000 pounds or more

14 CFR 119

Certification: Air Carriers and Commercial Operators

Airspace speed limits

Class C & D Airspace - 200 knots below 2500 AGL within 4 NM of primary airport VFR airways - 200 knots Below 250 below 100

14 CFR 136

Commercial Air Tours and National Parks Air Tour Management

Commercial Operator

Commercial operator is a person who, for compensation or hire, engages in the carriage by aircraft of persons or property, other than as an air carrier or foreign air carrier as a major enterprise for profit.

NOTAM (D)

Distant NOTAM information includes such data as taxiway closures, personnel and equipment near or crossing runways, and airport lighting aids that do not affect instrument approach criteria, such as VASI

Preferred IFR Routes

Established between busier airports to increase efficiency and capacity. Designed to balance traffic flows among high density terminals. Clearances are given based on these routes except for severe weather avoidance. Can be used even if it only includes Dep. Airport but not arrival or vis versa. Preferred IFR routes are correlated to SIDs and STARs. Routes are listed alphabetically under Dep. Airport in the volume pages of the chart supplement.

91.205 VFR NIGHT

F - Fuses (3 of each or 1 full set) / Circuit Breakers L - Landing (for hire) A - Anti-collision lights P - Position lights (NAV Lights) S - Source of power (Alternator)

Ways of Obtaining in-flight WX

FSS on 122.2 and appropriate RCO (remote communication outlet) frequencies ATIS broadcasts along the route of flight (AWOS/ASOS) HIWAS (Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service) NA Datalink weather— cockpit display of FIS-B information ATC (workload permitting)

Fatigue

Fatigue frequently associated with pilot error. Effects: loss of attention and concentration, impaired coordination, and decreased ability to communicate. Seriously influence the ability to make effective decisions. Physical fatigue results from sleep loss, exercise, or physical work. Stress and prolonged performance of mental work result in mental fatigue. Correction: Getting adequate rest is the only way to prevent fatigue from occurring. Avoid flying without a full night's rest.

14 CFR 117

Flight and Duty Limitations and Rest Requirements: Flight Crewmembers

ADs

Form part of the ongoing obligations of aircraft certification authorities under Part-21 with regard to the continuing airworthiness of aircraft. They address recommendations for improvements or corrective actions to be implemented by the holder of the Certificate of Airworthiness. The issue of an AD has the effect of making such recommendations mandatory. *aircraft, engine, propeller or component*

Fuel Management

Fuel management controls ON - OFF - X-FEED. During normal operation, the levers are in the ON position, and each engine draws fuel from the tank on the same side as the engine. When the X-FEED position is selected, that engine will draw fuel from the tank on the opposite side. The OFF position shuts off the fuel flow to that engine. When one engine is inoperative and the fuel selector for the operating engine is on X-FEED the selector for the inoperative engine must be in the OFF position. Max Fuel Imbalance: 10 Gallons

91.205 IFR

G - Generator R - Rate of Turn Indicator A - Altimeter (Sensitive) B - Ball C - Clock A - Attitude Indicator R - Radios D - Directional Gyros

Medical Certificate: SODA - Statement of Demonstrated Ability

Granted to a person with a disqualifying condition that is not expected to worsen or adversely change but the condition is static or non-progressive may be certified through a process called Statement of Demonstrated Ability. The person can demonstrate that he or she is capable of performing airman duties without endangering public safety. The SODA does not expire and becomes part of the medical.

Taxiway centerline lead on/off

Green and yellow until past the hold short line or ILS critical area or vice versa.

Taxiway Center Line Light

Green lights, normally green reflectors

Pitot Heat

Helps prevent pitot static icing over

Alert Area

High volume of pilot training or unusual aerial activities

Medical Certificate: Special Issuance

If your problem is a history or diagnosis of one of the specific disqualifying conditions, but you can prove that in spite of that history you are unlikely to become suddenly incapacitated while flying or to fly irresponsibly, you can obtain an FAA medical certificate by "special issuance"

Vacuum System

In airplanes equipped Garmin G1000 system: no vacuum system or air-driven Directional Gyro is installed. The Primary Flight Display (PFD) provides this function.

Landing Gear Failure

In the event of hydraulic loss or electrical failure, they can be lowered by pulling on the emergency extension allowing hydraulic pressure to neutralize between each side of the cylinder pistons and allowing the gear to free fall to the down locked position. To assist nose gear extension under these conditions, two springs, are mounted on arms above the gear links. The main gears require no assist springs. Once the gears are down and the downlock hooks engage, a spring maintains each hook in the locked position.

