Chapter 13
two reasons leaders need to resist the influence of other leaders or higher-ups
- do what's best for their own unit - resist the influence of own employees to avoid being a pushover when employees try to go their own way
Organizational characteristic events triggering uncertainty can be
- limited or changing resources -ambiguity in role requirements -high performance pressures -unclear performance evaluation measures
power and influence in action: leaders can use their power and influence in a number of ways including (2)
- navigating the political environment in the organization - resolving conflicts within the organization
environments that are seen as extremely political can:
-lower JS -increase strain -lower JP -increase turnover intentions -lower OC
zones of compliance
-preference -indifference -legitimate -influence -non influence
guidelines for use of reward power
-propose rewards that are attractive -only offer what you can follow through on -be clear on exactly what you are offering a reward ofr
guidelines for use of expert power
-put forth data or other evidence to support your proposal -communicate why the request is important and the justification for it - be consistent, thoughtful, and honest about requests
what actually could decrease OC levels
-repeated uses of coercive power -repeated reliance on hard influence tactics (pressure and coalitions)
guidelines for use of legitimate power
-stay within the rights your position holds -communicate your requests politely -make sure you describe the purpose of your request
guidelines for use of coercive power
-warn people prior to giving punishment -make sure punishment is fair relative to the nature of the compliance -follow through quickly and without discrimination or bias
conflict resolution is influenced by two factors
1. How assertive leaders want to be in pursuing their own goals 2. How cooperative they are with regard to the concerns of others
ZONES: 1. beyond the zone 2. the fringe 3. zone of acceptance
1. behavior unacceptable 2. unsure 3. employees perceive manager to have proper authority to make decisions within the scope of behavior
two important aspects of influence
1. directional 2. all relative
Barbuto's extension
Every directive, request or command issued by a leader is not the same in the eyes of the employee. The greater resistance the more power the leader must have in relation to target to insure compliance. - some requests held a combination of power tactics
power can be seen as the ability to RESIST the influence attempts of others. (3 ways)
1. voicing a dissent opinion 2. refusing to perform a specific behavior 3. organizing an opposition group of coworkers
exchange tactic differs from apprising (explaining how the target will personally benefit) in that the
benefit is something the that the requestor gives to the target not something that simply results from the action
interalization (most effective)
both behavior and attitude shift to agreement- target of influence agrees with and becomes committed to influence request
bargaining
both parties must likely make concessions, success at this stage depends on how well the prior two stages went. The goals is that each party walks away feeling that they gain something of value
example of distributive
buying a car at a dealership, there is a stated price but it is negotiable, every time the buyer knocks down the price, the car dealership and salesman loses
organizational power definition
derives from a person's position within an organization
Personal power definition
derives from the individual
BATNA
describes each negotiator's bottom line, at what point are they willing to walk away? at this point the negotiator is better off not negotiating at all
two negotiation strategies
distributive and integrative
Substitutability
having alternatives in accessing resources- leaders that control resources to which no one else had access can use their power to gain greater influence
discretion
having the right to make decisions on their own- if managers are forced to follow organizational policies or rules, their ability to influence others is reduced
collaboration
high assertive, high cooperation occurs when both parties work together to maximize outcomes, win win form of conflict is is most effective especially to task-oriented rather than personal conflicts
competing
high assertive, low cooperation occurs when one party attempts to get their goals met without concern of other party's results
visibility
how aware others are of a leader and the resources that leader can provide- if everyone knows that a leader has a certain level of power, the ability to use that power to influence others is likely to be high
centrality
how important a person's job is and how many people depend on that personal to accomplish their tasks- leaders who perform critical tasks and interact with others regularly have a greater ability to use their power to influence others
avoiding usually results in an unfavorable result for everyone
including the organization and may result in negative feelings toward the leader, most important avoiding NEVER resolves conflict
moderately effective influence tactics
ingratiation, personal appeals, apprising
to use inspirational appeals effectively leaders must have
insight into what kinds of things are important to the target- increasing confidence
leaders who thoroughly understand the conflict resolution style of collaboration are likely to thrive in these types of negotiations
integrative bargaining
responses to influence tactics (3)
internalization, compliance, resistance
apparent sincerity
