Ch11-15

fibrinogen

plays a key role in blood coagulation

Mechanical barrier

prevents the entry of certain pathogens by providing physical separation, such as unbroken skin and mucous membranes of the body

Antibody action: activation of completment

results in opsonization, chemotaxis, inflammation, agglutination, neutralization, alteration, or lysis of antigens or antigen-bearing cells

Antibody action: direct attack

by aggutination, precipitation, or neutralization of antigens, make antigens more susceptible to phagocytosis

Chemical barriers

chemicals that kill many pathogens, such as acidic environment in gastric juice, enzymes, interferons, complement

globulins

classified as alpha, beta, and gamma

Peptidases

digestive enzyme on microvilli in the small intestines that break down dipeptides to amino acids

Sucrase, maltase, and lactase

digestive enzyme on microvilli in the small intestines that break down disaccharides to monosaccharides

pituitary dwarfism

due to GH deficiency during childhood

gigantism

due to GH oversecretion during childhood

acromegaly

due to GH oversecretion in adulthood

fever

elevated body temperature, provides a hostile environment for pathogens; also causes liver and spleen to take up iron, keeping it from fungi or bacteria which need it, phagocytic cells also attack more

contraction strength and size of the heart

factors that affect cardiac output

gamma globulin

function as antibodies

albumins

help maintain colloid osmotic pressure

interferons

hormone-like peptides secreted by lymphocytes and fibroblasts when viruses or tumor cells are present, block viral replication and slows the growth of tumors

Antibody action: Inflammation

stimulation of local inflammatory changes in the area, that helps prevent the spread of the pathogens

Artificially acquired passive immunity

involves the injection of gamma globulins containing antibodies or antiserum; this is short term, because there was no antigen exposure, no immune response, and no memory B cells produced

IgA

is found in exocrine gland secretions (breast milk, saliva, tears), and defends against bacteria and viruses.

IgM

is found in plasma, activates complement, and reacts with red blood cells during transfusions.

Immunoglobulin G (IgG)

is found in tissue fluid and plasma and defends against bacteria, viruses, and toxins and activates complement.

IgE

is found on surfaces of basophils and mast cells, and promotes allergic reactions.

D

is found on the surface of most B lymphocytes, and functions in B cell activation.

thrombus, embolus

A clot that forms abnormally in a vessel is a _______________; if it dislodges, it is an __________.

Granulocytes

A group of leukocytes containing granules in their cytoplasm; neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils.

Agranulocytes

A group of leukocytes without granules in their nuclei; lymphocytes, monocytes.

agglutination

After mixed success with transfusions, scientists determined that blood was of different types, and only certain combinations were compatible. Clumping of red blood cells following a transfusion of mismatched blood is called ___________.

blue, 1%

Basophils have fewer, larger granules that stain ___________; they account for fewer than ________% of WBCs.

mast, basophils, histamine, prostaglandin D2

During allergic reactions, _____________ cells and _________ release _____________, _________, and leukotrienes, producing a variety of effects.

monosaccharides (glucose)

During digestion, complex carbohydrates are broken down into __________, which can be absorbed by the body.

supplying oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removing wastes from them

Functions of the cardiovascular systems are

thin muscle layer, valves, lumen is larger, blood pressure lower, functions as blood reservoirs

How are veins different from arteries?

biconcave, hemoglobin

RBCs are _______ disks that contain one-third oxygen-carrying __________ by volume.

rhesus

The Rh factor was named after the ___________ monkey.

bile, hepatopancreatic sphincter

The pancreatic and ___________ ducts join and empty into the small intestine, which is regulated by the ___________ sphincter.

protein

The stomach is a J-shaped muscular organ that uses gastric juices to begin _________ digestion.

oxygen and carbon dioxide

What are the two most important blood gases? _______

oxyhemoglobin, deoxyhemoglobin

When oxygen combines with hemoglobin, a bright red substance called _________ results. After releasing oxygen, the hemoglobin is darker, and is now called ________.

B, helper

A ___________ cell may become activated and produce a clone of cells when its antigen receptors encounter their matching antigen, but most of these cells need ____________ T cells for activation.

differential; leukocytosis, leukopenia

A ___________ white blood cell count can help pinpoint the nature of an illness, indicating whether it is caused by bacteria or viruses. This white blood cell count lists the percentages of each of the types of leukocytes in a blood sample. ___________ occurs after an infection when excess numbers of leukocytes are present. ___________ (too few WBCs) results from a variety of conditions, including AIDS.

edema

A condition that interferes with the flow in lymph will result in a condition called

syncytium

A mass of merging fibers that act as a unit is called a functional __________; one exists in the atria and one in the ventricles.

antigens, rejection; close matching of doner and recipient tissues, use of immunosuppressive drugs

A transplant recipient's immune system may react with foreign __________ on the surface of the transplanted tissue, causing a tissue ____________ reaction. How can this reaction be reduced?

antibodies, antigens

Agglutination is due to the interaction of proteins on the surfaces of red blood cells, called ___________, with certain proteins, called ___________, carried in the plasma.

harmless antigens

Allergic reactions to ______________ are excessive immune responses that may lead to tissue damage.

malnutrition

An adequate diet provides sufficient energy as well as adequate supplies of essential nutrients to support growth, repair, and maintenance of tissues. _____________ is poor nutrition that results either from a lack of essential nutrients or a failure to utilize them; it may result from under-nutrition or over-nutrition.

complete, essential; incomplete

Animal sources of protein contain ____________ proteins, which contain all ___________ amino acids. Plant sources of protein are missing one or more essential amino acids, making them ___________ proteins that should be consumed in combinations.

pharyngeal

Another lymphatic tissue mass, the ___________ tonsils (adenoids), are located on the posterior wall of the pharynx, above the border of the soft palate.

direct attack, activation of complement, inflammation

Antibodies can react to antigens in three ways: what are they?

pathogen, mechanical, second

Any agent that causes infection or disease is called a __________. The first line of defense is a _________ barrier, while the rest of the innate defenses are the _________ line of defense.

precapillary, oxygen

Areas with a great deal of metabolic activity (leg muscles, for example) have higher densities of capillaries. __________ sphincters can regulate the amount of blood entering a capillary bed, and are controlled by the ___________ concentration in the area. If blood is needed elsewhere in the body, the capillary beds in less important areas are shut down.

highest, systolic; lowest, diastolic

Arterial blood pressure rises and falls, following a pattern established by the cardiac cycle. During ventricular contraction, arterial pressure is at its __________ or _________ pressure. When the ventricles are relaxing, arterial pressure is at its ___________ or ___________ pressure.

vasoconstriction, vasodilation

Arteries are capable of ___________ as directed by sympathetic impulses; when impulses are inhibited, the diameter of the vessel increases, which is called _________.

arterioles

Arteries are strong, elastic vessels adapted for carrying high-pressure blood away from the heart. Arteries become smaller as they divide and become ___________.

fats, cholecystokinin

As more food enters the small intestine, secretion of gastric juice from the stomach wall is inhibited. The presence of ____________ and proteins in the upper small intestine causes the release of _____________ from the ___________ wall, which also decreases gastric motility.

papillary, chordae tendineae

As the ventricles contract, __________ muscles contract, pulling on _________________ and preventing the backflow of blood through the tricuspid and mitral valves.

palatine, lymphatic

Associated with the palate in the back of the mouth are ____________ tonsils, which, because they are _____________ tissue, help to protect the body against infection.

parietal

At the base of the heart, the inner layer folds back to become the __________ pericardium.

colloid osmotic, lymphatic

At the venular end of the capillary, ___________ pressure , due to the proteins in the blood, causes much of the tissue fluid to return to the bloodstream. ____________ capillaries collect excess tissue fluid and return it to the circulation.