FA (Area Forecasts)

Issued: 3 times daily Info: synopsis 18 hrs, clouds 12 hrs, 6 hr outlook Valid Period: forecasts of weather for a specific region, use WA, WS, WST to get a full picture, use the FA if TAF is not present

Winds and Temps aloft

Issued: 4 times daily Info: wind direction speed and temp at specific altitude Winds recorded at 1500 AGL + Temps recorded at 2500 AGL + Valid Period: 6 hours

Low Sig WX

Issued: 4 times daily Info: forecasts sigWX from SFC-240 depicts weather flying cats, ceilings, turn, and freezing levels Valid Period: valid time as prescribed on chart

AIRMET (WA)

Issued: 4x daily Info: There are three types of AIRMETs, Sierra, Tango, and Zulu: a. AIRMET Sierra describes IFR conditions and/ or extensive mountain obscurations. b. AIRMET Tango describes moderate turbulence, sustained surface winds of 30 knots or greater, and/ or non-convective low-level wind shear. c. AIRMET Zulu describes moderate icing and provides freezing level heights. Valid Period: 6 hours

Surface Prog Chart

Issued: 4x daily Info: Valid Period: As specified on chart

TAF

Issued: 4x daily Info: expected conditions within a specific time frame within a 5 mile radius of the center of the runway complex Valid Period: 24-30 hours (30 for larger airports, longer flights need longer forecasts)

Surface Analysis

Issued: 8 TIMES DAILY Info: gives location of pressure systems and fronts, anticipate movement of systems when using this chart Valid Period: 3 HOURS

SIGMET (WS)

Issued: As necessary Info: a. Severe icing not associated with thunderstorms. b. Severe or extreme turbulence or clear air turbulence (CAT) not associated with thunderstorms. c. Widespread dust storms or sandstorms lowering surface visibilities to below 3 miles. d. Volcanic ash. Valid Period: 4 hours

PIREP

Issued: As necessary, when received Info: anything pilot gives Valid Period: 2 hours

Convective Outlook

Issued: Day 1: 1-5 times, Day 2: 2 times, Day 3: 1 time Info: depicts areas of severe and non-severe convection, defines areas of SLGT, MDT, and HIGH risk Valid Period: 24 hours

Convective SIGMET (WST)

Issued: Hourly Info: Severe thunderstorms due to: • Surface winds greater than or equal to 50 knots. • Hail at the surface greater than or equal to 3⁄4 inches in diameter. • Tornadoes. b. Embedded thunderstorms. c. A line of thunderstorms. d. Thunderstorms that produce precipitation levels greater than or equal to heavy-intensity precipitation, affecting 40% or more of an area at least 3,000 square miles. Valid Period: 2 hours

METAR

Issued: Hourly Info: Valid Period: na

CWA (issuance, info, valid period)

Issued: Unscheduled, as necessary Info: aviation warning to anticipate and avoid adverse weather, reflects current conditions, short range forecast Valid Period: 2 hours, additional forecasts expected every 2 hours

Landing Gear Indications

Landing gear indications on the MFD can be any of the following: • gear down: solid green circle • gear up: hollow white circle • gear in transit: crosshatched square • abnormal/unknown gear position: solid red circle

Engine specs (type, max MP, max CHT, max oil temp, oil pressure min/max, fuel type)

Left Engine: 0-360-A1H6 Right Engine: L0-360-A1H6 Maximum Manifold Pressure: Full Throttle Maximum Cylinder Head Temperature: 500°F Maximum Oil Temperature: 245°F Oil Pressure: Minimum 25 PSI Maximum 115 PSI Fuel: (AVGAS ONLY) (minimum grade) 100 or 100LL Aviation Grade

Warning Area

Let's pilots know of activities that might be hazardous

TEC Routes

Links approach control areas by routes using existing airways. Can fly an IFR flight without leaving approach control. Reduces ATC/Pilot communication. Normally for non-turbojets below 10,000ft and for relatively short flights about 2 hours or less. Avoids the enroute airspace and found in the chart supplement. Shows: Dep. Airport, route, airway, highest altitude and destination airport

Weights

Maximum ramp weight? 3816 lbs. Maximum takeoff weight? 3800 lbs. Maximum landing weight? 3800 lbs. What is/are the maximum weight allowable in the baggage compartment(s)? 200 lbs.

MALSF

Medium Intensity Approach Lighting System with Sequenced Flashers

Microburst

Microbursts can be found almost anywhere there is convective activity. They may be embedded in heavy rain associated with a thunderstorm or in light rain in benign-appearing virga. When there is little or no precipitation at the surface accompanying the microburst, a ring of blowing dust may be the only visual clue of its existence. Size: less than 1 mile in diameter as it descends from the cloud base; can extend 21⁄2 miles in diameter near ground level. Intensity: downdrafts as strong as 6,000 feet per minute; horizontal winds near the surface can be as strong as 45 knots resulting in a 90-knot wind shear (headwind to tailwind change for traversing aircraft). Duration: an individual microburst will seldom last longer than 15 minutes from the time it strikes the ground until dissipation. Sometimes microbursts are concentrated into a line structure, and under these conditions activity may continue for as long as an hour.

