Chapter 12

Outputs/Rewards

- "What do you think you're getting out of the job?" - The outputs are the rewards that people receive from and organization, which include: - Pay - Benefits - Praise & Recognition - Bonuses - Promotions - Status Perquisites

Inputs

- "What do you think you're putting into the job?" - The inputs people perceive they give to an organization include their: - Time - Effort - Training - Experience - Education - Intelligence - Creativity - Seniority - Status - Social Capital

The Need for Personal Growth

- 94% of employees would stay with a company longer if they had opportunities for learning and development - Young workers (as a result of seeing layoffs and downsizing during the Great Recession) are apt to view a job as a way of gaining skills that will enable them to earn a decent living in the future - Employers have another point of view: they see it as developing human capital, the economic or protective potential of employee knowledge, experience, and actions

Equity/Justice Theory

- A model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships - Pioneered by J. Stacey Adams - Based on the idea that employees are motivated to see fairness in the rewards they expect for task performance and are motivated to resolve feelings of injustice

McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory

- Achievement, Affiliation, and Power - These three needs are major motives determining people's behavior in the workplace - Managers are encouraged to recognize three needs in themselves and others and to attempt to create work environments that are responsive to them

Pay Performance

- Bases pay on one's results (aka merit pay)-different salaried employees might get different pay raises and other rewards (such as promotions) depending on their overall job performance - A popular incentive program

Deci & Ryan's Self-Determination Theory

- Competence, Autonomy, and Relatedness - Assumes that people are driven to try to grow and attain fulfillment, with their behavior and well-being influence by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness

The 3 Needs of Self-Determination Theory

- Competence: people need to feel qualified, knowledgeable, and capable of completing a goal or task and to learn different skills - Autonomy: people need to feel they have freedom and discretion to determine what they want to do and how they want to do it - Relatedness: people need to feel a sense of belonging, of attachment to others

Process Perspectives

- Concerned with the thought processes by which people decide how to act-how employees choose behavior to meet their needs - Needs-Based Perspectives simply try to understand employee needs, process perspectives go further and try to understand why employees have different needs, what behaviors they select to satisfy them, and how they decide if their choices were successful

Expectancy Theory

- Deciding how much effort to exert in a specific task situation - Based on a two-stage sequence of expectations-moving from effort to performance and then from performance to outcomes - Found out by Victor Vroom

Skill Variety

- Describes the extent to which a job requires a person to use a wide range of difference skills and abilities - Ex. the _________ required by a Michilen Star chef is higher than that for a Starbucks barista

Job Characteristics Model

- Developed by J. Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham - Five core job characteristics that affect - Three critical psychological states of an employee, that in turn affect - Work outcomes-the employee's motivation, performance, and satisfaction

Why is Motivation Important?

- Join your organization - Stay with your organization - Show up for work at your organization - Be engaged while at your organization - Do extra for your organization

4 Theories of Content Perspectives

- Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory - McClelland's acquired needs theory - Deci and Ryan's self-determination theory - Herzberg's two-factor theory

Fitting Jobs to People

- Modern approach to job design - Based on the assumption that people are underutilized at work and that they want more variety, challenges, and responsibility - Is an outgrowth of Herzberg's theory - One of the reasons for the popularity of work teams in the U.S. - Main challenge: how can we make the work most compatible with the worker so as to produce both high performance and high job satisfaction?

Is Money the Best Motivator?

- No - For working parents, flexibility may be more important than a better salary - A Gallup poll found that employees are 50% happier at work when they have close relationships with their co-workers - A 2019 Jobvite survey of 1,500 Americans found that career growth opportunities were more important to job seekers than financial compensation, retirement benefits, or healthcare

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

- Proposed that work satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two different factors-work satisfaction from motivating factors and work dissatisfaction from hygiene factors

Needs

- Psychological or physiological deficiencies that arouse behavior - Can be strong or week - Can vary over time and from place to place (influenced by environmental factors)

Distributive Justice

- Reflects the perceived fairness of the resources and rewards being distributed or allocated among employees - Employees perceive this when they believe that the organization has given them a fair share of rewards and resources