Migrate to damaged tissues and release histamine to promote inflammation and heparin to inhibit blood clotting

Basophils produce chemicals; what are the functions of these chemicals?

self; antigens, haptens

Before birth, the body makes an inventory of "__________" proteins and other large molecules. _____________ are generally larger molecules that elicit an immune response. Sometimes small molecules called _____________ combine with larger molecules and become antigenic.

pericardial, serous

Between the visceral and parietal layers of the pericardium is a potential space called the _________ cavity; it is filled with ________ fluid, which reduces friction.

cholecystokinin (CKK), hepatopancreatic

Bile does not normally enter the duodenum until ______________ stimulates the gallbladder to contract. The ___________ sphincter remains contracted unless a peristaltic wave approaches it, at which time it relaxes and a squirt of bile enters the duodenum.

hepatic, hemoglobin

Bile is a yellowish-green liquid that _____________ cells secrete; it includes water, bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, and electrolytes. Bile pigments are breakdown products from _____________ blood cells.

fat, fat-soluble vitamins

Bile salts emulsify ___________ into smaller droplets, and aid in the absorption of fatty acids, cholesterol, and certain ____________.

clotting, clot

Blood coagulation is the most effective means of hemostasis. It is a complex sequence of chemical reactions, involving several _________ factors, and leading to the formation of a blood _________.

oxygen, nutrients, tissue fluids

Blood entering capillaries contains high concentrations of __________ and _________ that diffuse out of the capillary wall and into the _________ ___________.

portal, kupffer

Blood from the hepatic _____________ vein carries blood rich in absorbed nutrients to the liver. _______________ cells carry on phagocytosis in the liver.

megakaryocytes, vessels, 150k-350k

Blood platelets are fragments of large cells called ___________. Platelets help repair breaks in damaged blood _______. Normal counts vary from _________ to__________ platelets per mm3.

skeletal, thoracic, abdominal

Blood pressure at the venular end of a capillary is almost 0. So other factors help return the blood to the heart. Contractions of ___________ muscles squeeze blood back up veins one valve at a time. Differences in ___________ and ___________ pressures, derived from the breathing process, draw blood back up the veins.

cardiac, peripheral

Blood pressure is partially determined by ____________ output and ___________resistance.

arterial

Blood pressure is the force of blood against the inner walls of blood vessels anywhere in the cardiovascular system, although the term "blood pressure" usually refers to ___________ pressure.

pulmonary, systemic

Blood vessels can be divided into 2 major pathways, the _________ circuit, which goes from the heart to the lungs and back, and the _________ circuit, which goes from the heart to the body cells and back.

connective, cells, chemicals, fluids

Blood, a type of _________ tissue, is a complex mixture of what three things?

amino acids, blood

Building blocks of proteins, called __________ acids are absorbed into the villi by active transport and are carried away in the _________.

endothelium

Capillaries are the smallest vessels, consisting only of a layer of _________, through which substances are exchanged with tissue cells.

starch=grains; glycogen=meat; disaccharides=milk, cane, beet sugar, molasses; monosaccharides=honey, fruit

Carbohydrates are ingested in a variety of forms; list some of these forms

energy

Carbohydrates, such as sugars and starches, are organic compounds used for sources of __________ in the diet.

stroke, heart

Cardiac output is the product of ____________ volume and _______ rate, and a number of factors can affect these variables.

goblet

Cells that secrete mucus in the small intestine include __________ cells, which are abundant throughout the mucosa.

amino acids from proteins

Certain body cells (neurons) need a continuous supply of glucose to survive; if glucose is scarce, noncarbohydrates such as _________ may be converted into glucose.

thromboplastin, prothrombin

Damaged tissues release a chemical called tissue ___________, which activates the first in a series of factors leading to the production of __________ activator.

4, bones, teeth

Dietary minerals are derived from the soil and are essential in human metabolism. Minerals are responsible for ___________% of body weight, and are concentrated in the ____________ and __________.

triglycerides, glycerol

Digestion breaks down ____________ into fatty acids and _____________.

alimentary, accessory

Digestion refers to the mechanical and chemical breakdown of foods, so that nutrients can be absorbed by cells. The digestive system consists of the ____________ canal, through which the food passes, and the__________ organs that aid in digestion.

Intestinal lipase

Digestive enzyme on microvilli in the small intestines that break down triglycerides to fatty acids and glycerol

red, T, B

During fetal development, __________ bone marrow releases lymphocytes into the circulation, 70-80% of which become ___________ lymphocytes, and 20-30% of which become ______ cells. Undifferentiated lymphocytes that reach the thymus become T cells; B cells are thought to mature in the bone marrow. Both B and T cells reside in lymphatic organs.

osmotic

During filtration, some smaller proteins leak from capillaries into the interstitial spaces, and are not returned to the bloodstream, thus increasing ____________ pressure within the tissues. This rising pressure interferes with the return of fluids to the bloodstream, and forces some of the fluid into lymphatic capillaries.

AV and semilunar valves

During the cardiac cycle, pressure within the heart chambers rises and falls. These pressure changes open and close _________.

villus, lacteal

Each ____________ contains a core of connective tissue housing blood capillaries and a lymphatic capillary called a ___________. Between the bases of adjacent villi are tubular intestinal glands.

hepatic, hepatic

Each lobe is separated into ____________ lobules consisting of ___________ cells radiating from a central vein.

enamel, dentin, pulp, periodontal

Each tooth consists of a crown and a root. The surface of a tooth is covered with ________, while the bulk of the tooth beneath is made of _________. The central cavity is called the _______ cavity. A tooth is held tightly in its socket by a ___________ ligament.

bi, 1-3%

Eosinophils have coarse granules that stain deep blue, a __________-lobed nucleus, and make up only ___________% of circulating leukocytes.

glycogen, triglycerides (fats)

Excess glucose is stored as __________ in the liver or is converted into ___________ and stored in adipose tissue.

homeostasis

Factors that serve as stressors to the body produce stress and threaten ______________. Stress may be physical, psychological, or some combination of the two.

Fat soluble vitamins

Fats-soluble vitamins dissolve in fats and are influenced by some of the factors that influence lipid absorption. Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in moderate quantities in the body and are usually not destroyed by cooking or processing foods.

diffuse, endoplasmic reticula; chylomicrons, lacteals

Fatty acids are absorbed and transported differently than the other nutrients. Fatty acid molecules ____________ into the cell membranes of the villi. The _____________ of the cells reconstruct the lipids. These lipids collect in clusters that become encased in protein, called _________. These clusters enter _________, from which they eventually join the bloodstream.