Class 2 Medical (61.23)

Minimum Required for commercial pilot privileges (i) When exercising the privileges of a commercial pilot certificate; (ii) Under age 40 - 12th month after the month of the date of examination shown on the medical certificate. 40 or Older -12th month after the month of the date of examination shown on the medical certificate (iii) After the 12th month, commercial pilot privileges expire, and private pilot privileges may still be exercised

FDC NOTAM

NOTAMs contain such things as amendments to published IAPs and other current aeronautical charts. They are also used to advertise temporary flight restrictions caused by such things as natural disasters or large-scale public events that may generate a congestion of air traffic over a site

Pointer NOTAM

NOTAMs issued by a flight service station to highlight or point out another NOTAM, such as an FDC or NOTAM (D) NOTAM. This type of NOTAM will assist users in cross−referencing important information that may not be found under an airport or NAVAID identifier

Military NOTAM

NOTAMs pertaining to U.S. Air Force, Army, Marine, and Navy navigational aids/airports that are part of the NAS

Deicing/Anti-icing

No major anti-ice or deicing systems are installed on the propellers, leading edge edges or the windshield and for this reason the aircraft is not approved for flight into known icing conditions. The only ice or rain protection system installed is the heated pitot head which is located on the undersurface of the left wing. The heated pitot head reduces problems with icing or heavy rain. The pitot heat switch is located in the switch bank to the right of the throttles. It is controlled by an ON/OFF type switch labeled PITOT HEAT. The system has a separate circuit breaker located in the circuit breaker panel and labeled PITOT HEAT. The pitot heat system should be checked during preflight inspection. The fuel tank vents, also feature an anti-icing design to prevent ice formation from blocking the fuel tank vent lines. Flight in icing conditions is prohibited. If icing is encountered, take immediate action to exit icing conditions. Icing is hazardous due to greatly reduced performance, loss of forward visibility, possible longitudinal control difficulties and impaired power plant and fuel system operation.

Multi Spins

No multiengine airplane is approved for spins, and their spin recovery characteristics are generally very poor. In order to spin any airplane, it must first be stalled. At the stall, a yawing moment must be introduced. In a multiengine airplane, the yawing moment may be generated by rudder input or asymmetrical thrust. If a spin is entered, most manufacturers recommend immediately retarding both throttles to idle, applying full rudder opposite the direction of rotation, and applying full forward elevator/stabilator pressure (with ailerons neutral). After adjust rudder pressure, back elevator pressure, and power as necessary to return to the desired flight path. Pilots should be aware that a spin recovery will take considerable altitude therefore it is critical that corrective action be taken immediately.

91.213

No person can operate an aircraft without an approved minimum equipment list, a letter of authorization issued by FAA flight standards. The inoperative instruments and equipment are not - (i) Part of the VFR-day type certification instruments and equipment prescribed in the applicable airworthiness regulations under which the aircraft l type certificated; (ii) Indicated as required on the aircraft's equipment list, or on the Kinds of Operations Equipment List for the kind of flight operation being conducted; (iii) Required by § 91.205 or any other rule of this part for the specific kind of flight operation being conducted; or (iv) Required to be operational by an airworthiness directive; and The inoperative instruments and equipment are - (i) Removed from the aircraft, the cockpit control placarded, and the maintenance (ii) Deactivated and placarded "Inoperative." If deactivation of the inoperative instrument or equipment involves maintenance, it must be accomplished and recorded

Recency Experience (61.57)

No person may act as a pilot in command of an aircraft carrying passengers or of an aircraft certificated for more than one pilot flight crewmember unless that person has made at least three takeoffs and three landings within the preceding 90 days, and— (i) The person acted as the sole manipulator of the flight controls; and (ii) The required takeoffs and landings were performed in an aircraft of the same category, class, and type (if a type rating is required), and, if the aircraft to be flown is an airplane with a tailwheel, the takeoffs and landings must have been made to a full stop in an airplane with a tailwheel.

Presidential TFR

No person may operate aircraft over or within the vicinity of an area to be visited or traveled by the president, vice president

G's limitations

Normal category— Aircraft structure capable of withstanding a load factor of 3.8 Gs without structural failure. Applicable to aircraft intended for non-aerobatic operation. What are the flight load factor limits with flaps up? 3.8 G flaps down. 2.0 G

Landing Gear Specs

Nose Wheel Travel 30° left or right (60 total) Tire Pressure, Nose 50 psi @ Gross Weight Tire Pressure, Main 55 psi @ Gross Weight Nose Gear Strut Pressure 125 ± 12.5 psi Main Gear Strut Pressure 200 ± 20 psi

Restricted Area

Not supposed to enter unless you abide by the restrictions. Restrictions are to protect nonparticipating aircraft from potential hazards

Prohibited Area

Off limits, no flight within this area. Example: White House

ODALS

Omni-directional Approach Lighting System

Solid-state oxygen

Only used occasionally as it is in smaller general aviation aircraft or when it is used as an emergency backup in transport aircraft. The active material is mixed with a binding material and molded into a specially shaped block. Once the reaction starts, it cannot be stopped.

14 CFR 135

Operating Requirements: Commuter and On-Demand Operations

14 CFR 121

Operating Requirements: Domestic, Flag, and Supplemental Operations

Special Airspaces

PRAWN

Anti-servo tab

PREVENTS OVER CONTROLLING An anti-servo tab, or anti-balance tab, works in the opposite way to a servo tab. It deploys in the same direction as the control surface, making the movement of the control surface more difficult and requires more force applied to the controls by the pilot.