Interactional Justices

- Relates how organizational representatives treat employees in the process of implementing procedures and making decision - This form of justices is not about how decision making or procedures are perceived buy rather weather people themselves believe they are being treated fairly when decision are implemented - Employee that perceive low levels of this respond with decreased job performance and job satisfaction, and increased stress and destructive behaviors - Fair interpersonal treatment necessitates that managers communicate truthfully and treat people with courtesy and respect

Using Behavior Modification to Motivate Employees-- Positive Reinforcement

- Reward only desirable behavior - Give rewards as soon as possible - Be clear about what behavior is desired - Have difference rewards and recognize individual differences

Characteristics of the Best Incentive Compensation Plans

- Rewards must be linked to performance and be measurable - Rewards must satisfy individual needs - Rewards must be agreed on by a manager and employees - Rewards must be believable and achievable by employees

Sales Commission

- Sales representatives are paid a percentage of the earnings the company made from their sales, so that the more they sell, the more they are paid

Learning opportunities can take 3 forms

- Studying Co-Workers: managers can see that workers are matched with co-workers from whom they can learn, allowing them to "shadow" workers in other jobs or participate in inter departmental task forces - Tuition Reimbursement: being reimbursed for partial or full tuition for part-time study at a college or university - Learning & Development: Training magazine says that US companies spend $83 billions on employee learning and development in 2019

Goal-Setting Theory

- Suggests that employees can be motivated by goals that are specific and challenging but achievable - According to Edwin Locke and Gary Latham, the psychologists who developed it, they say it is natural for people to set and strive for goals; however, the goal-setting process is useful only if people understand, accept, and are committed to the goals

Task Significance

- The extent to which a job affects the lives of other people, whether inside or outside of the organization - EX. a technician responsible for keeping hospital's ventilator equipment working during the COVID-19 pandemic had higher ___________ than a person stocking grocery store shelves

Autonomy

- The extent to which a job allows an employee to make choices about scheduling different tasks and deciding how to perform them - EX. college text-book salesmen have a lot of leeway in planning which campuses and professors to call on, giving them higher ___________ than toll-takers on a bridge, whose actions are determined by the flow or traffic

Task Identity

- The extent to which a job requires a worker to perform all the tasks needed to complete the job from beginning to end - EX. the __________ for a craftsman who goes through all of the steps in creating a stained glass window is higher than that of an assembly line worker at a Toyota factory

Feedback

- The extent to which workers receive clear, direct information about how well they are performing the job - EX. pro basketball players receive immediate _____________ on how many shots they get in the basket, but engineers working on new highway systems may go years before learning the impact of their work

Extrinsic Rewards

- The payoff (money) a person receives from others for performing a particular task - Rewards given by others

Procedural Justice

- The perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decision - Employees have stronger feelings of this when they have a chance to voice their opinions about workplace procedures, and when those procedures are applied accurately and consistently - Numerous studies have shown that this increases prosocial behavior in organizations such as organizational citizenship behavior

Scientific Management

- The process of reducing the number of tasks a worker performs - When a job is stripped down to its simplest elements, it enables a worker to focus on doing more of the same task, thus increasing employee efficiency and productivity - May be especially useful in designing jobs for mentally disadvantaged workers (Ex. jobs at Goodwill) - Research shows that simplified, repetitive jobs lead to job dissatisfaction, poor mental health, and a low sense of accomplishment and personal growth

Cognitive Dissonance

- The psychological discomfort people experience between their cognitive attitude and incompatible behavior - Says... - Discomfort is Motivating- suggested that the discomfort caused by cognitive dissonance motivates us to take action to maintain consistency between our beliefs and our behavior - "People make work decisions based on what they're being paid and what others around them are being paid. If the person above me is making a lot more money than I am, but I feel like I could work harder and get promoted to that same salary, then I will be motivated to do that." - We Correct Discomfort in One of Several Ways- when we are victimized by unfair social exchanges, our resulting cognitive dissonance prompts us to correct the situation whether it's slightly changing our attitude/behavior or committing sabotage or workplace violence

Intrinsic Rewards

- The satisfaction (feeling of accomplishment) a person receives from performing the particular task itself - Reward given to yourself

Fitting People to Jobs

- Traditional approach to job design - Scientific Management

Piece Rate

- Where employees are paid according to how much output they provide, as is often used with farm workers harvesting - One standard pay-per-performance plan - Must comply with state and federal minimum wage laws

4 Major Perspectives on Motivation

1. Content: emphasize needs as motivators 2. Process: focus on the thoughts and perceptions that motivate behavior 3. Job Design: focus on designing jobs that lad to employee satisfaction and performance 4. Reinforcement: based on the notion that motivation is a function of behavioral consequences and not unmet needs

Four Motivational Mechanisms of the Goal-Setting Theory

1. Direct Attention 2. Regulate Effort 3. Increase Persistence 4. Foster the use of Strategies & Action Plans

3 Elements of the Expectancy Theory

1. Expectancy 2. Instrumentality 3. Valence

Recharging

1. Figure Out What Recharging Means to You 2. Include Mental & Physical Relation 3. Accept Kindness

Self Management Process

1. Identify your "Wildly Important" Long-Term Goal 2. Break You "Wildly Important" Goal into Short-Term Goals 3. Create a "To-Do" List for Accomplishing your Short-Term Goals 4. Prioritize the Tasks 5. Create a Time Schedule 6. Work the Plan, Reward Yourself, and Adjust as Needed

Two Techniques for Fitting Jobs to People

1. Job Enlargement: increasing the number of tasks in a job to increase variety and motivation 2. Job Enrichment: building into a job such motivating factors as responsibility, achievement, recognition, stimulating work, and advancement

2 Main Findings of the Two-Factor

1. Job Satisfaction was more frequently associated with achievement, recognition, characteristics of the work, responsibility, and advancement 2. Job Dissatisfaction was more often associated with working conditions, pay and security, company policies, supervisors, and interpersonal relationships

The five core characteristics affect a worker's motivation because they affect three critical psychological states

1. Meaningfulness of work 2. Responsibility for results 3. Knowledge of results

McClelland's 3 Needs

1. Need for Achievement: the desire to excel 2. Need for Affiliation: desire for friendly and warm relationships with other people 3. Need for Power: desire to be responsible for other people, to influence their behavior or to control them

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory: Five Levels

1. Physiological: most basic human physical need-food, clothing, shelter, etc. 2. Safety: need for physical safety, emotional security, etc. 3. Love: need for love, friendship, human companionship 4. Esteem: need for self-respect, status, reputation 5. Self-Actualization: highest level of need-increasing competence

The 4 Types of Behavior Modification

1. Positive Reinforcement 2. Negative Reinforcement 3. Extinction 4. Punishment

5 Job Characteristics

1. Skill Variety 2. Task Identity 3. Task Significance 4. Autonomy 5. Feedback

Two Approaches to Job Design

1. Traditional 2. Modern

3 Components of Justice Theory

Distributive, Procedural, Interactional

Content Perspectives

aka need based perspectives, theories than emphasize the needs that motivate people

Reinforcement

anything that strengthens the likelihood that a given behavior will be repeated in the future

Reinforcement Theory

attempts to explain behavior change by suggesting that behavior with positive consequences tends to be repeated, whereas behavior with negative consequences tends not to be repeated

Bonuses

cash rewards given to employees who achieve specific performance objectives

Organizational Justice

concerned with the extent to which people perceive they are treated fairly at work

Punishment

decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again in the future by presenting something negative or withdrawing something positive

Extinction

decreases the likelihood that a particular behavior will occur again in the future by ignoring it or making sure it is not reinforced

Modern Job Design

fitting jobs to people

Traditional Job Design

fitting people to jobs

Stretch Goals

goals beyond what a company can actually expect to achieve

Job Design

is (1) the division of an organization's work among its employees and (2) the application of motivational theories to jobs to increase satisfaction and performance

Negative Reinforcement

removal of a negative stimulus to strengthen the likelihood that a particular behavior will occur again in the future

Expectancy

the belief that a particular level of effort will lead to a particular level of performance

Instrumentality

the expectation that successful performance of the task will lead to the outcome desired

Positive Reinforcement

the introduction of positive consequences to strengthen the likelihood that a particular behavior will occur again in the future

Motivation

the psychological processes that arouse and direct goal-directed behavior

Valence

the value, the importance a worker assigns to the possible outcome or reward

Behavior Modificaiton

using the reinforcement theory to change human behavior