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils; monocytes, lymphocytes

Five types of white blood cells are present in circulating blood, and are distinguished by size, granular appearance of the cytoplasm, shape of the nucleus, and staining characteristics. Name these five types of WBCs

chyme, peristaltic

Following a meal, mixing actions of the stomach turn the food into __________ and pass it toward the pyloric region using _______________ waves.

vascular spasm/vasospasm

Following injury to a vessel, three steps occur in hemostasis: blood vessel spasm, platelet plug formation, and blood coagulation. Trauma to, or cutting of a blood vessel, causes the muscle in its walls to contract, or engage in __________. This reflex lasts only a few minutes, but lasts long enough to initiate the second and third steps of hemostasis.

Systemic pathway

From left ventricle to right atria (remember opposite sides) to rest of body other than lungs

Pulmonary pathway

From right ventricle to left Atria (remember opposite sides) to lungs

gastrin

Gastric secretions are enhanced by parasympathetic impulses and the hormone ___________, which is released from gastric glands.

increases, glycogen, glucose

Glucagon ___________ the blood levels of glucose by stimulating the breakdown of _________ and the conversion of noncarbohydrates into _____________.

stresses, glucose

Glucocorticoid from the adrenal cortex influences the metabolism of glucose, protein, and fat in response to conditions that _________ the body and require a greater supply of ____________ in the bloodstream.

ventricles, tricuspid, bicuspid; ventricles, pulmonary

Heart sounds can be described as a "lubb-dupp" sound. The first sound (lubb) occurs as the ___________ contract and the ___________ and _________valves are closing. The second sound (dupp) occurs as __________ relax and aortic and __________ valves are closing.

heme, globin

Hemoglobin from the decomposed red blood cells is split into _____________ and __________.

stops bleeding

Hemostasis refers to the process that ________________.

sinusoids

Hepatic _____________ separate groups of hepatic cells.

Hypothalamus secretes CRH, which causes the anterior pituitary to secrete ACTH, which stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce the hormone; CRH and ACTH is inhibited by cortisol

How does negative feedback control glucocorticoids?

4, on back of the thyroid gland

How many and where are the parathyroid glands found?

positive, negative

If the Rh factor surface protein is present on red blood cells, the blood is Rh ____________; if not, it is Rh _______________.

secondary

If the same antigen is encountered again, more numerous memory cells can mount a more rapid response, known as the _____________ immune response. The ability to produce a secondary immune response may be long-lasting.

cerebrum, hypothalamus, ions

Impulses from the _________ or _________ may also influence the cardiac control center. Body temperature and the concentrations of certain ___________ also influence heart rate.

synctium, atrioventricular, AV

Impulses spread next to the atrial ______________; it contracts, and impulses travel to the junctional fibers leading to the __________ node (_________ node) located in the septum.

own; viral infection, faulty T-cell development, reaction to a nonself antigen that bears close resemblance to a self antigen; Type 1 diabetes mellitus

In autoimmune disorders, the immune system manufactures antibodies against some of its ____________ antigens. What may cause this? Examples?

chains along lymphatic vessels, major areas are cervical, thoracic, axillary, supratrochlear, abdominal, pelvic, and inguinal regions

In general, where are lymph nodes located?

helper, histocompatibility

In order for a _____________ T cell to become activated, it must first encounter an antigen-presenting cell displaying the antigen on its major __________________ complex (MHC) proteins; if the antigen fits the T cell's antigen receptors, it becomes activated and stimulates B cells to produce antibodies.

liver, bone marrow

In the embryo and fetus, red blood cell production occurs in the yolk sac, ____________, and spleen; after birth, it occurs in the red ___________.

parasympathetic

In the small intestines, mechanical and chemical stimulation from chyme causes goblet cells to secrete mucus. Distention of the intestinal wall stimulates ___________ reflexes that stimulate secretions from the small intestine.

peristalsis, stomach

In the third stage of swallowing, ___________ transports the food in the esophagus to the ____________.

white, red

Inside the spleen lies __________ pulp (containing many lymphocytes) and ___________ pulp (containing red blood cells, macrophages, and lymphocytes).

decreases, glycogen, protein, fat

Insulin ____________ the blood levels of glucose by stimulating the liver to form ____________, increasing ___________ synthesis, and stimulating adipose cells to store _________.

microvilli

Intestinal glands at the bases of the villi secrete large amounts of watery fluid that carry digestive products into the villi. Epithelial cells of the mucosa have embedded digestive enzymes on their tiny hairlike ___________.

islets (of Langerhans), alpha, beta

Its endocrine portions are the pancreatic _________ that include two cell types--__________ cells that secrete glucagon, and ____________ cells that secrete insulin.

AV, bundle branches, purkinje

Junctional fibers are small, allowing the atria to contract before the impulse spreads rapidly over the ventricles. The impulse proceeds to the next conduction structure, the ___________ bundle (Bundle of _His_), which splits into the left and right _________ _________. These branches give rise to __________ fibers, which lead into the ventricular myocardium and the papillary muscles.

trunks

Larger lymphatic vessels pass through lymph nodes and merge to form lymphatic ____________.

energy, triglycerides

Lipids are organic substances that supply ___________ for cellular processes and to build structures. The most common dietary lipids are ____________.

phospholipids, cholesterol, triglycerides

Lipids include _______, ________ for cell membranes, and ____________________.

bean, hilum

Lymph nodes are _________shaped, with blood vessels, nerves, and efferent lymphatic vessels attached to the indentation, called the ______________, and with afferent lymphatic vessels entering on the convex surface.

connective, sinuses; lymphocytes, microphages

Lymph nodes are covered with _____________ tissue, that extends inside the node and divides it into nodules and spaces called _________ __________. The nodes contain both __________ and __________, which clean the lymph as it flows through the node.

closed, interstitial, lymph

Lymphatic capillaries are tiny, __________ -ended tubes that extend into ___________ spaces. They receive tissue fluid through their thin walls; once inside, tissue fluid is called ____________.

fluid, lacteals

Lymphatic vessels collect and carry away excess ____________ from interstitial spaces, and special vessels called ___________ transport fats to the cardiovascular system.

round, 25-33%

Lymphocytes are long-lived, have a large, ___________ nucleus, and account for _________ to ________% of circulating WBCs.

enzymes, osmotic, nerve impulses, muscle, coagulation, pH

Minerals may be incorporated into organic molecules or inorganic compounds, while others are free ions. Minerals comprise parts of the structural materials in all body cells, where they may also be portions of ________; they contribute to the __________ pressure of body fluids and play roles in conduction of __________, ____________ contraction, ___________ of blood, and maintenance of __________ .

largest, kidney, oval/round/lobed, 3-9%

Monocytes are the ___________ blood cells, have _________-shaped or _________ nuclei. They comprise _________ to _________% of circulating leukocytes.

submucosa

Mucous glands are scattered throughout the _________ of the esophagus and produce mucus to moisten and lubricate the inner lining of the tube.

purple, 2, 5, 54-62%

Neutrophils have _________-staining fine cytoplasmic granules and a ___________ to ___________-lobed nucleus; they comprise _________ percent of leukocytes.