involves appearing to others to have high levels of honesty and genuineness, seen a good and builds trust
interpersonal influence
involves having a personal style that is flexible enough to adapt to different situations
networking ability
is an adeptness at identifying and developing contacts, strong alliances are built in which good conflict management can take place
social astuteness
is the tendency to observe others and accurately interpret their behavior, you want to be seen in the most favorable state. Good at managing social situations
although exchange tactics can be effective at times
it is very unpredictable and can even end up having a negative effect on influence
collaboration is the most difficult to come by because
it requires full sharing of information by both parties, full discussion of concerns, relatively equal power between parties and a lot of time and investment to arrive to a resolution, but also best outcomes and reactions
for a leader, internalization is the best outcome because
it results in employees putting for the greatest level of effort in accomplishing what they are asked to do- proper use of forms of personal power are most likely to result in interalization
biggest cause if failure when talking about organizational politics
lack of social effectiveness
reward power and coercive power are intertwined with
legitimate power
example of expertise
lone programmer who knows how to operate a piece of antiques software, a machinist who was recently trained to operate a new piece of equipment or the only engineer who has experience working on a specific type of project
accommodating
low assertive, high cooperation occurs when one party gives in to the other and acts in an unselfish way
avoiding
low assertive, low cooperation occurs when one party wants to remain neutral, stay away from conflict or postpone the conflict to gather information or lets things cool down.
resistance is most likely when the influencer's power is
low relative to the target or when the request itself is inappropriate or unreasonable
negative emotions may
lower judgement accuracy
employee resistance could come in the forms of
making excuses, trying to influence the requestor in return, or simply refusing to carry out the request
example of coercive power
manager having the right to fire, demote, suspend or lower the pay of an employee
example of reward power
managers having control over raises, performance evaluations, desirable job assignments
downward influence
managers influencing employees (most frequently occurs)
traditionally, which of the two alternative dispute resolutions are used first?
mediation, then arbitration if parties are unable to come to an agreement
men and women view politics differently
men view political attempts more favorably than women
building political skill can be done through
mentoring programs
compromise
moderate both assertive and cooperation occurs when conflict is resolved through give and take concessions, most common form of conflict resolution, maintains relationship between parties, and generally results in favorable evaluations for the leader
integrative bargaining is most appropriate when there are
multiple outcomes possible, adequate levels of trust and the parties are willing to be flexible
personal characteristics triggering uncertainty can be
need for power & machiavellianism (get what you need with manipulation of others)
when people have a track record of high performance, the ability to solve problems or specific knowledge that is necessary to accomplish a task they are more likely to be able to influence other people who
need that expertise
negotiator emotions, both positive and negative can
negatively influence negotiation success
Alternative Dispute Resolution
negotiation or conflict management failure and will result in an impasse between two parties, a process by which two parties resolve conflicts through the use of a specially trained, neutral third party
resistance (least effective)
neither behavior nor attitude shifts towards agreement, which occurs when the target refuses to perform the influence request and puts forth an effort to avoid having to do it
four dimensions of political skill
networking ability, social astuteness, interpersonal influence, apparent sincerity
The post video
notices the power she has over the company but ultimately uses legitimate power to put an exclamation point on her decision to run the story
Abritration
occurs when a third party determines a binding settlement to a dispute
compliance
occurs when targets of influence are willing to do what the leader asks, but they do it with a degree of ambivalence, behavior shifts to agreement but attitude does not
exchange tactic
offering a reward or resource in return for performing a request, this type requires that the requestor have something of value to offer.
organizations and leaders do their best to minimize the perceptions of
self-serving behaviors that are associated with organizational politics- are seen as detrimental to company performance as a whole
apprising differs from rational persuasion in that it focuses
soley on the benefit to the target as opposed to simple logic or benefits to the group or organization
organizational factors that are most likely to increase politics are those that raise the level of
uncertainty in the environment, when people are uncertain about an outcome or event they will generally act in ways that help reduce that uncertainty
political skill
understanding others at work and using that knowledge to influence others in ways that enhance personal and or organizational objectives
ingratiation has been shown to be more effective when...
