Chapter 13: Behaviour in a Social Context

Theory of Planned Behaviour

- Our intention to engage in a behaviour is strongest when we have a positive attitude toward that behaviour, when subjective norms support our attitudes, and when we believe that the behaviour is under our control

Attributional Biases

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Factors Influencing Obedience

- 1 Satus - Low stats setting - 50% 2. Proximity - Authority figure - if the person is right there, another building and tape Proximity of Learner - Remote - Hear, no sight - See and hear- hear and glass window - Touch 30% complete Certain subjects: No Generality Lab Only? - No Holfing et al 1966 - phone night nurse phones in for 200m even though only 100mg - 22 hospitals 21 hospitals did that Counteracting Obedience 1. Personal Responsibility - Obedience drops dramatically, doesn't drop to 0 2. Disoebcince Models - 2 confederates refuse - obedience drops to 10%

Attribution of Intentionality

- Affect how we respond to provocation. When we perceive that someones negative behaviour toward us was intended or controllable, we are more likely to become angry and retaliate - our degree of empthat for some also influences how we react to provocation. When people offend us and then apologize, the likelihood that we will forgive them depends in part how well e can understand their viewpoints

Psychological Factors

- Aggressors may blame the victim for imagined wrongs, thereby convincing themselves that the victims deserves it. They may minimize the seriousness of their own aggression by believing that other peoples acts ar even more repulsive or by displacing responsibility. They may also dehumanize their victims by stripping them of human qualities and regarding them as objects or animals

The Matching Hypothesis

- Berscheid et al 1977 - We prefer the east but choose similar - seems to hold no many alb and real world settings Cash and Derkga 1978 - same sex friends also similar Mismatch - can generate friction

Field Studies

- Black and Bevan 1992 - Aggression weak to movie goers before of after violent or non violent movie Long Term Field Study - Levnes et al 1975 - School boys exposed to steady diet of either aggressive or non aggressive films - Entire week of violent films or entire week of non violent films - The kids who watched the violent films were more aggressive after a week of violence than the kids who watch the non aggressive films Eron 1982 - Find out what TV they watch - Does content analysis of those shows - monitored at school by teachers - report on what is happening - the more violence the more aggressiveness

Categorization Thinking

- Categorisation lead us to the perception of in groups and out groups, groups to which we do and do not belong. - In turn in group vs out group distinctions shown too common biases - First we display in group favourtisaim a tendency to favor I group members and attribute more positive qualities to us then to them - Second people display an out group bias. They generally view members of out groups as being more similar to one another than are members of in groups - We epcvie that they are all lake but recognize that we are diverse

Stereotypes and Attribution Distortions

- Catergotization and in group biases lead us to respond quickly to out group embers based on perceived group characteristics .

Milgram

- Compliance withs serious consequences - Subjects recruited by ads - Teacher Learning Paradigm - real participants - subject gives feedback with shock generated - real shock - got to go higher with shock - experimenter prods subject to continue - until you say not - recored crying from confederate - Psychiatrists predicted 2% will complete the shock series

Empathy- Altruism Hypothesis

- Empathy-Altrurism Hypothesis is a theory that pure altruism doesn't exist and that is ti produced by empathy.

Sociocultural and Evolutionary Views

- For both sexes, metal attraction/ live, dependable character, emotional stability and pleasing dispositions - North American men unworn viewed refinement/neatness has having only modest importance< Iranian Men and Women, viewed it a the most important quality - Men tend to place grater value on a potential mates physical attractiveness and domestic skills. - Women place greater value on potential mates earning potential status and ambitiousness.