Trim controls

Pitch and yaw trim control is provided by separate adjustable trim mechanisms for both the stabilator and the rudder. Stabilator trim is controlled by a wheel and drum mounted on the floor between the front seats or, by an S-TEC Manual Electric Trim Control mounted on the control yoke. Cables are routed aft from the drum to a screw assembly mounted above the stabilator attachment point. This screw assembly in turn moves the pushrod which controls the stabilator trim tab. The rudder trim is controlled by a trim wheel behind the flap control lever. Cables for the rudder trim are routed back through the fuselage and up into the tail where they attach to their aft actuator drum. The rudder tab is then driven by a push rod assembly connected to the actuator drum.

Different Types of RNAV Routes

Q Routes - FL180 to FL450 Inclusive T Routes - 1,200ft to FL180 Not inclusive FL180

Runway End Lights

Red approaching the end of the runway Green approaching the beginning of the runway

Scuba Diving Recommendations

Scuba diving exposes the body to increased pressure which allows more nitrogen into the body tissues and fluids. Allow time to rid body of excessive nitrogen. Up to 8,000ft at least 12 hours. Above 8,000ft 24 hours

MOA

Separates IFR from military

SSALR

Simplified Short Approach Light System with Runway Alignment Indicator Lights

SSALF

Simplified Short Approach Light System with Sequenced Flashers

Thurnderstorms (Single cell, Multicell, Supercell)

Single cell— also called ordinary cell thunderstorms, this type consists of only one cell; they are easily circumnavigated except at night or when embedded in other clouds. Single cell thunderstorms are rare, as almost all thunderstorms are multi-celled. Multicell (cluster and line)— consists of a cluster of cells at different stages of their life cycles. As the first cell matures, it is carried downwind, and a new cell forms upwind to take its place. A multicell may have a lifetime of several hours (or more), which makes it tougher to circumnavigate than a single-cell thunderstorm. May have supercells embedded within them. Supercell— consists primarily of a single, quasi-steady rotating updraft that persists for an extended period of time. Updraft speeds may reach 9,000 fpm (100 knots). They may persist for many hours (or longer) and their size and persistence make them tough to circumnavigate.

KOEL

Specifies the kind of operation (VFR, IFR, Day or Night) in which the aircraft can be operated with the installed equipment or operative equipment and how it may affect operating limitations.

Different Types of WX Briefing

Standard Briefing— Request anytime you are planning a flight and you have not received a previous briefing or have not received preliminary information through mass-dissemination media; e.g., TIBS, TWEB, etc. Abbreviated Briefing— Request when you need information to supplement mass-disseminated data, update a previous briefing, or when you need only one or two items. Outlook Briefing— Request whenever your proposed time of departure is six or more hours from the time of the briefing. This is for planning purposes only. Inflight Briefing— Request when needed to update a preflight briefing.

Gaseous Oxygen

Stored I high pressure steel cylinders which keeps the oxygen between 1800 to 2400psi. Aircraft oxygen systems must be serviced with aviators' oxygen that meets military specification. This oxygen is at least 99.5% pure and contains no more than 0.02 milligrams of water per liter.

Runway End Identifier Light (REIL)

Strobe at the corners of the approach end of a runway

ADC

The ADC provides airspeed, altitude, vertical speed, and air temperature to the display system, the traffic systems and the flight management system. The ADC incorporates internal monitors to continually validate the information it sends to the flight displays

Engines

The Seminole is powered by two Lycoming four-cylinder, direct drive, horizontally opposed engines, each rated at 180 horsepower @ 2700 RPM at sea level. The engines are air cooled and are equipped with oil coolers with low temperature bypass systems and engine-mounted oil filters. Asymmetric thrust during takeoff and climb is eliminated by the counterrotation of the engines: the left engine rotates in a clockwise direction when viewed from the cockpit, and the right engine rotates counterclockwise. Throttle = MP Prop = RPM

TCDS

The TCDS is a formal description of the aircraft, engine or propeller. It lists limitations and information required for type certification including airspeed limits, weight limits, thrust limitations, etc. Make and Model information

Landing Gear Type

The airplane is equipped with fully retractable, tricycle Air-Oil Oleo strut type landing gear which are hydraulically operated by an electrically powered reversible pump. The pump is activated by a two-position gear selector switch. When hydraulic pressure is exerted in one direction the gear is retracted; when it is exerted in the other direction the gear is extended. Gear extension or retraction normally takes six to seven seconds.

Common Carriage (4 elements)

The carriage of passengers or cargo as a result of advertising the ability of the carriage to the public. a. Holding out or willingness to b. Transport persons or property c. From place to place d. For compensation

Alternate Static

The control valve for the alternate static source is located below the left side of the instrument panel. It incorporates a shutoff valve to close the port when not needed. When the valve is set in the alternate position, the Garmin air data computer and Aspen standby instrument uses cabin static pressure. The storm window and cabin vents must be closed, and the cabin heater and defroster must be on during alternate static source operation. Altimeter error with alternate static pressure, is less than 50 feet unless otherwise placarded.