used as a long-term strategy and not nearly as effective when used immediately prior to making an influence attempt
influence tactics tend to be most successful when
used in combinations, many tactics have some limitations or weakness that can be overcome using other tactics with it
pressure
using coercive power (punishment) through threats and demands, coercive is a poor way to influence others and may only bring benefits for short term
ingratiation
using favors, compliments or friendly behavior to make the target feel better about the influencer- "sucking up" especially in upward influence
rational persuasion
using logical arguments and facts to show the target that the request is worthwhile
example of legitimate power
when managers ask an employee to stay after to work on a project, or work faster
conflict
when two or more individuals perceive that their goals are in opposition
Integrative Bargaining
win- win style utilizing mutual respect and problem solving that is satisfying for both parties
distributive bargaining
win-lose style with "fixed pie", zero sum conditions, everyone wants the biggest piece of pie. One person gains while the other person loses
collaboration (very effective)
working together to maximize outcomes, attempting to make it easier for the target to complete the request- could involve a leader helping to complete the task, providing required resources or removing obstacles that make the task completion difficult
is it difficult for an employee to gauge what form of power is most important
yes, many times you don't know what type of power a leader possess until they attempt to use it
coercive power is generally regarded as
a poor form of power to use regularly because it tends to result in negative feelings towards those who wield it
negotiations
a process in which two or more interdependent individuals discuss and attempt to come to an agreement about their different preferences
personal appeals
appealing to personal friendship or loyalty, requestor asks for something based on personal friendship/ loyalty--> the stronger the friendship the more successful the attempt is likely to be
inspirational appeal
appealing to values and ideals to create an emotional reaction or attitudinal reaction
mediation
requires a third party to facilitate the dispute resolution process, though this third party has no formal authority to dictate a solution
when negotiators perceive themselves as relatively equal in power
they take more of a integrative approach
when negotiators perceive themselves as having more power than the other party
they tend to demand more and concede less (distributive approach)
just because someone has the ability to influence others does not mean...
they will choose to do so. -In many organizations, the most powerful employees don't even realize how influential they can be
those with reward power have the ability to influence others if those being influenced believe
they will get the rewards by behaving a certain way
people with legitimate power have the understood right to ask others
to do things that are considered within the scope of their authority
true or false: it is easy for the two areas of power and influence in action can coincide
true, it is easy
influence tactics that tend to be most successful are those that are
"softer" in nature: rational persuasion, consultation, inspirational appeals, and collaboration take advantage of personal rather than organizational forms of power.
5 different styles of conflict resolution
-competing (win-lose) -avoiding (lose-lose) -accommodating (lose-win) -collaborating (win-win) -compromise
directional influence (3)
-downward -lateral -upward
the direction toward goal achievement can affects followers' interpretation of: (5)
-events -organization of their work activities -their commitment to key goals -relationships with other followers -access to cooperation and support from other work units
personal power (2)
-expert -referent
guidelines for use of referent power
-follow through on commitments -do things for others even when not required to do so -support and uphold others when called for
organizational power (3)
-legitimate -reward -coercive
leaders are better able to use their power when they have...
-low substitutability -high discretion -high centrality -high visibility
how are power and influence important/ correlated with JP and OC?
Moderately correlated
organizational politics
actions by individuals that are directed toward the goal of furthering their own self-interests, but not in opposition of the company's interests, but being able to push the leader's own ideas and influence through org politics
the desire in referent power is derived from
affection, admiration, or loyalty toward a specific individual
positive emotions may lead to
agreeing too quickly
the most powerful leaders have what kind of power?