3500-10500

Normally a cubic milliliter of blood contains between ___________ & ____________ WBCs.

positive, plasminogen, plasmin

Once a blood clot forms, it promotes still more clotting through a ___________ feedback system. After the clot forms, and healing has occurred, it will eventually be dissolved by the body. This requires the plasma protein _________ to be converted into active _________, which digests fibrin threads.

salts

Only the bile _____________ have a digestive function.

intrinsic

Other components of gastric juice include __________ factor, required for vitamin B12 absorption from the small intestine.

water

Plasma is the clear, straw-colored fluid portion of the blood. Plasma is composed mostly of _____________, but contains a variety of substances.

relax or contract smooth muscle, stimulate secretions of other hormones, influence blood pressure, affect reproductive physiology

Prostaglandins are locally-produced lipids that affect the organ in which they are produced, with a variety of effects. What are some of these effects?______________________

metabolic, nitrogen; 0.8

Protein requirements vary according to body size, ______________ rate, and _____________ requirements. For the average adult, nutritionists recommend _________ grams of protein per day per kilogram of body weight; pregnant and nursing women need more.

inactive/zymogen granules

Protein-digesting enzymes are released in an ____________ form, and are activated upon reaching the small intestine.

amino; enzymes, hormones, antibodies, clotting factors, keratin, elastin, collagen, etc

Proteins are polymers of __________ acids with a wide variety of functions in cells and in the body. List these functions.

prothrombin, thrombin; fibrinogen, fibrin

Prothrombin activator converts inactive ___________ in the plasma into active ___________. This in turn, catalyzes a reaction that converts soluble _________ into netlike ___________, causing the blood cells to catch in a meshwork of threads.

nuclei

Red blood cells discard their ___________ during development, so they cannot reproduce or produce proteins.

valves, muscle

Rings of dense connective tissue surround the pulmonary trunk and aorta to provide attachments for the heart ___________ and __________ fibers. These tough rings prevent dilating of tissue in this area.

serous, salivary amylase, mucous

Salivary glands contain ____________ cells that produce a watery fluid containing an enzyme called ____________, and ___________ cells that produce a lubricating and binding fluid.

thought, sight, or smell

Salivary glands receive parasympathetic stimulation that triggers the production of a large volume of saliva at the ___________ or ______________ of food.

bile canaliculi, common hepatic duct

Secretions from hepatic cells are collected in __________ canals that, empty into bile ductules, that converge to become hepatic ducts and finally form the __________ __________ duct.

inner, male hormone, adrenal androgens, female, estrogens

Sex hormones, produced in the __________ zone, are mostly of the _________ type, called _________, but can be converted to ____________ hormones, called _________, in the skin, liver, and adipose tissues. These hormones supplement those released by the gonads, and may stimulate early development of reproductive organs.

venules, veins; valves

Small vessels called ___________ lead from capillaries, and merge to form larger ___________ that return blood to the heart. Veins have the same three layers as arteries, and have flap-like __________ inside to prevent backflow of blood.

plasma, antibodies; memory B

Some of the new B cells become _____________ cells, producing and secreting ______________. Other new B cells become ____________ cells, to respond to future encounters with the antigen.

rough, collagen

Spasm of the injured vessel is followed by the formation of a platelet plug. Platelets stick to any _________ surface, especially _________ in connective tissue. A platelet plug is most effective on small vessels.

sinoatrial, SA, pacemaker

Specialized cardiac muscle tissue conducts impulses throughout the myocardium and comprises the cardiac conduction system. A self-exciting mass of specialized cardiac muscle called the _________ node (____ node), located in the posterior right atrium, generates the impulses for heartbeats. Therefore, it is also called the _________ of the heart.

oropharynx, reflex

Swallowing can be divided into three stages. During the first stage, food is mixed with saliva and voluntarily forced into the __________ by the tongue. Sensory receptors here sense food, which triggers swallowing _____________.

liver

The _________ and adipose tissue control triglyceride metabolism, which has many steps.

lower (cardiac)

The _________ esophageal sphincter helps to prevent regurgitation of the stomach contents into the esophagus.

QRS, depolarization, repolarization

The __________ complex of the ECG corresponds to the ___________ of the ventricles and hides the ___________ of the atria.

hypothalamus; Fight or flight: epinephrine from adrenal medulla, norepinephrine from hypothalamus and adrenal medulla; Long-term adjustment/resistance stage CRH from hypothalamus to release ACTH from anterior pituitary, which then causes adrenal cortex to release cortisol

The __________ controls the general stress syndrome, which involves increased sympathetic activity and increased secretion of which hormones?

lips, contain sensory receptors to detect temperature and texture of food

The ___________ are highly mobile structures that surround the mouth opening. What is their function?

cardiac, medulla oblongata, baroreceptor reflexes

The ___________ control center of the __________ ___________ maintains a balance between the two autonomic divisions of the nervous system in response to messages from ____________, which detect changes in blood pressure.

sublingual

The ___________ glands, inferior to the tongue, are the smallest of the major salivary glands and secrete mucous saliva that is thick and stringy.

nervous, internal fluid

The ___________ system influences certain endocrine glands directly with impulses. Other glands respond directly to changes in the composition of the _________ environment.

T, repolarization

The ___________ wave ends the ECG pattern and corresponds to ventricular ___________.

liver, adipose

The ____________ controls circulating lipids and cholesterol. Excessive lipids are stored in ____________ tissue.

aorta

The ____________ is the body's largest artery.

liver, essential

The _____________ can convert fatty acids from one form to another, but it cannot synthesize the ________ fatty acids that must be obtained from the diet.

submandibular

The _____________ glands, located on the floor of the mouth, secrete a more viscous fluid.

parotid

The _____________ glands, lying in front of the ears, are the largest of the major salivary glands; they secrete a clear, watery fluid rich in amylase.

duodenum

The _____________ is the shortest and most fixed portion of the small intestine; the rest is mobile and lies free in the __________ cavity.

muscularis, circular

The _____________ layer consists of inner ____________ fibers and outer longitudinal fibers that propel food through the canal.

hydrostatic

The _____________ pressure of tissue fluid drives the entry of lymph into lymphatic capillaries.

vasomotor, medulla oblongata, smooth muscles

The __________center of the __________ _________ in the brain stem can adjust sympathetic impulses to ___________ in arteriole walls, adjusting blood pressure.

macrophage

The activation of this cell requires the presence of an antigen-presenting cell, such as a B cell or a _________, which has already encountered the antigen. There are several kinds of T cells.

epithelial

The adrenal cortex makes up most of the adrenal glands and consists of ___________ cells in three layers—an outer, middle, and an inner zone. Several groups of steroid hormones are secreted by the cortex.

kidneys, adipose and connective tissues

The adrenal glands sit atop the _________, enclosed in a layer of ___________.

postganglionic neurons, sympathetic; bloodstream

The adrenal medulla is made up of modified ___________ that are connected to the __________ nervous system. The hormones secreted are the same as neurotransmitters of this system, but are called hormones because they are secreted into the ________.

sympathetic, parasympathetic

The amount of blood pumped at any time must adjust to the current needs of the body (more is needed during strenuous exercise). The SA node is innervated by branches of the _____________ and ___________ divisions of the nervous system, so the CNS helps to control heart rate. Impulses from the former speed up and impulses from the latter slow down heart rate.

internal anal, anal sphincter

The anal canal opens to the outside as the anus; it is guarded by an involuntary ________ _________ sphincter and a voluntary external ___________ ___________ muscle.

glandular epithelial, connective

The anterior pituitary consists mostly of ___________ tissue arranged around blood vessels and enclosed in a capsule of collagenous __________ tissue.