Diluter Demand oxygen

The diluter demand system is designed to compensate for the short-comings of the continuous flow system. It gives the user oxygen on-demand (during inhalation) and stops the flow when the demand ceases (during exhalation). This helps conserve oxygen. Additionally, the incoming oxygen is diluted with cabin air and provides the proper percentage of oxygen, depending on the altitude. This system is typically used at altitudes up to 40,000 feet.

Emergency Battery

The electrical system includes an emergency battery, which provides electrical power to the emergency bus during a complete electrical failure, or when electrical power from the primary electrical system is insufficient. With the EMERG BATT switch in the ARM position, power is applied to this equipment automatically after a total electrical failure. Emergency Battery - Minimum (20V) Minimum for IFR Ops (23.3V) Max (32V)

Emergency Bus

The emergency bus powers the standby instrument, as well as all PFD functions (except Com2 and Nav2). The emergency battery is sized to provide this functionality for a minimum of 30 minutes. The emergency battery is isolated from emergency bus equipment by a relay, which is controlled by the EMERG BATT switch. The emergency battery is diode isolated from the electrical power generating system. This allows the generating system to charge the emergency battery during normal operations. The emergency battery will only provide 30 minutes of power if its voltage at the time of total electrical failure is greater than 23.3 volts. The emergency battery voltage must be verified prior to flight.

Wing flap controls

The flaps are manually operated. A lever in the cockpit is connected by cable to a chain and sprocket on a torque tube. Motion of the torque tube actuates pushrods attached to the flaps. The plain wing flaps have four-positions (0, 10, 25, 40 degrees).

Fuel Primer

The fuel primer system is used to provide fuel to the engine during start and makes use of electric pumps mounted in each wing and solenoid-controlled primer valves. Left and Right primer switches are located on either side of the starter switch. The electric fuel pumps must be ON to operate the electric fuel primers.

Pitot Static System

The pitot air system consists of a pitot mast on the underside of the left wing with its related plumbing. Static and total pressure is sensed by a single pitot head installed on the bottom of the left wing. Independent pressure lines are plumbed from the pitot head to the Garmin air data computer and to the Aspen standby instrument. A partially or completely blocked pitot head will result in erratic or zero instrument readings. The static air system consists of a static port on the underside of the pitot-static mast. The port is connected to the Garmin Air Data Computer by hose and tubing routed through the wing. The Aspen Avionics EFD1000 Standby Display to provides standby attitude, airspeed and altitude information.

Alternators

The primary electrical power is supplied by two belt-driven 28-volt, 70 ampere alternators, one mounted on each engine. The alternator provides full electrical power output even at low engine rpm. Each alternator is protected by an alternator control unit which incorporates a voltage regulator and an overvoltage relay. The regulators maintain effective load sharing while regulating electrical system bus voltage to 28-volts. An overvoltage relay in each alternator circuit prevents damage to electrical and avionics equipment by taking an alternator off the line if its output exceeds 32-volts. If this should occur, the appropriate ALTR FAIL CAS WARNING will be activated. Alternator - Max Ground (60 Amps) Max Flight (65 Amps)

Safety Pilot

The safety pilot must: a. Possess at least a private pilot certificate with category and class ratings appropriate to the aircraft being flown. b. Possess an appropriate medical certificate (the safety pilot is acting as a required crewmember). c. If the flight is to be conducted on an IFR flight plan, the person acting as PIC of the flight must hold an instrument rating.

Stabilator Controls

The stabilator is controlled by a cable connected to the bottom of the assembly and operates an aft fuselage bellcrank which controls a pushrod connected to the balance arm of the stabilator. Cables also connect the rudder pedals with the rudder sector.

SAA NOTAM

These NOTAMs are issued when Special Activity Airspace will be active outside the published schedule times and when required by the published schedule. Pilots and other users are still responsible to check published schedule times for Special Activity Airspace as well as any NOTAMs for that airspace

Continuous oxygen

This system delivers a continuous flow of oxygen from the storage container. It is a very economical system in that it doesn't need complicated masks or regulators to function. But it is also very wasteful—the flow of oxygen is constant whether you're inhaling, exhaling, or pausing in between breaths. This system is typically used at 28,000 feet and lower.

Pressure Demand oxygen

This system provides oxygen under positive pressure. Positive pressure is a forceful oxygen flow that is intended to slightly over-inflate the lungs. This will, in a sense, pressurize the lungs to a lower altitude, thus allowing you to fly at altitudes above 40,000 feet, where 100% oxygen without positive pressure will not suffice.

