Chapter 1: The Sciences of Anatomy & Physiology

1.1c #5: Define cardiovascular physiology, neurophysiology, respiratory physiology, reproductive physiology and pathophysiology.

Cardiovascular physiology: examines the functioning of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. Cardiovascular physiologists examine how the heart pumps the blood, what are the parameters for healthy blood pressure within the blood vessels, and details of the cellular exchange mechanisms by which respiratory gases, nutrients, and wastes move between blood and body structures. How the heart and blood vessels work and function. Neurophysiology: neurophysiology (which examines how nerve impulses are propagated throughout the nervous system) physiology of the nervous system. Respiratory physiology: (which studies how respiratory gases are transferred by gas exchange between the lungs and the blood vessels) physiology of the respiratory system. Reproductive physiology: (which explores how the regulation of reproductive hormones can drive the reproductive cycle and influence sex cell production and maturation). Pathophysiology: investigates the relationship between the functioning of an organ system and disease or injury to that organ system. For example, a pathophysiologist would examine how contractile force of the heart, blood pressure, and both gas and nutrient exchange may be affected in an individual afflicted with heart disease.

1.1b #2: Define microscopic anatomy: cytology and histology.

Microscopic anatomy examines structures that cannot be seen by the unaided eye. For most of these studies, scientists prepare individual cells or thin slices of body structures and examine these specimens under the microscope. Cytology: is the study of body cells and their internal structure. Histology: is the study of body tissues.

1.4a #8: List and describe the six (6) characteristics common to all organisms.

1. Organization: All organisms exhibit a complex structure and order. 2. Metabolism: All organisms engage in metabolism, which is defined as the sum of all the chemical reactions that occur within the body. Metabolism consists of both anabolism=raising up in which small molecules are joined to form larger molecules and catabolism=a casting down in which large molecules are broken down into smaller molecules. 3. Growth and development: Organisms assimilate materials from their environment and often exhibit increased size and increased specialization as related to form and function (development). 4. Responsiveness: the ability to detect and react to stimuli (changes in the external or internal environment) A stimulus to the skin of the hands, such as an extremely hot temp, causes the human to withdraw the hand from the stimulus so as to prevent injury or damage. 5. Regulation: An organism must be able to adjust internal bodily function in response to environmental changes. When body temp rises, more blood is circulated near the body's surface to facilitate heat loss, and thus return body temp within the normal range. 6. Reproduction: All organisms produce new cells for growth, maintenance, and repair.

1.6a #14: List the 5 steps of a feedback loop. Be sure to define variable and stimulus.

1. Stimulus: Changes in a variable that is regulated (ex: temperature, stretching muscle) 2. Receptor: Structure that detects the stimulus (ex. sensory neurons in the skin, stretch receptors in muscle. 3. Receptor sends input information to the control center (if receptor and control center are separate structures). 4. Control center: Structure (usually the brain or endocrine gland) that integrates input and then initiates change through the effectors. 5. Control center sends output information to an effector. 6. Effector: Structure (ex. muscle or gland) that brings about a change to the stimulus. Homeostasis is restored.

1.4b #9: List and describe the levels of organization in the human body.

1. The chemical level: is the simplest level and it involves atoms and molecules. Atoms are the smallest units of matter that exhibit the characteristics of an element, such as carbon and hydrogen. When two or more atoms combine, they create a molecule. More complex molecules are called macromolecules and include proteins and DNA molecules. Macromolecules form specialized microscopic subunits in cells, called organelles. The cellular level: consists of cells, which are the smallest living structures and serve as the basic units of structure and function in organisms. Cells and their components are formed from the atoms and molecules from the chemical level. Tissue level: consists of tissues, which are groups of similar cells that perform common functions. There are four major types of tissues. Epithelial tissue covers exposed surfaces and lines body cavities. Connective tissue protects, supports, and binds structures and organs. Muscle tissue produces movement. And nervous tissue conducts nerve impulses for communication.

1.1A: Define anatomy and physiology. What do anatomists and physiologists study? Give example.

Anatomy: the study of structure and form; which means to cut apart and dissect. Anatomists are scientists who study the form and structure of organisms. Physiology: the study of function of the body parts. Physiologists are scientists who examine how organs and body systems function under normal circumstances as well as how the functioning of these organs may be altered via medication or disease.

Vasodilation

Blood vessel dilates (widen) more blood comes to the surface.

Vasoconstriction

Blood vessels constrict, sweat glands are inactive.

1.1b #3: Define gross anatomy: systemic, regional, surface, comparative and embryology and fetology.