14, 9

The average adult heart is ___________ cm long and ___________ cm wide.

120 days

The average life span of a red blood cell is?

red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets; 45%, 55%

The blood includes what three types of cells and fragments? _______________________________ A blood sample is normally ___________% cells and _______________% plasma.

closed

The blood vessels (arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins) form a _____ tubular system that carries blood away from the heart, to the cells, and back again.

innate, nonspecific; adaptive, specific

The body has two types of defenses against disease causing agents: ________ or __________ defenses that guard against any of them, and ________ or _____________ defenses (immunity) that mount a response against a very specific target.

hypothalamus, hypophyseal portal; hypothalamus

The brain controls the activity of the pituitary gland in two ways: Releasing hormones from the ____________ control the secretions of the anterior pituitary and are carried in the bloodstream by _________ ___________ veins. The posterior pituitary releases hormones into the bloodstream in response to nerve impulses from the ___________.

systole, diastole, systole, diastole

The cardiac cycle consists of the atria beating in unison, called atrial _________, while the ventricles rest, called ventricular _________. This is followed by the contraction of both ventricles, called ventricular _________, while the atria relax, called atrial _________. Then the entire heart relaxes for a brief moment.

heart, erythropoietin

The digestive glands secrete hormones associated with the processes of digestion. The ____________ secretes atrial natriuretic peptide, which affects sodium excretion, and the kidneys secrete ____________ for red blood cell production.

maintain homeostasis

The endocrine system is made up of the cells, tissues, and organs that secrete hormones into body fluids such as the blood stream. What is its function?_____________

coronary

The first branches off of the aorta, which carry oxygen-rich blood, are the right and left _________ arteries that feed the heart muscle itself. Branches of these arteries feed many capillaries of the myocardium.

P, depolarization

The first wave of the ECG, the _________ wave, corresponds to the __________ of the atria.

Naturally acquired active immunity

occurs after exposure to the antigen itself; long-term resistance results, due ot the events of a primary immune response (memory B cells are produced)

Naturally acquired passive immunity

occurs as antibodies are passed from mother to fetus; this is short-term immunity, due to lack of an immune response and lack of memory B cell formation

cystic, common bile

The gallbladder is connected to the ___________ duct, which joins the hepatic duct; these two ducts merge to form the ________ _________ duct, leading to the duodenum. A sphincter muscle controls the release of bile from the common bile duct.

Artificially acquired active immunity

occurs through the use of vaccines, without the person becoming ill from the disease; since vaccines contain weakened or dead pathogens, the person develops long-term immunity, due to an immune response that includes memory B cell formation

septum

The heart has four internal chambers: two upper chambers and two lower chambers. A __________ divides the chambers on the left side from those on the right.

cone, mediastinum, diaphragm

The heart is a hollow, ___________-shaped, muscular pump within the _________; it rests on the _________

fifth

The heart lies posterior to the sternum; its apex extends to the _________ intercostal space

anastomoses

The heart muscle requires a continuous supply of oxygen-rich blood, so smaller branches of arteries often have _________ as alternate pathways for blood, should one pathway become blocked.

mineralcorticoid, sodium, potassium; outer layer

The hormone aldosterone is a ______ that controls the levels of __________ ions by conserving them in the ___________. It also causes the excretion of _________ ions. It's important in conserving water. What zone secretes it?

G protein, adenylate cyclase

The hormone-receptor complex (as first messenger) triggers a cascade of biological activity. The complex activates a protein in the cell membrane, called a _________. What is the name of a common second messenger?_______

anterior pituitary

The hypothalamus regulates the _________ _________ gland's release of hormones.

endocardium

The inner __________ is smooth and is made up of connective tissue and epithelium, and is continuous with the endothelium of major vessels joining the heart.

visceral, epicardium

The inner layer directly covers the heart and is called the _________ pericardium, or _________.

villi, absorption

The inner wall of the small intestine is lined with finger-like intestinal ___________, which greatly increase the surface area available for ___________ and aid in mixing actions

osmosis, diffusion, active transport

The intestinal villi also absorb water, by __________, and electrolytes, by _________ ________.

teniae coli, haustra

The large intestinal wall has the same four layers found in other areas of the alimentary canal, but lacks many of the features of the small intestinal mucosa, such as villi. Fibers of longitudinal muscle are arranged in ________ ________ that extend the entire length of the colon, creating a series of pouches, called ___________.

water, electrolytes, feces

The large intestine absorbs ____________ and ___________, and forms and stores ____________.

cecum, colon, rectum, anal

The large intestine consists of the __________ (pouch at the beginning of the large intestine), ___________ (ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid regions), the ____________, and the __________ canal.

electrolytes, vitamins

The large intestine does not digest or absorb nutrients, but it does secrete mucus. It does absorb water, ___________, and _________ made by bacteria.

pancreas, liver/gallbladder, chyme, large

The lengthy small intestine receives secretions from the following accessory organs: ____________ and ___________. It completes digestion of the nutrients in ____________, absorbs the products of digestion, and transports the remaining residue to the ___________ intestine.

A, D, B12

The liver also stores glycogen, vitamins ___, ___ and ____, iron, and blood.

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins

The liver carries on many diverse functions for the body. The liver is responsible for the metabolism of many chemicals, such as _______, ________ and ________.

blood, toxins

The liver filters the ______, removing damaged red blood cells and foreign substances, and removes __________.

lobes

The liver is divided into right and left _____________, and is enclosed by a fibrous capsule.

bile

The liver's role in digestion is to secrete ____________.

lymphocytes, T

The lobules contain ___________, some of which mature into ______ cells (or T lymphocytes), that leave the thymus to provide immunity.

vessels, glands

The lymphatic system is comprised of a network of _____________ that transports body fluids, the cells and chemicals in them, and the organs and ____________ that produce them.

for the regions they drain

The lymphatic trunks drain lymph from the lymphatic vessels. How are they named?

myocardium

The middle layer, called __________, consists of cardiac muscle and is the thickest layer of the heart wall.

peristalsis

The mixing movements occur when smooth muscles contract rhythmically in small sections of the tube. The propelling movements include a wavelike motion called __________, which is caused by contraction behind a mass of food as relaxation allows the mass to enter the next segment of the tube.

glucose

The monosaccharides that are absorbed in the small intestine are fructose, galactose, and glucose; the liver converts them all into ____________.

mixing, propelling

The motor functions of the alimentary canal are of two types:__________ movements and _________ movements.

mechanical, cheeks

The mouth is the first portion of the alimentary canal; it functions to receive food and begins ___________ digestion by mastication. The ____________ form the lateral walls of the mouth.

energy

The need for carbohydrates varies with a person's __________ requirements; the minimum requirement is unknown.

secretin, cholecystokinin

The nervous and endocrine systems regulate release of pancreatic juice. The hormone ___________ from the duodenum stimulates the release of pancreatic juice with a high bicarbonate ion concentration, but few digestive enzymes. ____________ from the wall of the small intestine stimulates the release of pancreatic juice with abundant digestive enzymes.

submucoa, loose

The next layer after mucosa is the ____________ which is made up of ____________ connective tissue containing blood, lymphatic vessels and nerves; it nourishes the surrounding layers of the canal.

disease

The organs of the lymphatic system help defend against ___________. Lymphatic pathways start as lymphatic capillaries, that merge to form larger vessels, that empty into the cardiovascular system.

serosa, serous

The outer layer, or _____________, is composed of visceral peritoneum that protects underlying tissues and secretes __________ fluid to keep the canal from sticking to other tissues in the abdominal cavity.

estrogen and progesterone

The ovaries produce what two hormones?

hard, soft, uvula

The palate forms the roof of the oral cavity and has an anterior ____________ palate and posterior ____________ palate. The latter and a flap called the ___________ function to close off the nasal cavity during swallowing.

exocrine, acinar, pancreatic

The pancreas has an ____________ function of producing pancreatic juice that aids digestion. The cells that produce pancreatic juice, called pancreatic ____________ cells, make up the bulk of the pancreas. These pancreatic cells cluster around tiny tubes that merge to form larger ones, and then give rise to the __________ duct.

endocrine, exocrine; posterior to the stomach

The pancreas secretes hormones as an __________ gland, and digestive juices into the digestive tract as an ___________ gland. Where is the pancreas located?_______

fibrous

The pericardium consists of two layers: the outer, tough connective tissue _________ pericardium, surrounding a more delicate double-layered sac that surrounds the heart. (serous pericardium)

nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx

The pharynx connects the nasal and oral cavities with the larynx and esophagus, and is divided into a ___________ (top portion), ___________ (middle portion), and ___________ (bottom portion).

digestive, respiratory

The pharynx is a cavity lying behind the mouth. It functions in both the ___________ and _________ systems.

melatonin, circadian

The pineal gland, near the upper portion of the thalamus, secretes __________, which is involved in the regulation of ___________ rhythms of the body.

anterior pituitary, posterior pituitary

The pituitary gland is attached to the base of the brain and has a front lobe called the ___________ and a rear lobe called the _____________.

urea and uric acid are by-products of protein and nucleic acid amino acids are derived from breakdown of proteins creatinine comes from breakdown of creatine phosphate in muscles

The plasma nutrients include amino acids, monosaccharides, nucleotides, and lipids. Types of lipoproteins include HDL, LDL, VLDL, and chylomicrons. Nonprotein Nitrogenous Substances generally include amino acids, urea, uric acid, and creatinine. What are they derived from? Plasma electrolytes are absorbed by the intestine or are by-products of cellular metabolism. They include sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate, phosphate, and sulfate ions.

albumins, globulins, fibrinogen

The plasma proteins are the most abundant dissolved substances in the plasma, the three proteins are?

axons, neuroglia; hypothalamus

The posterior lobe consists of ___________ fibers and supporting ________ cells arising in the hypothalamus. What structure actually produces the hormones released by the posterior pituitary?_______

right

The reddish-brown liver, located in the upper __________ quadrant of the abdominal cavity, is the body's largest internal organ.

tricuspid, bicuspid, mitral; chordae tendineae; papillary muscles

The right atrioventricular (AV) valve, called __________ valve, and left AV valve, called either ____________ or the __________ valve, have cusps to which strings called ________ ________ attach. These strings are, in turn, attached to ___________ muscles in the inner heart wall, which contract during ventricular contraction to prevent the backflow of blood through the AV valves.

saliva, carbohydrate

The salivary glands secrete _____________, which moistens and dissolves food particles, binds them together, allows tasting, helps to cleanse the mouth and teeth, and begins ________________ digestion.

duodenum, jejunum, ileium

The small intestine consists of what three parts?

mesentery

The small intestine is suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by a double-layered fold of peritoneum called ___________ .

monosaccharides, facilitated, blood

The small intestine is the major site of absorption within the alimentary canal. Simple sugars called ___________ are absorbed by the villi through active transport or ___________ diffusion and enter __________ capillaries.

blood, bacteria

The spleen filters the ____________ and removes damaged blood cells and foreign particles, such as _________.

left abdominal, blood

The spleen lies in the upper ________ _________ cavity, and is the body's largest lymphatic organ. The spleen resembles a large lymph node, except that it contains ____________ instead of lymph.

salts, drugs

The stomach absorbs only small quantities of water and certain ______, alcohol, and some lipid-soluble______.

pyloric

The stomach is divided into cardiac, fundic, body, and pyloric regions, and a pyloric canal. Be able to identify and locate these parts. A ____________ sphincter controls release of food from the stomach into the small intestine.

pulse

The surge of blood that occurs with ventricular contraction can be felt at certain points in the body as a __________.

testosterone

The testes produce ___

sternum, thymosin, immunity

The thymus gland, lying between the lungs under the _____________, secretes _________, which affect production and differentiation of T lymphocytes that are important in __________.

sternum

The thymus is a soft, bi-lobed organ located behind the _____________, which shrinks in size during the lifetime (large in children, microscopic in the elderly).

connective, lobules

The thymus is surrounded by a _______________ tissue capsule that extends inward and divides it into ____________.

thymosin

The thymus secretes hormone called __________, which influences the maturation of T lymphocytes

follicles, colloid

The thyroid consists of secretory parts called ___________, filled with hormone-storing ___________.

larynx, lobes, isthmus

The thyroid gland is located below the ___________ and consists of two broad ___________ connected by an ____________.

mucous, buds, papillae; lingual frenulum

The tongue is a thick, muscular organ covered by _____________ membrane with taste _________ located on ____________; it is attached to the floor of the mouth by the ___________.

negative, erythropoietin, oxygen

The total number of red blood cells remains relatively constant due to a ___________ feedback mechanism utilizing the hormone __________, which is released from the kidneys and liver in response to the detection of low ___________ levels.

interna, media, externa

The wall of an artery consists of an inner endothelial layer, called the tunica _______. The middle layer, called the tunica ___________ is made up of smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue. The tunica __________ is the outermost layer of connective tissue.

mucosa, epithelium

The wall of the alimentary canal consists of the same four layers throughout its length, with only slight Variations according to the functions of specific sections of the canal. The inner layer is the _________, which is lined with ____________ attached to connective tissue. It protects tissues of the canal and carries on secretion and absorption.

epicardium, coronary, visceral

The wall of the heart is composed of three distinct layers. The outermost layer, the __________, is made up of connective tissue and epithelium, and contains blood and lymph capillaries along with __________ arteries that provide blood to the heart. It is the same as the _________ pericardium.

thinner, valves

The walls of lymphatic vessels are ___________ than those of veins, but are composed of the same three layers. They also contain _________ to prevent backflow.

lymph, lymphocyte

The white blood cells within lymph nodes filter __________, and remove bacteria and cellular debris before it is returned to the blood. Lymph nodes are also centers of _____________ production; these cells function in immune surveillance.

five

There are ___ major types of antibodies (immunoglobulins) that constitute the gamma globulin fraction of the plasma.

erythrobiastosis fetalis

There are no corresponding antibodies in the plasma unless a person with Rh-negative blood is transfused with Rh-positive blood; the person will then develop antibodies for the Rh factor. ___________ develops in Rh-positive fetuses of Rh-negative mothers, but can now be prevented.

negative feedback

There are several ways in which hormone release is very closely regulated. All of these mechanisms use _________ _________.

collecting, right lymphatic duct, thoracic duct

These trunks join one of two __________ ducts. What are their names?

water, dissolved, filtration and diffusion

Tissue fluid becomes lymph once it has entered a lymphatic capillary; lymph formation depends on tissue fluid formation. Tissue fluid is made up of ____________ and __________ substances that leave blood capillaries by the process of ____________.

iron, manganese, copper, iodine, cobalt, zinc, fluorine, selenium, chromium

Trace elements are essential nutrients needed only in minute amounts, each making up less than 0.005% of adult body weight. List 9 trace elements

mRNA, protein

Transcription of a specific gene results in the synthesis of a molecule of _________, which in turn, directs the synthesis of a specific _________.

20, 32

Two sets of teeth develop in sockets within the alveolar processes of the maxillae and mandible. How many primary teeth are there? _______ How many secondary? _______

A antigen on RBC membrane, anti-B antibodies in plasma

Type A has what antigens, antibodies?

A & B antigens on RBC membrane, no antibodies in plasma

Type AB has what antigens, antibodies?

B antigen on RBC membrane, anti-A antibody in plasma

Type B has what antigens, antibodies?

neither antigen on RBC membrane, anti-A & anti-B antibodies in plasma

Type O has what antigens, antibodies?

atria, ventricles

Upper chambers, ___________, receive blood returning to the heart, and have thin walls and ear-like auricles projecting from their exterior. Below them, the thick-muscled ___________ pump blood to the body and lungs.

superior vena cava, inferior vena cava; right

Veins from the head and upper torso drain into the ________ _______ ________. Veins from the legs and lower trunk drain into the _________ _______ _________. Both drain into the _________ atrium.

collagen, amino acids

Vitamin ____ (ascorbic acid) is needed for the production of __________, the metabolism of certain ___________ _________, and the conversion of folacin into folinic acid.

B12, folic

Vitamins ___________ and __________ acid are needed for DNA synthesis, so they are necessary for the reproduction of all body cells, especially in hematopoietic tissue.

fat, water

Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts for normal metabolic processes, and are not produced by cells in adequate amounts. Vitamins are classified as ___________-soluble (vitamins A, D, E, and K) or ________-soluble (B vitamins and vitamin C).

hemocytoblasts/hematopoietic

WBCs are formed from _________ stem cells in response to hormones when needed.

metabolism

Water-soluble vitamins, including the B vitamins and vitamin C, are necessary for normal cellular ___________ in the oxidation of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.

cardiac output, blood volume, peripheral resistance, blood viscosity

What are four factors that affect blood pressure?

transport nutrients and gasses, regulate fluid and electrolyte balance, maintain pH

What are plasma functions?

skeletal muscle contraction, breathing movement, contraction of smooth muscle, presence of valves

What are the forces that propel lymph forward in lymph vessels?

regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins; increase the rate that cells release energy

What are the functions of Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)?

transports substances, helps to maintain a stable environment in the body fluids, and distributes heat

What are the functions of blood?

growth hormone (GH, stimulates cell growth), prolactin (PRL, milk production), thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin or TSH; controls secretions from thyroid gland), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH, controls secretion from adrenal cortex), gonadotropins (FSH, LH, controls secretion from gonads);

What are the six hormones from anterior pituitary?

testes or ovaries; stimulates the sustentacular cells of seminiferous tubules; stimulates maturation of primordial follicles and meiosis in primary oocytes

What are the target organs for FSH? _______ What effect does it have on males? _______ On females?_______

right subclavian vein

What blood vessel does the right lymphatic duct drain into?

left subclavian vein

What blood vessel does the thoracic duct drain into?

negative feedback, high blood glucose stimulates the release of insulin

What controls the blood level of insulin?

negative feedback, low blood glucose level stimulates the secretion of glucagon

What controls the levels of glucagon in the blood?

stimulates interstitial cells secrete male sex hormones; participates in the release of the secondary oocyte (ovulation)

What does LH do? What does it do in males? What does it do in females?

increased heart rate, blood pressure and blood glucose, dilate airways, decrease digestive activities; fight-or-flight response/sympathetic system

What effects do epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla have? What are they secreted in response to?

survival of tissue, like extreme cold, prolonged exercise, oxygen deficiency, or infections; real or perceived dangers

What effects does physical stress have on the body? _______ What does psychological stress result from?_______

fluidity of chyme, type of food; lipids past quickly, fats 3-6 hours, proteins and carbohydrates quickly

What factors regulate the rate of stomach emptying?

heme is decomposed into iron, which is stored or converted to biliverdin, then bilirubin, which are excreted in bile; globin is broken down into amino acids and reused

What happens to the heme and iron?

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

What hormone controls the release of T3 and T4?

estrogen, progesterone, gonadotropin

What hormones does the placenta produce?

thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), high blood concentration of thyroid hormones will inhibit secretions of TRH and TSH

What hypothalamic hormones affect TSH's release? _______ How are these hormones from the hypothalamus regulated?

enlarged thyroid gland, may be caused by hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism

What is a goiter and what may cause one?

4.7-6.1 mil cells; 4.2-5.4 mil cells

What is a typical RBC count for males? _______ For females? _______

cortisol, middle zone

What is an important glucocorticoid and which zone secretes it?

endocrine secretes hormones into body fluids, exocrine secretes into ducts outside of internal environment; target

What is the difference between an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland? ______________ Each hormone acts only on specific cells in the body; these are called __________ cells.

causes kidneys to conserve water and reduces amount of water secreted in urine; diabetes insipidus

What is the function of ADH? What disorder may result if ADH is not secreted in sufficient quantities?

stimulates body cells to growth and reproduce, speeds rate of carb and fat use; nutritional status also affects release of GH

What is the function of GH? _______ What factors influence growth besides GH? _______

promotes milk production, mammary glands

What is the function of PRL? What is its target tissue?

controls secretion of the thyroid gland; thyroid

What is the function of TSH? _______ What is its target organ? _______

lowers concentrations of blood calcium and phosphate ions when they're too high; extrafollicular cells

What is the function of calcitonin, what part of the thyroid secretes it?

moderate inflammation and allergic reactions, defend against parasitic infections

What is the function of eosinophils?