Feathering prop

To feather a propeller is to stop engine rotation with the propeller blades streamlined with the airplane's relative wind, thus to minimize drag. Feathering is necessary because of the change in parasite drag with propeller blade angle. When the propeller blade angle is in the feathered position, the change in parasite drag is at a minimum. The aerodynamic forces alone acting upon a windmilling propeller tend to drive the blades to low pitch, high rpm. To feather the propeller, the propeller control is brought fully aft. All oil pressure is dumped from the governor, and the counterweights drive the propeller blades towards feather. As centrifugal force acting on the counterweights decays from decreasing rpm, additional forces are needed to completely feather the blades. This additional force comes from either a spring or high-pressure air stored in the propeller dome An accumulator is any device that stores a reserve of high pressure. On multiengine airplanes, the unfeathering accumulator stores a small reserve of engine oil under pressure from compressed air or nitrogen. To start a feathered engine in flight, the pilot moves the propeller control out of the feather position to release the accumulator pressure. The oil flows under pressure to the propeller hub and drives the blades toward the high rpm, low pitch position, whereupon the propeller usually begins to windmill.

Propellors

Two blade, constant speed, controllable pitch and feathering Hartzell propellers are installed. The propellers are counter-rotating propellers and provide balanced thrust during takeoff and climb which eliminates the critical engine factor in single-engine flight. Pitch is controlled by oil and nitrogen pressure. Oil pressure drives the propeller toward the high RPM or unfeather position; nitrogen pressure and a large spring drives the propeller toward the low RPM or feather position and also prevents propeller over speeding.

Touch Down Zone Lights

Two rows of white light on either side of the centerline. begin 100 after the landing threshold to 3000 feet after the landing threshold

Runway Guard Light

Two sets of two yellow lights on either side of taxiway alternating OR a row of yellow lights

Brakes

Two single disc, double puck brake assemblies, one on each main gear, are actuated by toe brake pedals. A brake system hydraulic reservoir, independent of the landing gear hydraulic reservoir, is located on the upper right side of the bulkhead in the nose compartment. Fluid is drawn from the reservoir by the brake cylinders to maintain the volume of fluid required for maximum braking efficiency. Spongy brake pedal action is often an indication that the brake fluid reservoir is running low on fluid.

Different types of oxygen systems

Two ways to provide oxygen to sustain life: pressurization to increase the total pressure of the air surrounding the occupants. The second way is to allow occupants to use supplemental oxygen. Pressurization increases pressure to allow oxygen to enter the blood stream while supplemental force oxygen into the blood. Supply: 1) gaseous form 2) liquid form 3) solid chemical compound

Unfeathering accumulator

Unfeathering accumulators store engine oil under pressure from the governors, which is released back to the governors for propeller unfeathering when the propeller control lever is moved out of the feathered position.

Liquid oxygen

Used in modern military aircraft because of efficiency and small space requirements. However not found in civilian aircraft.. A special double wall spherical container made of steel. A converter in the oxygen system controls the gaseous oxygen that boils out of the liquid and delivers it to the oxygen regulator at the proper pressure

Hartzel Heater

Uses .5 gal/hour To prevent activation of the overheat switch during ground operation, turn the three-position switch to FAN for two minutes with the air intake lever in the open position, before turning the switch to OFF. During flight, leave the air intake lever open for a minimum of fifteen seconds after turning the switch to OFF. Heated air for cabin heat and windshield defrosting is provided by a combustion heater located in the forward fuselage. Air from the heater is distributed by a manifold, through ducts along the cabin floor to outlets at each seat. Heated air from the manifold is also directed through two ducts to the defroster outlets. Heated air is obtained from the combustion heater located in the nose section of the airplane. Fresh air is supplied to the heater from an intake located in the nose and routed through the heater and into the cabin through six adjustable outlets. Operation of the combustion heater is controlled by a three-position switch located on the instrument panel and labeled CABIN HEAT - FAN. . The upper lever regulates AIR INTAKE and the center lever regulates cabin temperature. The third lever on the instrument panel controls heated airflow to the windshield defrosters. Passengers have secondary control over heat output by individually adjustable outlets at each seat location.

Different Types of Airways

V - Victor Airways J - Jetways

Landing Gear Retraction

When the gear begins to retract and the downlock hooks disengage. Each landing gear is retracted and extended by a single hydraulic cylinder attached to the drag link assembly of the nose gear and the side brace link assembly of the main gears. Gear doors partially enclose the gear and operate through mechanical linkage with each gear. The gears are held in their up position by hydraulic pressure alone within the cylinders. There are no uplocks and loss of hydraulic pressure will allow the gears to drop.

Bank Angle aerodynamics

When you increase your angle of attack, you get closer to critical angle of attack, which is the point when your wing stalls regardless of airspeed or attitude. When you turn, you need to increase your total lift to maintain altitude. You increase your total lift by increasing your angle of attack, which means you're closer to stall than you were in wings-level flight. And, your stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of your load factor. What changes in an airplane when the speed changes are that the radius of the turn. The higher the speed, the wider the circle.