Gross anatomy: also called macroscopic anatomy, investigates the structure and relationships of body parts that are visible to the unaided eye, such as the intestines, stomach, brain, heart, and kidneys. Do not need a microscope, can hold the objects. Study of the structures you can see. Systematic: studies the anatomy of each functional body system. For example, studying the urinary system would involve examining the kidneys (where urine is formed) and the organs of urine transport (ureters and urethra) and storage (urinary bladder). Regional: examines all of the structures in a particular region of the body as a complete unit. Studying organs from every system. Surface: focuses on both superficial anatomic markings and the internal body structures that relate to the skin covering them. Comparative: examines the similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species. For example, students in a comparative anatomy class may examine and compare limb structure in humans, chimps, dogs, and cats. Takes the anatomy from different species and comparing them. Embryology: is the discipline concerned with developmental changes occurring from conception to birth. Embryological period is 8 weeks. Becomes a fetus after week 9 until term. (Fetology)

1.4c #10: For this section, refer to Figure 1.3, you must list each organ system, describe the function of each and list representative organs for each system. (On your own question)

Integumentary System: provides protection, prevents water loss and gain, synthesizes vitamin D, releases secretions, regulates body temp (Hair, toenails and skin) Muscular system: produces body movement, generates heat when muscles contract (tendons. aponeurosis, sartonus muscle, pectoralis major muscle) Skeletal system: provides support and protection, site of hematopoiesis (blood cell production) stores calcium and phosphorus (knee joints, skull, sacrum) Nervous system: A regulatory system that responds to sensory stimuli and controls muscles and some glands. (brain, spinal cord, eyes) Endocrine system: consists of glands and cell clusters that secrete hormones (some of which regulate development, growth and metabolism) (Pancreas, kidney, thyroid gland) Lymphatic system: Transports and filters lymph (interstitial fluid that is collected in and transported through lymph vessels) (spleen, tonsils, lymph vessel) Cardiovascular system: consists of a heart (a pump) and blood vessels; the heart moves blood through blood vessels in order to distribute hormones, nutrients, gases and pick up waste products (heart, blood vessels) Respiratory system: Responsible for exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between blood and the air in the lungs (Lungs, nose, nasal cavity. Urinary system: Filters the blood to remove waste products in the form of urine, and expels urine from the body. (urethra, kidney, urinary bladder) Digestive system: mechanically and chemically digests food, absorbs nutrients and expels waste products. (large and small intestines, oral cavity (mouth)) Male reproductive system: Produces male sex cells (sperm) and male hormones (testosterone) Female reproductive system: Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and female hormones (estrogen and progesterone)

1.1b #4: Define pathologic anatomy. What is Radiographic Anatomy or Medical Imaging and why is it important?

Pathologic anatomy: examines all anatomic changes resulting from disease. Both gross anatomic changes and microscopic structures are examined. Anything that is a pathology is abnormal. Radiographic anatomy: investigates the relationships among internal structures that may be visualized by specific scanning procedures, such as radiography (x-ray), ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

1.6a #13: List and describe the 3 components of a homeostatic system.

The receptor is the body structure that detects changes in a variable. This change is called a stimulus. The control center is the structure that both interprets input from the receptor and initiates change. Houses the set point which is the ideal condition for the variable. The control center receives input from the receptor. The effector is the structure that brings about the change to alter the stimulus. The most common effectors are muscles and glands.

1.6c #18 Define positive feedback. How does it differ from negative feedback?

The stimulus here is reinforced to continue in the same direction until a climactic event occurs. Following the climactic event, the body again returns to homeostasis. Because their end result is to increase the activity (instead of initially returning the body to homeostasis), positive feedback mechanisms occur much less frequently than negative feedback mechanisms.

1.7 #19: What are 5 characteristics about homeostasis. Why is homeostasis important? Describe how disease is related to homeostasis.

They are dynamic. The control center is generally the nervous system or the endocrine system. There are three components: receptor, control center, and effector. They are typically regulated through negative feedback to maintain a normal value or set point. It is when these systems fail that a homeostatic imbalance or disease potentially results and ultimately may threaten an individual's survival. Diabetes occurs when the homeostatic mechanisms for regulating blood glucose are not functioning normally, and blood glucose fluctuates out of the normal range, sometimes resulting in extremely high blood glucose readings. High blood glucose results in damage to anatomic structures throughout the body. Treating patients generally involves determining a diagnosis, or a specific cause of the homeostatic imbalance.

1.2 #6: Describe how the sciences of anatomy and physiology are intertwined? Use Figure 1.1 as an example. Some authors use the term, complementarity of structure and function. Give some other examples of this concept.

one cannot adequately describe and understand the anatomic form of an organ without learning that organ's function. This interdependence of the study of anatomy and physiology reflects the inherent and important interrelationship of how the structure and form of a component of the body determine how it functions. This concept is central to mastering the study of anatomy and physiology. Anatomy and physiology are connected; they complement each other.

1.6 #12: Define homeostasis.

refers to the ability of an organism to maintain a consistent internal environment, or "steady state," in response to changing internal or external conditions. (change within limits)

1.6b #15: Define negative feedback. What is the set point?

the resulting action will always be in the opposite direction of the stimulus. In this way, the variable is maintained within a normal level, or what is called its set point. Set point: Normal value of a variable. Average of high and low. Dynamic equilibrium: Constant; always changing