all five dimensions -legitimate -reward -coercive -expert -referent
consultation
allowing the target to participate in the decision making, and how the implementation will carry out the request, this increases commitment from the target who now had a stake in seeing that their opinions are valued
expert power
based on expertise, skill or knowledge on which others depend on
Coercive power
based on the ability to punish, or has control over punishments in an organization
Reward power
based on the control of resource benefits, or the rewards another person wants
legitimate power
based on the position of authority in an organization; these people have some sort of title
coalitions are usually used in
combination with one of the other tactics, if rational persuasion isn't strong enough, the influencer might bring another person to show that person agrees with the logic of the argument
distributive bargaining is similar in nature to
competing approach of conflict resolution, (win-lose) union-management labor negotiations
proper use of organizational forms of power are, at best, most likely to result in what response
compliance
women are more likely to use what kind of tactic in comparison to men
compromise, whereas men are more likely to use competing as a tactic
higher levels of emotional intelligence are more likely to adopt
constructive forms of conflict management (green areas, collaboration)
effective use of power and influence can
create internalization, increase citizenship behavior, decrease counterproductive behavior, increase motivation levels of employees, and increase JS and trust in the leader
preparation
each party determines goals and alternantives
exchanging information
each party makes a case for its position and attempts to put all favorable information on the table- each party also informs the other party of how it has arrived at the conclusions it has and which issues it believes are important (active listening and lots of questioning)
upward influence
employees influencing managers
coalitions
enlisting others to help influence the target, peers, subordinates, or one of the target's superiors.
referent power
exists when others have a desire to identify and be associated with a person
apprising
explaining how the target will personally benefit, requestor clearly explains why performing the request will benefit the target personally
other name for legitimate power
formal power
contingency factors
four factors that have an effect on the strength of a person's ability to use power to influence others- increase or decrease the degree leaders can use their power to influence others
competing occurs most often when
one part has high levels of organizational power and can use legitimate or coercive power to settle a conflict, involves hard forms of influence like pressure and coalitions- usually negative reactions/ no friends. Usually best when the leader knows they're right and needs a quick decision
personal forms of power are more strongly related to
organizational commitment and job performance than the organizational forms
compliance is the most common response to influence attempts in
organizations because anyone with some degree of power who makes a reasonable request us likely to achieve compliance, that response allows leaders to accomplish their purpose, but doesn't bring about the highest levels of employee effort and dedication
lateral influence
peers influencing peers
negotiator biases
perceived power relationship between the parties and negotiator emotions are two of the most important
there are cultural differences when it comes to what kind of appeal
personal appeals
examples of referent power
political leaders, celebrities, sports figures, or a leader in an organization with a good reputation, attractive personal qualities or a certain level of charisma
for leaders to be effective, they must have a certain degree of
political skill
politics are seen as more negative than
power, people's perceptions of politics are generally negative
negotiation stages (4)
preparation, exchanging information, bargaining, closing and commitment
lease effective influence tactics- could lead to resistance from the target
pressure, coalitions, exchange tactic
most effective influence tactics
rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, collaboration
leaders typically use accommodating strategies when the issue is
really not that important to them but is very important to the other party. Also important when the leader has less power than the other party, long-term strategy
four contingency factors
substitutability, discretion, centrality, visibility
power
the ability to influence the behavior of others and resist unwanted influence in return
closing an d commitment
the agreement is formalized, for large complex negotiations this stage can be long
relativity in influence
the degree of disparity between the influencer and the influence
most of these situations (contingency factors) revolve around the idea that the more other employees depend on a person
the more powerful that person becomes
research shows that rational persuasion is
the most effective when it helps to show the proposal is important is feasible
coercive power operates primarily on
the principle of fear, it exists when one person believes they another has the ability to punish them and is willing to use that power
Barnard's zone of acceptance
the range in which we perceive a manager to have proper authority to make decisions within this scope - the size of the range varies with each individual and authority rests in the consent of individuals
influence
the use of an actual behavior that causes behavioral or attitudinal changes in others
leadership
the use of power and influence to direct the activities of followers toward goal achievement
Non influence zone
these are behaviors in which the target would not engage under any work related circumstances (illegal or immoral tasks/ requests)
legitimate zone
these are behaviors which the target would rather not do but sees the it is their responsibility as an employee to do when asked (monthly meetings)
preference zone
these behaviors and activities the target actually enjoys doing and would probably do with any request
indifference zone
these behaviors represent activities for which the target has no preference and is indifferent to
influence zone
these behaviors represent tasks and activities which the target views as outside their normal work responsibilities - to carry out would mean going beyond job requirements - they can be motivated to perform if the proper source of motivation is tapped by the leader (going to get coffee for managers)