Civilian airport beacon

White and Green

Seaport

White and Yellow

Runway Centerline Lights

White lights along runway centerline (white changes to alternating white and red at the final 3000 then to all red at the final 1000)

Runway Edge Light

White lights along the edge of the runway (on instrument runways white changes to yellow at the final 2000 feet or half the runway length whichever is shorter)

Military airport beacon

White, White Green

Wind Shear/LLWS

Wind shear is the rate of change of wind velocity (direction and/ or speed) per unit distance; conventionally expressed as vertical or horizontal wind shear. It may occur at any level in the atmosphere, but three areas are of special concern: a. Wind shear with a low-level temperature inversion; b. Wind shear in a frontal zone or thunderstorm; and c. Clear air turbulence (CAT) at high levels associated with a jet stream or strong circulation Wind shear is an operational concern because unexpected changes in wind speed and direction can be potentially very hazardous to aircraft operations at low altitudes on approach to and departing from airports. Sudden Increased headwind— As a tailwind shears to a constant headwind, an increase in airspeed and altitude occurs along with a nose-up pitching tendency. The usual reaction is to reduce both power and pitch. This reaction can be dangerous if the aircraft suddenly encounters a downdraft and tailwind. Now the situation demands the exact opposite of the pilot's initial reaction: a need for more performance from the airplane instead of less (more power/ increased pitch attitude). Sudden Decreased headwind— As a headwind shears to a calm or tailwind, pitch attitude decreases, airspeed decreases, and a loss of altitude occurs. The required action is more power and higher pitch attitude to continue a climb or remain on the glide slope.

Recency Experience (61.57) [Instrument]

Within the 6 calendar months preceding the month of the flight, performed and logged in actual weather conditions or under simulated conditions using a view-limiting device, at least the following tasks in an airplane: • Six instrument approaches. • Holding procedures and tasks. • Intercepting and tracking courses through the use of navigational electronic systems. A pilot is current for the first 6 months following his/ her instrument check ride or proficiency check. If the pilot has not accomplished at least 6 approaches (including holding procedures, intercepting/ tracking courses through the use of navigation systems) within this first 6 months, he/ she is no longer legal to file and fly under IFR. To become legal again, the regulations allow a "grace period" (the second 6-month period), in which a pilot may get current by finding an "appropriately rated" safety pilot, and in simulated IFR conditions only, acquire the 6 approaches, etc. If the second 6-month period also passes without accomplishing the minimum, a pilot may reinstate his/ her currency by accomplishing an instrument proficiency check given by an examiner, an authorized instructor, or an FAA-approved person to conduct.

Sideslip

Without specific guidance for zero sideslip, a bank of 2° and one-third to one-half ball deflection on the slip/skid indicator is suggested. In a multiengine airplane with an inoperative engine, the centered ball is no longer the indicator of zero sideslip due to asymmetrical thrust. In fact, there is no instrument at all that directly tells the pilot the flight conditions for zero sideslip. In the absence of a yaw string, minimizing sideslip is a matter of placing the airplane at a predetermined bank angle and ball position. The precise condition of zero sideslip (bank angle and ball position) varies slightly from model to model and with available power and airspeed. If the airplane is not equipped with counter-rotating propellers, it also varies slightly with the engine failed due to P-factor.

Isobaric Pressure system

Works to maintain a preset cabin pressure In this system the pressurization commences at a given altitude and cabin altitude is maintained at this value till a presetpressure differential is reached. With continued ascent the pressure differential is maintained. (pressure stays the same as altitude is maintained)

Differential Pressure system

Works to prevent exceeding differential pressure limits The difference in pressure between the pressure acting on one side of a wall and the pressure acting on the other side of the wall. In aircraft air-conditioning and pressurizing systems, it is the difference between cabin pressure and atmospheric pressure. (maintains same pressure as aircraft changes altitude)

Heliport beacon

Yellow Green

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

colorless odorless gas produced by internal combustion engines. Attaches to hemoglobin in the blood and prevents the hemoglobin from carrying oxygen to the cells which results in hyperemic hypoxia. 48 hrs. to dispose CO. It can cause death if large amount. Vents can be a passage into the cabin. Disposable CO detectors change colour to alert pilots. Symptoms - Headache, blurred vision, dizziness, drowsiness, and/or loss in muscle power. Turn off heater, open air vents and windows, uses supplemental oxygen if symptoms are experienced and smell exhaust.

Thunderstorm Avoidance

a. Never land or take off in the face of an approaching thunderstorm. A sudden gust front of low-level turbulence could cause loss of control. b. Never attempt to fly under a thunderstorm even if you can see through to the other side. Turbulence and wind shear under the storm could be hazardous. c. Never attempt to fly under the anvil of a thunderstorm. There is a potential for severe and extreme clear air turbulence. d. Never fly without airborne radar into a cloud mass containing scattered embedded thunderstorms. Scattered thunderstorms not embedded usually can be visually circumnavigated. e. Never trust the visual appearance to be a reliable indicator of the turbulence inside a thunderstorm. f. Never assume that ATC will offer radar navigation guidance or deviations around thunderstorms. g. Never use data-linked next generation weather radar (NEXRAD) mosaic imagery as the sole means for negotiating a path through a thunderstorm area (tactical maneuvering). h. Avoid by at least 20 miles any thunderstorm identified as severe or giving an intense radar echo. This is especially true under the anvil of a large cumulonimbus. i. Circumnavigate the entire area if the area has 6/ 10 thunderstorm coverage. j. Remember that vivid and frequent lightning indicates the probability of a severe thunderstorm.