Involved in immune responses, antibody production, and attacks on specific foreign substances.

What is the function of lymphocytes

transforms into various types of macrophages, an effective phagocyte

What is the function of monocytes?

increases blood calcium ion and decreases phosphate ion concentration; it stimulates bone resorption by osteoclasts, which releases calcium into the blood, stimulates kidneys to conserve calcium, activates vitamin D for increased intestinal absorption of calcium; calcitonin decreases calcium while PTH increases calcium

What is the function of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and how does it achieve this function? How is it related to calcitonin from the thyroid?

teeth break food down into smaller pieces to increase surface area for enzyme access to food particles, beginning mechanical digestion

What is the function of the teeth? _________________ Different teeth are adapted to handle food in different ways, and include incisors, cuspids, bicuspids, and molars.

plays a role in childbirth by causing contractions in the uterine wall, and helps with milk-letdown (release is controlled by positive feedback)

What is the functions of oxytocin (OT)?

corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

What is the name of the hormone from the hypothalamus that controls the release of ACTH?

adrenal cortex, cortisol

What is the target organ for ACTH? _______ What hormone does it affect the release of? _______

immunity refers to the response mounted by the body against specific, recognized foreign molecules.

What is the third line of defense

antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin), oxytocin (OT)

What two hormones does the posterior pituitary control?

carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids

What types of macromolecules are digested by the enzymes found in pancreatic juice?

aggressively kill bacteria, an effective phagocyte

What's the function of neutrophils?

primary

When B or T cells become activated the first time, their actions constitute a ____________ immune response, after which some cells remain as memory cells.

cytokines, clone

When a helper T cell encounters a B cell that has already encountered the antigen, the helper T cell releases ___________ that activate the B cell, so that it can divide and form a ______________.

higher, tricuspid, bicuspid

When the atria fill, pressure in the atria is ______________ than that of the ventricles, which forces the _________ and _________ valves open. Pressure inside atria rises further as they contract, forcing the remaining blood into the ventricles.

rises, tricuspid, bicuspid, aortic, pulmonary

When the ventricles contract, pressure inside them ______________ sharply, causing the ___________ and ________ valves to close, and the ___________ and ___________ valves to open.

between ventricle and the blood vessel into which blood is pumped; prevents backflow into the ventricles

Where are the semilunar valves found and what are their function?

GnRH (gonadotropin-releasing hormone)

Which hormone from the hypothalamus affects FHS and LH release?

Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), GH release-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)

Which hormones from the hypothalamus control the levels of GH?

prolactin releasing factor (PRF), prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH)

Which hormones of the hypothalamus control the secretion of PRL?

T3

Which is more potent, T3 or T4?

Pancreatic amylase:

pancreatic enzyme that digests complex carbohydrates (starch and glycogen)

Pancreatic lipase

pancreatic enzyme that digests triglycerides

Two nucleases

pancreatic enzymes that digest nucleic acids

Proteolytic enzymes: trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase

pancreatic enzymes that digest proteins by breaking certain amino acid bonds

due to their large size

Why do plasma proteins remain in the blood?

narrow capillaries; liver, spleen

With age, red blood cells become increasingly fragile and are damaged by passing through __________. Macrophages in the __________ and ____________ phagocytize damaged red blood cells.

triglycerides; animal-based foods and coconut oil, plant-based foods, animal based foods like egg yolk

_________ are found in plant- and animal-based foods. Where are saturated fats found? Unsaturated fats? Cholesterol?

chief, hydrochloric, pepsin

_________ cells secrete pepsinogen, which is activated when it comes in contact with ___________ acid. The active form of pepsinogen is _________.

nonsteroid, membranes; binding, activity

_________ hormones combine with receptors on target cell ___________; the receptors have a ___________ site and a/an __________ site.

iron, anemia

_________ is needed for hemoglobin synthesis. A deficiency in red blood cells or quantity of hemoglobin results in a disorder called ____________.

calcium, phosphorus; potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium

___________ and __________ account for 75% by weight of the minerals, and are thus called major minerals. What are the other 5 major minerals?

feces

___________ are composed of undigested material, water, electrolytes, mucus, and bacteria. Both their color and odor are due to the action of bacteria.

T

___________ cells attack foreign, antigen-bearing cells, such as bacteria, by direct cell-to-cell contact, providing cell- mediated immunity.

cellulose

___________ is a complex carbohydrate that cannot be digested, but provides bulk (fiber), facilitating the movement of food through the intestine.

lingual

___________ tonsils are lymphatic tissues located at the root of the tongue.

cardiac, sinus

___________ veins drain blood from the heart muscle, and carry it to the coronary _________, which drains into the right atrium.

cytotoxic

____________ T cells continually monitor the body's cells, recognizing and eliminating tumor cells and virus-infected cells by the release of proteins, cutting holes in cell membranes, and by other means. These T cells become activated when an antigen binds to their receptors.

mucous

____________ cells produce thick fluid that protects the stomach lining.

Memory T

____________ cells provide a no-delay response to any future exposure to the same antigen.

parietal

____________ cells secrete hydrochloric acid.

steroid, nucleus (usually); DNA, genes

____________ hormones are lipid-soluble and can pass through cell membranes. Their protein receptors are located in the target cell's ___________. The hormone-receptor complex binds with the __________ and activate specific __________.

hydrostatic

____________ pressure drives the passage of fluids and small molecules out of the capillary at this point.

gastric, gastric

_____________ glands within the mucosa of the stomach open as _____________ pits. These glands generally contain three types of secretory cells.

essential

_____________ nutrients are those that cannot be synthesized by human cells.

immediate, IgE antibodies

_____________-reaction allergy is derived from an inherited ability to overproduce ___ ________.

delayed

_____________-reaction allergy results from repeated exposure to substances that cause inflammatory reactions in the skin. This type of allergic response can occur in anyone.

nutrition

______________ is the process by which the body takes in and uses nutrients.

Antigen

a molecule that invokes an immune response

antibody

a protein produced by the immune system to attack a specific antigen not found on the person's own cells

Species resistance

a species is resistant to certain diseases to which other species are susceptible (different chemical environments, body temperature, different receptors needed)

Pathway of the heart

superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary artery, lung capillaries, pulmonary vein, left atrium, mitral valve, left ventricle, aorta

phagocytosis

the engulfment and digestion of pathogens, foreign particles, and debris

inflammation

tissue response to injury; characterized by redness, pain, swelling, and feeling hot to touch

alpha and beta globulins

transport lipids and fat soluble vitamins

diapedesis

type of movement where leukocytes squeeze between cells lining walls of blood vessels