Personal vs Situational Attributions

- Friz Heider - Maintained that out attempts tp understand why people behave as they do typically involve other personal attributions or situational attributions Personal (internal)attributions infer that people's behaviour is caused by their characteristics - Situational (external) attributions infer that aspects of the situation cause a behavior - Three types of information determine the attribution we make: consistency, distinctiveness and consensus - When all three are high, we are like to. make a situation attribution - When consistency is high and the other two factors are low, we make a personal attribution

Influences of Context

- Gutierres and Kenrick 1980 - CHarlies angels - rating photos while charlies angels playing in the background or something else - photos were rated lower when Charlies angels was playing Pennebaker et al 1979 - Dont all girls all get prettier at closing time - Yes it does - Rating for opposite photos increases over time - same sex photos drop but pick up Analysis of Personal Ads - 800 ads - good looking authors want gook looking partners - attractive authors want photos

Learning to Aggress

- Influenced by learning - Non-aggressive animals can be trained to become viscous aggressors of conditions are arranged so that they are consistently victorious in fights with weaker animals, Conversely, if conducting are arrogated so that an animal is defeated in its early battles, it becomes submissive. The younger an animal is when it first suffered repeated defeats, the more submissively it will react to attacks by other animals.

Persuasion

- Involves a communicators who delvers a meager through a channel to an audience within surrounding context

Attributions

- Judgments about the causes of our own and other people's behavior and outcomes - Attributions influence out subsequent behaviour and emotions

Negative State Relief Model

- Negative State Relief Model proposes that empathy dies not lead to pure altruism, but instead, that high empathy causes us to feel distress when we learn of others suffering, so that by helping them we reduce our own personal distress.

The Mere Presence of Others

- Norman Triplett - The presence of others energies performance in bike races. - The mere presence of cofactors or a passive, client audience enhanced performance Robert Zajonc - First the mere physical presence of another person, increases our arousal - Second, as arousal increases we become more likely to perform whatever habeviour happens to be our dominant response to that specific situation.

Self Fulfilling Prophecy

- Occurs usually without conscious awareness, when people's erroneous expectations lead them to act toward others in a way that brings about the expected behaviors, thereby confirming the original impression - In interaction with others, out initial unfounded expectations can influence how we behave toward them, thereby shaping their behavior in a way that ultimately confirms our expectations

Average Beautiful

- One reason that averaged faces some more attractive is that they are more symmetrical and people prefer facial symmetry - People perceive moderate feminized faces as the most attractive. In contrast, depending on the study male faces that have been somewhat masculinzed or feminized are rates as the most attractive

Attitudes and Attitude Change

- Our attitudes help to define our identity, guide our actions and influence how we judge people - Is a positive of negative evaluative reaction toward a stimulus, such as a person, action, object or concept - First, attitudes influence behavior more strongly when counteracting situational factors are weak. - Financial incentives, conformity and obedience pressures, deindividuation, groupthink and other conditions lead people to behave in ways that are at odds with their inner convictions - Second, attitudes have greater influence on behaviour when we are aware of them and when they are strongly held - Third, general attitudes are better at predicting general classes of behavior and specific attitudes are better at predicting specific behavior

Why do we Affiliate?

- Over the course of evolution, individuals those biological , makeup predispose them to affiliate were more likely to survive and reproduce Thant those who were reclusive.

Primacy Effect

- Refers to our tendency to attach more importance to the initial information that we learn about a person - New information can change our opinion but it has to work harder to overcome that initial impression for two reasons. 1. We tend to be most alert to information we receive first 2. Initial information may shape how we perceive subsequent information - Primacy is the general rule of thumb - Primacy and recent effects may decrease the when we are asked to avoid making snap judgments, are reminded to carefully consider the evidence

Mere Exposure Effect

- Repeated exposure to a stimulus typically increase our liking for it. Not matte the stimuli - People most often are attracted to others who are similar to themselves - When choosing potential friends or mates, we typically screen out people who are dissimilar to us and when dissimilar people fo form relationships they tend not to last long - Dissimilarity increases the risk of fatal attractions. - Women and men who dated physically attractive patient like them more and had a stronger desire to date them again - One factor Amy be the widespread stereotype the what is beautiful is good, we often assume that attractive people have more positive personality characteristics than unattractive people - Beauty is sometimes linked with self doubt, because highly ataractic indivudals may attribute the positive responses of other solely to whir surface, beauty rather than to their inner personal qualities

Emotional State

- Schaefer visits bars - When sad music is playing in a bar proper drink more and become sadder themselves - Music can be influenced attraction - Influenced by initial impressions Kleinke et al 1986 - Opening lines - Most preferred: Hi, Do you want to dance, I haven't been here what's good

How Prejudice Confirms Itself

- Self fulfilling prophecies are one of the most invisible yet damaging ways of maintain prejudiced beliefs - The findigns indicated that these white participants sat further away conducted shorter interviews and Mae more epseech euros when the applicants were black

Culture and Norm Formation

- Social Norms lose invisibility not only when they are violated but also when we examine behaviour across cultures and historical periods - In doing so we see that social customs we take for granted as normal are merely arbitrary - Muzafer Sherif - The participants did not explicitly communicate or decide to develop a group from: it just happened

Social Loafing

- Social loafing alos occurs on cognitive tasks Social loafing describes the tendency of individuals to put in less effort when they are part of a group. Because all members of the group are pooling their effort to achieve a common goal, each member of the group contributes less than they would if they were individually responsible. - It is most likely to occur when people believe that individual performance within the group is not being monitored. Or when the task has lass value or meaning to a person. If the group is less important to the person and if the task is simple and the person's input is redundant with that of the other group members. Furthermore is coccus more strongly in all male groups than in all female groups or mixed sex groups.

Primacy vs. Recency

- Soloman Asch - Found that the person in the first description was perceived more prostivlty as being more sociable and happier than the person in the second description

Reducing Prejudice

- The best known approaches to prejudice reduction are based on a principle called equal status contact: prjuicde between people is most likely to be reduced when they 1. engage in sustained close contact, 2. have equal status 3. work to achieve a common goal that requires cooperation and 4. supported by broader social norms - Cooperative Learning Programs place children into multiracial learning groups. Contact is close and sustained.

Culture and Attribution

- This relation between holistic thinking an the use of information's also found within each culture - The same underlying psychological principle, a link between holistic thinking and beliefs about causality seems to account for information seeking differences between cultures was well as among individuals within each culture

TV Images

- Violence more likely form minorities - Strangers should not be trusted - Whites do not get killed as often as nonwhites - Police are frequently violent - violence and killing are painless - Violence often goes. unpunished - Violence is a successful means to an end CBS 1980 - Prime time: average of 1.6 violent acts - 6.4 acts per day -2,336 acts per year Signorelli et al 1982 - 80% of all TV shows contain some violence 71% of prime time shows - 94% of children's weekend shows - average go 5.2 violent acts behaviour Gerber 1993 - 67% of prime time some kind of violence National TV Violence Study 1997 - 60% contain violence - Research Evidence 1. Modelling Studies 2. Laboratory Studies 3. Long Term Field Studies

Initial Attraction

- We interact most with people who are physically closer

Self Perception Theory

- We make inferences about our own attitudes in much the same way: by observing how we behave - In Bem's view your attitude is not produced by a mysterious concept called cognitive dissonance. Rather you simply observe how you have acted and infer how you must have felt to have behaved in this fashion - Both predict that counterattittudinal behaviour will produce attitude change. One key difference is that dissonance theory assumes we experience heightened physiological arousal

Self- Serving Bias

- We tend to protect our self esteem by displaying - Making relatively more personal attributions for successes and more situational attributions for failures - The strength of the self severing bias depends on various factors, ranging form one's psychological stat to cultural norma.

Fundamental Attribution Error

- We underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the role of personal factor, when explains other people's behaviour - Castro Study - When the speech was freely chosen, students logically assumes that the debater has a correspondingly positive or negative attitude about Castro. Yet, when told that the role was assigned, students paid insufficient attention to this situational factor and still perceived that the - Applies to how we perceive other peoples behaviour rather than our own - One reason for this is that we have more information about the present situation when making judgements about ourselves - The perceptual principle of figure- ground reactions comes into play. When you watch others behave, we are not watching ourselves. We are part of the background and the situation that we are in stands out - When people have time to reflect on their judgments or are highly motivated to be carful, the fundamental attribution error is reduced

Mental Sets and Schemas

- Whether perceiving objects or people, the same stimulus can be seen in different ways. - Our mental set, which is a readiness to perceive the world in a particular way, powerfully shapes how we interpret a stimulus

Stereotype

- Which is a generalized belief about a group. or category of people, represents a powerful type of schema

Modeling Studies

- children they will copy Bandura 1971 - bobo the clown - they copy the behaviour - beaten with a hammer - children can aquaria new aggressive responses not previously at their own disposal - However acquisition is not equal to performance

Normative Social Influence

- conformity motivated by gaining social acceptance and avoiding social rejection

Informational Social Influence

- following the opinions or behavior of other people because we believe that they have accurate knowledge and that what they are doing is right

Just World Hypothesis

- holds, that because people want to view the world as fair =, they perceive that perceive that people get what they deserve what they get

Communicator Credibility

- how believable the communicator is—often is the key to effective persuasion - In fact audience members who do not enjoy thinking deeply about issues may pay little attention to the content of a message and simply go along with the options of a highly credible source - Credibility has to major components: expertise and trustworthiness. The most effective persuader is one who appears both to be an expert and to be presenting the truth in an unbaised manner. - As well as one who advocates a point of view contrary to their own self interest. Perceived expertise may be particularly important when the issue is complex - Communicators who are physically attractive, likable and similar to us all may persuade us more effectively

Social Comparison

- involves comparing our beliefs, feelings, and behaviors with those of other people. This comparison helps us determine whether our responses are normal an eagles us to judge the level of our cognitive and physical abilities. - We do need to have appropriate targets for comparison so that we do not come up short - People differ in how strongly they desire to affiliate - people With high need for affiliation all show a stronger psychological sensory of community, the feeling of being a part of a larger collective and being engaged with others in pursuing common goals

Asch's Conformity Study

- of the 18 trials 12 trials were real - about 33% conformity - conformity greatly reduced if subjects can answer anaoymously - 10% - increase as the group gets larger - but drops off at 3 people Why? - enough information - influence coming from one group Unamnintiy - If one other person agrees with the subject conformity reduced by 80% Why? - weakens majority - reestablished reality

Theory of Cognitive Dissonance

- people strive for consistency in their cognition. When two or more cognitions contradict on another the person experiences an uncomfortable state of tension that Festinger calluses cognitive dissonance and becomes motivated to reduce this dissonance - The theory predicts that to reduce dissonance and restore a state of cognitive consistency, people will change one of their cognitions or add new cognitions - Bahviour that is inconsistent with out attitude is called counter attitudinal behaviour, and it produces dissonance only if we perceive that our actions were freely chosen rather than coerced. Dissonance is maximized when the beavhiour threatens our sense of self worth or produced negative consequences that ere foreseeable - Dissonacne, however, does not always lead to attitude change. People can reduce dissonance by rationalizing that their attune or their behaviour wasn't important, by finding external justification or by making other excuses

Who are we Helping?

- similarity: - perceiving that a person is similar to us increases out willingness to provide help - Gender: - woman are more likely to receive help than men if the bystander is male. - Woman and men are equally like to be helped by female bystanders Perceived Responsibility: - People are more litter to receive help when their need for aid is viewed as being caused by facts beyond their control

Frustration - Aggression Hypothesis

- stating that 1. frustration invariably leads to aggression and 2. all aggressions is the result of frustration - both have been disproved - People o not always respond to frustration by aggressing. Instead, they may exhibit despair, resignation or non aggressive ways of dealing with conflict - Aggression can be increased not only by frustration but also, to a wide range of aversive stimuli - Provocation is another stimulus to aggress. - Crowding can trigger aggression in many species. People feel crowed and believe they have little control over the situation - Heat also increases the risk of aggression

Why do we get a Media Effect

1. Social learning 2. Disinhibition - inhibition about hurting other people 3. Desentivazation to pain and aggression - over time we get used to it Does TV violence cause aggression: Maybe Does TV violence influence aggression: YES - effects dissipate in 15 mins

Televison

5 2-3 hours per day 10 4-6 hours per day 16 witnessed 13,000 murders - 98% of households have at least 1 TV - more than households with a bath or telephone - on average 7 hours per day - consumed by women, preschoolers and retired people Barker and Ball 1969, Waters and Malamund 1975 - 8 out of 10 shows contain violence - act of violence occurs every 16 mins - Murder every 31 mins - 93.5% of cartoons contain violence - Good guys as violent as the bad guys - Pain and suffering rarely shown = About 50% of killers do not suffer - Most believe that there is too much violence

Conformity

A change in attitude, behavior or belief brought by the real or imagined pressure from others - Private Acceptance - Gone along with the group but start to believe Compliance - Going along with the group to go along Non- Conformity - Independence: resisting social influence - Anti - Conformity: do exactly what the group doesn't, want you want to do Subtle Influence - models - out behaviours may be shaped by models, even in absence of direct intentional influence Response Disinhibition - Model performs desired behaviour but, prohibited act gets rid of our own inhibition - Increases suicides 1950-1969 - 200 after M Monroe Response Facilitation - Model performs legal behaviour, then we cop Yawning and nodding head - Candid conformity Wells and Petty 1980 - head nodding and shocking - individuals who nodded their heads were more likely to support conforming to group pressure

Door in the Face

A persuader makes a large request, executing you to reject it, and then presents a smaller request.

Social Role

A social role consists of a set of norms that characterizes how people in a given social position ought to behave. The roles of "university student", "professor" carry different sets of behaviour expectations.

Cognitive Arousal Model of Love

According to the cognitive arousal model of love, the passionate component of love has interacting cognitive and physiological components. This model suggested that emotional arousal actually caused by some other factors may sometimes be misinterpreted as love. - The ventral tegemental area of the brain is trigged when you think about the person you love. This results in the release of dopamine. - people who are in love show greater activity in the entire reward structure of the brain

Lowballing

Lowballing is when a persuader gets you yo commit to some action and then before you actually perform the behaviour, they increase the cost of that same behaviour.

Realistic Conflict Theory

Competition for limited resources leads to conflict and prejudice

Prejudice and Discrimination

Discrimination refers to overt behaviour, that involves treating people unfairly based on the group to which they belong. Prejudice reefers to a negative attitude toward people based on their membership in a group. - Have gone underground and more difficult to detect -Many people consciously hide their prejudices, expressing them inly when the feel it is safe or socially appropriate. In the cases, people may honestly bevel that their not prejudiced but still show bias when tested

Diffusion of Responsibility

First, a bystander will not help unless they notice the situation. - If you conclude that a situation is an emergency, then you move to the next step: assuming responsibility to intervene. If you are the only person to hear someone screaming, then responsibility for help falls on you, But if others are present there may be a diffusion of responsibility, Diffusion of Responsibility is a psychological state in which each person feels decreased personal responsibility for intervening. - If you take responsibility whether you actually intervene still depends on your self-efficacy (confidence) in dealing with the situation. Sometimes we fail to help because we don't know how or believe that our help wont be effective

Foot in the Door

Foot in the Door, is when a persuader gets you to comply with a small request first and later present a larger request.

Psychodynamic

Freud proposed that in a never-ending cycle, aggressive implusese build up over time, eventually have to be released, and then build up again. His principle of catharsis staled that performing an act of aggression discharges aggressive energy and temporality reduces out implies to agrees.

Group Polarization

Group polarization is when a group of like-minded people discuss an issue, whether face to face or electronically, the average opinion of group members tends to become more extreme. - One reason, reflecting normative social influence is that individuals who area attracted to a group may be motivated to adopt more extreme positions to gain the groups approval - A second reason, is that during group discussions people hear arguments supporting their positions that they had not previously considered. These new arguments tend to make the initial positions seem even more valid

Factors that Affect Conformity

Group size: Conformity increased from 5 to 35 percent as group size increased from one to four or five confederates, but, contrary to common sense, further increases in group size did not increase conformity. Presence of a dissenter: When one confederate disagreed with the others, this greatly reduced real participants conformity. Even when the dissenter gave an incorrect answer, participant made fewer errors. When someone else dissents, this person serves as a model for remaining independent from the group.

Lab Studies

Libert and Barron 1972 - Kids 5-6, 8-9 watch either, the untouchables or one track film - Then had the opportunity to either help or hurt another child - working on building tower - help green button hurt red button

Physical Attractiveness

Major Factor: important to both women and men - not everyone responds in the same fashion - like composite photo better - more symmetrical - averaging Features - Heterosexual men prefer baby faced women - Heterosexual women prefer mature dominant faces - Gays and Lesbians - inconsistent - but waist to hip ratio 0.6 to 0.7 (also hetero) Halo Effect - Attractive people seen as having other positive attributes - more confident - more adjusted - also brighter Garwood 1980 - not just physical appearance - Kathy, Jennifer, Christine - names that we have can influence our attractiveness Harari and McDavid 1973 - 4th and 5th grade papers - Micheal and David compared to Elmer and Hubert Sundow 1967 - Dead on arrival - individual,s who were well dressed, no obvious smell of alcohol, and who were physically attractive were worked on more - More physically attractive - have more dates - more social interactions - more social success McDonald and Elienfeild 1980 - Gazing at self in a mirrored window - Saw how long people would flood at themselves - Regardless of gender the more attractive you were rated, the more you looked into the mirror - Women spend more time looking then men

Matching Effect

Matching Effect is the tendency for partners to have a similar level of physical attractiveness. One reason for this is that the most attractive people may match up first and be 'taken' then the next attractive and so on. Another factor is that, to lessen the risk of rejection, some people may refrain from approaching potential dating partners who are more attractive than they are.

Minority Influence

Moscovici - proposes that to maximize its influence, the minority must behave highly committed to its point of view, remain independent in the face of majority pressure and be consistent over time, yet appear to keep an open mind - Dissenting information presented by a minority may cause majority members to change their view at least on a private level

Facilitating Factors

Propinquity - Physical proximity - increase chance that 2 people will come into contact - Bassard 1932 - 50% of brides and grooms lived within 20 blocks prior to marriage; 30% within 5 blocks - Festinger et al 1950 - military base study - ease of interaction important side by side vs different rows Mere Exposure - exposure - Zajnoc 1982 - repeated exposure enhances attraction - some set of photos goes up or die = the initial reaction must be neutral or midely positive - if the initial reaction is negative repeated exposure results in decreased liking - Mita, Dermer and Knight 1977 - normal vs mirror image photos - the friend liked the normal camera photo, the individual liked the mirror - because we see the mirror the most Grush et al 1978 - Whoever spends the most money is most likely going to win the election - more exposure

Stereotype Threat

Proposes that stereotypes create a fear and self conscious among stereotyped group members that they will live up to other people's stereotypes

Factors that Influence Destructive Obedience

Remoteness of the victim. Obdeience was greater when the learner was out of sight. When the teacher and learner were placed in the same room, obedience dropped to 40 percent. Furthermore, when the teacher had to make physical contact and force the learner's hand onto a "shock plate" obedience dropped to 30 percent. Closeness and legitimacy of the authority figure. Obedience was highest when the authority figure was close and perceived as legitimate. When the experimenter left the scene and gave orders by phone, or when an "ordinary person" took over and gave the orders, obedience dropped to about 20 percent. Cog in wheel. When another "participant" flipped the shock switch and real participants had to perform only another aspect of the task, 93 percent obeyed. In short, obuidicne increases when someone else does the dirty work. Personal characteristics. Miglrim compared the political orientation, religious affiliation, occupations, education, length of military service and psychological characteristics of obedient versus disobedient participants. Differences were weak or non-existent.

Social Norms

Social Norms are shared expectations about how people should think, feel and behave, and they are the cement that binds social systems together. Some norms are formal laws and relations, but many are implicit and unspoken.

Social Facilitation

Social facilitation is relating to the tendency for the presence of others to improve a person's performance on a task.

Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory states that individuals become aggressive by imitating role models. SLT states that observational learning takes place, and that this learning is reinforced vicariously. Vicarious reinforcement occurs when a person witnesses a model being rewarded for behaving in an aggressive way.

Triangular Theory of Love

Sternberg's triangular theory of love proposes that love is composed of three distinct components: intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment. ... The triangular theory allows for eight types of love: non‐love, liking, infatuation, empty, romantic, companionate, fatuous, and consummate. - Sterngebrg proposes that the ultimate form of low between people consummate love occurs when intimacy, passion and commitment are all present

Bystander Effect

The bystander effect is when in the presence of multiple bystanders inhibits each persons tendency to help, largely because of social comparison or diffusion of responsibility. This inhibition is more likely to occur when the bystanders are strangers rather than friends. - More lleikty to help when we are in a good mood. - preexisting guilt increases helping

The Audience

The central route to persuasion occurs when people think carefully about the message and are influenced because they find arguments compelling. The peripheral route to persuasion occurs when people do not scrutinize the message but are influenced mostly by other factors, such as a speakers attractiveness or a messages emotional appeal.

Social Penetration Theory

The social penetration theory proposes that, as relationships develop, interpersonal communication moves from relatively shallow, non-intimate levels to deeper, more intimate ones.

Groupthink

The tendency for group members to suspend critical thinking because they are striving to seek agreement. Groupthink is most likely to occur when a group is under high stress to reach a decision, is insulated form outside input, has a directive leader who promotes their personal agenda and has high cohesion, reflecting a spirit of closeness and ability to work well together. - Under these conditions, the group is so committed to reaching a consensus, while remaining loan and agreeable that embers suspend their critical judgment. Particularly when facing a collective threat, the groups's desire to maintain a positive view fo itself may lead members to reach agreement without carefully weighing opposing views. - Janis suggests that leader should remain impartial during discussion, regularly encourage critical thinking, burning in outsiders to offer their options and divide the larger group into subgroups

The Message

The two sided refutational approach is more effective. Especially when an audience initially disagrees with a message or is aware that there are two sides to the issue, the audile will perceive a two sided meager as less biased. Furthermore, messages that attempt to persuade by arousing fear can be effective under certain conditions, works best when the message evokes moderate fear.

Aggression

Two brain areas have found to be involved with aggressive behavior are the amygdala and the hypothalamus. Aggression also involves activity of the frontal lobes. - Identical twins are more similar the their aggressive behavior patterns than are fraternal twins. - Sociologists propose a that a genitive prediction toward aggression can be traced to evolutionary adaptation

Social Exchange Theory

While social exchange theory proposes that the course of a relationship is governed by rewards and costs that the partners experience. Rewards include companionship, emotional support and the satisfaction of other needs. Costs may include the effort spent to maintain the relationship, arguments and conflicting goals.

Deindividuation

a loss of individuality that leads to disinhibited behavior - Anonymity to outsiders was the key. Conditions that make an indivudal less indentifiabel to people outside the groups reduce feelings of accountability and slight but consistently increase the risk of anti social actions

Sexual Strategies Theory

ancestral men who were predisposed to have sex with more partners increased the likelihood of fathering more children and passing on their genes - Such men many have pacified a womens youth and attractive appearance as signs that she was fertile - Ancestral women however maiximized their reproductive stuccos by selecting mates who were willing and Abel to commit time energy and other resources

Transfer of Excitation

arousal due to one source is perceived as being due to another source

Companionate Love

involves affection and deep caring about the partner's well-being and a commitment to being there for the other - Both types of love contribute to satisfaction in long term romantic relationships

Passionate Love

involves intense emotion, arousal, and yearning for the partner. We Amy ride an emotional roller coaster that ranges from ecstasy to heartsickness. - passionate love is less stable and declines more quickly overtime and than companionate love

Norm of Reciprocity

involves the expectation that when others treat us well, we should respond in kind Norm of Reciprocity involves the expectation that when others treat us well, we should respond in kind. Thus, to get you to comply with a request, someone can do something nice for you now in hopes that you will feel pressure to reciprocate later.

Social Identity Theory

prejudice stems from a need to enhance our self-esteem - Self esteem is based on two components: a personal identity and a group identity that reflects membership in various groups - We can raise self esteem by associating ourselves with out in groups accomplishments and conversely, threats to the in group threaten our self esteem. - Our group identity thus creates a tendency to take pride in one's in group while aisle derogating out groups.

Social Structure Theory

proposes that most of these sex differences in mating strategies and preferences occur because society directs men into more advantaged social and economic roles. - In cultures with more gender equality may of the sex differences in mate preferences shrink.