Holding out (4 elements)

a. Signs and advertising are the most direct means of holding out but are not the only ones. b. A holding out may be accomplished through the actions of agents, agencies, or salesmen who may obtain passenger traffic from the general public and collect them into groups to be carried by the operator. c. Physically holding out without advertising, yet gaining a reputation to "serve all," is sufficient to constitute an offer to carry all customers. d. A carrier holding itself out as generally willing to carry only certain kinds of traffic is nevertheless a common carrier. Example: For example, the expression of willingness to all customers with whom contact is made that the operator can and will perform the requested service is sufficient. It makes no difference if the holding out generates little success; the issue is the nature and character of the operation.

When is an instrument rating required?

a. Under instrument flight rules (IFR flight plan), b. In weather conditions less than the minimum for VFR flight, c. In Class A airspace, d. Under Special VFR within Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E surface areas between sunset and sunrise. e. When carrying passengers for hire on cross-country flights in excess (of 50nm and at when flying night)

Stress

body's response to physical and psychological demands. Body releases chemical hormones to increase metabolism to provide energy to muscles. Blood sugar and pressure, heart rate, respiration and perspiration all increase. Noise, fatigue and difficult or personal situations are called stressor; they cause stress. Acute stress (short term) fight or flight response... can normally cope and prevent overload. Chronic (long term) intolerable burden, cannot cope. Loneness, financial, relationship or work problems. Performance fall rapidly once stress is chronic. Not safe to fly and should consult a physician.

Dehydration

critical loss of water from the body. Caused by hot flight deck and flight lines, wind, humidity and diuretic drinks (coffee, alcohol, caffeinated soft drinks). Signs: headache, fatigue, cramps, sleepiness and dizziness. Fatigue makes physical and mental performance difficult. Hot summer and high altitudes increase rate of water loss. Drink more than 8 glasses to 16. Can also stop dehydration by limiting caffeine and alcohol

Hyperventilation

excessive rate of respiration which leads to loss of carbon dioxide in blood. Symptoms can increase breathing rate and anxiety and aggravate the problem. Can also lead to unconsciousness. A stressful situation may lead to increased breathing rate. Symptoms: visual impairment, unconsciousness, lightheaded or dizzy, tingling sensations, hot and cold sensations, muscle spasms. Restore proper carbon dioxide level in body, breath normally, talking aloud.

Decompression Sickness

exposure to low barometric pressure (unpressurized aircraft to altitude or rapid decompression) and cause inert gases such as nitrogen to come out of solution in body tissues and fluids. If the nitrogen is forced to leave too fast it forms bubbles... do not move affected area; keep it still... Neurologic manifestation (occurs in brain, spinal cord peripheral nerves) - confusion or memory loss... headache... spots in visual field... tunnel/double/blurry vision... seizures... dizziness... nausea... vomiting... unconsciousness... burning/stinging/tingling sensations around lower chest and back... abdominal and chest pain... urinary and rectal loss of control... numbness... muscle weakness and twitching. Chokes (occurs in lungs) - burning deep chest pain... breathing makes pain worse... shortness of breath... dry constant cough Skin bends - itching around ear, face, arm, upper torso... tiny insect crawling sensation... marbled skin (shoulders and upper chest area) ... swelling of skin Correction: Supplemental oxygen/ oxygen mask 100% O2... emergency descent, land ASAP and seek medical attention even if symptoms go away in descent...

Hypoxic Hypoxia

insufficient oxygen in the body, a blocked airway deprives lungs of oxygen. Reduction in pressure at high altitudes is a concern for pilots. Same percentage of O2 but lower pressure. Less molecules leads to hypoxic hypoxia. Dry ice can lead to hypoxia because it quickly replaces O2 with CO2 since it sublimates, therefore place in an outer shipping container or container that allow ventilation.

Hypoxia (general definition)

reduced oxygen, greatest concern lack of oxygen to the brain, this can result in life threatening errors. Caused by several factors: insufficient supply of oxygen, inadequate transportation of oxygen and in ability of body to use oxygen. High altitude flying puts pilots at risk Carefree flying then extremities become less responsive... Cyanosis (blue fingernails and lips) ... Headache... Increased reaction time... Visual impairments... Drowsiness, light headed or dizzy sensation... Tingling in fingers and toes... Numbness ... Field of vision becomes narrow and reading instruments become difficult.

RNAV Direct Planning Rules

· File Airport to Airport · Have appropriate RNAV suffix in the plan. · File SIDs and STARs to begin and end over the appropriate transition. · File structure transitions to and from the random route portions. · Define route by waypoints: have at least one for each ARTCC area, within 200 NM of center boundary, one for each course bend, enough to ensure accurate navigation, and to avoid prohibited and restricted airspace by 3 NM. · ONLY APPROVED IN RADAR ENVIRONMENT · HAS APPROVED AREA NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT