carbohydrates
what is a pheochromocytoma
a tumor of the adrenal medulla which causes hyperglycemia
how long does it take for complex sugars to get broken down and why
a while because they are held together in long complex chains
what three ketones are commonly detects
acetone, acetoacetic acid, and 3-B hydroxybutyric aicid
what do fatty acids get converted to to make energy
acetyl-CoA
what is the main substrate for fatty acid synthesis
acetyl-CoA
what can high levels of GH be associated with
acromegaly and hyperglycemia
what is the main substrate of protein synthesis
amino acids
what is the pre diabetic range for fasting plasma glucose
between 100 and 126
what is the OGTT values that represent pre diabetes
between 140 and 200 mg/dL
define lipolysis
breakdown of TAGS in adipose tissue
define glycolysis
breakdown of glucose to make ATP
define glycogenolysis
breakdown of stored glycogen to glucose
how does glucagon increase glucose levels
by stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
define ketose
carbonyl group is in the middle of the molecule
define lipolysis
conversion of glucose to fat
what is the first step for all three pathways
convert glucose 6- phosphate via hexokinase
how much glycogen do you have stored in your body
enough for half a day of activity
pyruvate can be converted to Acetyl-CoA to aid in what
fatty acid synthesis or for energy in the TCA cycle
in starvation what gets used a fuel
fatty acids
what is the end product for fatty acid synthesis
fatty acids
what are the main substrates and end products for fatty acid oxidations
fatty acids acetyl-CoA, ATP, ketone bodies
what is HPL associated with
gestational diabetes
what are the 7 hormones that increase blood sugar levels
glucagon, ACTH, growth hormone, cortisol, human placental lactogen, epinephrin, T3 and T4
in the TCA cycle pyruvate can be converted to alanine to aid in what metabolic process
gluconeogenesis
in the TCA cycle pyruvate can be converted to lactate to aid in what metabolic process
gluconeogenesis
in the TCA cycle pyruvate can be converted to oxaloacetate to aid in what metabolic process
gluconeogenesis
what system does your body shift to when glycogen is depleted during fasting and sleep
gluconeogenesis
what is an example of a aldose
glucose
what is the end product of gluconeogenesis
glucose
what is the only molecule that is directly used for energy or stored as glycogen
glucose
whay is the main substrate of glycolysis and its end product
glucose pyruvate and ATP
what two sugars make up sucrose
glucose and fructose
what two sugars make up lactose
glucose and galactose
what two sugars make up maltose
glucose and glucose
what are three examples of monosaccharides
glucose, fructose, and galactose
what is the main substrate for lipogenesis
glycerol and fatty acids
what is the main substrate for glycogenolysis and the main end product
glycogen glucose
what pathways occur to raise blood glucose levels
glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis which is couples with lipolysis
what pathways occur to help lower blood glucose levels
glycolysis coupled with lipogenesis and glycogenesis
what tube do you use for glucose testing
grey
what two systems regulate blood sugar levels between meals
hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
what is the current enzymatic test done to measure glucose
hexokinase where NADPH is measured at 340nm
what are you insulin and glucagon levels in the fed state
high insulin, low glucagon
what two conditions are associated with cushings
hypercortisolism and hyperglycemia
when would you use a fructosamine test
if patients red cells die to quickly
what do lactate labs help show
if the pateint has severe acidosis or increased anaerobic metabolism
what hormone lowers blood sugar levels
insulin
what is the main substrate of gluconeogenesis
lactate, alanine, and glycerol
define ketogenesis
large amounts of acetyl-CoA from fatty acids get broken down making ketones
what are you insulin and glucagon levels in the fasting state
low insulin, high glucagon
what are three examples of disaccharides
maltose, lactose, and sucrose
define gluconeogenesis in depth
process of taking lactate, amino acids, and glycerol to make glucose using fatty acids as energy
what is the end product of protein synthesis
protein
what are the main substrates of proteolysis and the end end products
proteins amino acids and glucose
what is the main substrate for TCA cycle and its end products
pyruvate NADH, FADH2
what converts pyruvate to acetyl-CoA
pyruvate dehydrogenase
what enzymes help breakdown startch and glycogen
salivary and pancreatic amylase
what are two examples of polysacchardies
startch and glycogen
how does epi increase glucose levels
stimulates glycogenolysis
what can G-6-P be stored as and why
stored as glycogen for when the body has enough glucose
define aldose
terminal carbonyl group
what is the glucose oxidase test
test where H2O2 reacts with a chromogen in the presence of peroxidase to give a color change (urine dipstick tests)
define gluconeogenesis
the TCA cycle makes glucose from amino acids, glycerol, and lactate
where is ACTH made
the anterior pituitary gland and it will stimulate the release of cortisol
where does gluconeogenesis occur
the liver
define glycogenesis
the making of glycogen
define gluconeogenesis
the process of making glucose
what occurs when carbohydrates undergo glycolysis
they yield pyruvate which is converted to acetyl-CoA
what is the end goal of the pentose phosphate pathway
to make ribose and NADPH to prevent oxidation of red cells
when do you use C-peptide measurements
to measure endogenous insulin levels
when do you use microalbuminuria tests
to see if there is protein in the urine
what are the main substrates for lipolysis and the end products
triglycerides glycerol, fatty acids
what is the end product of lipogenesis
triglycerids
contrast the obesity in type 1 and type 2
type 1 : people are usually thin type 3: obesity is associated with
contrast the rate of DKA in type 1 and type 2
type 1: DKA is very common type 2: DKA is rare
contrast the insulin synthesis and quantity in type 1 and type 2 diabetes
type 1: destruction of beta cells, so low insulin type 2: insulin resistance, can be in any range
contrast the onset of type 1 and type 2 diabetes
type 1: kids type 2: adults
how long does it take for simple sugars to get broken down
very quickly, within the hour
what does the realease glucagon
when the alpha cells detect low blood glucose levels
when does lipolysis get increased
when you need more glycerol for glucose and fatty acids
what specimen do you use for A1C testing
whole blood from an EDTA tube
what is the glucose renal threshold
180 mg/dL if this exceeds glucose will spill over into the urine
in anerobic glycolysis how many ATP are made
2
during aerobic glycolysis how many ATP molecules are made
32
when your blood sugar levels drop below what level can they cause coma or death
45 mg/dL
what is the clinical range for hypoglyccemia
50-55 mg/dL
what HgbA1C value is diagnostic of diabetes
6.5% and above
what is the normal CSF range of flcuose
60% of the plasma level
how long should you fast before running glucose labs
8-10 hours
what fasting flasma glucose value representes diabetes
>126 mg/dL
wgat is the 2-hr plasma glucose vlaue that is diagnostic for diabetes
>200 mg/dL
what conformation are sugars usually in
D form
what are the main substrates for the pentose phosphate pathway and the end product
G-G-P NADPH, ribose, phosphate
