Chapter 2 Disease and Life expectancy

The cardiovascular system

(i.e., the heart, blood, and blood vessels) circulates blood throughout the entire body. The heart is simply a four-chamber muscular organ, pumping more than 1,000 gallons of blood a day through 60,000 miles of blood vessels. The four chambers of the heart are divided into the atria (i.e., the two upper chambers) and the ventricles (i.e., the two lower chambers), labeled as either the left or right. The chambers are divided by the septum.

ABCs of Heart Attack Prevention.

The A stands for Avoid Tobacco, the B reflects Be More Active, and the C is for Choose Good Nutrition

PHYSICAL [IN]ACTIVITY (RISK FACTORS FOR CANCER)

The American Cancer Society recommends that every U.S. adult "get at least 150 minutes of moderate intensity or 75 minutes of vigorous intensity activity each week or a combination of these, preferably spread throughout the week."

CORONARY HEART DISEASE

The risk factors fall into two categories: major and contributing.

myocardial ischemia (i.e., inadequate oxygen supply to the heart)

When atherosclerosis develops in the coronary arteries myocardial ischemia occurs. The signs of this are tightness and pain in the chest, or angina pectoris. If left untreated, this can result in a myocardial infarction: a heart attack.

Squamous cell carcinoma

affects the top layer of the epidermis, and also appears on sun-exposed areas. Twenty percent of skin cancers are this type. Squamous cell carcinomas are more dangerous than basal cell carcinomas because they are known to spread to deeper layers of skin and to other tissues. Luckily, they rarely invade the lymphatic system or other organs within the body, and are easily treated.

early 1900s

communicable diseases were the leading causes of death. Viruses and bacteria were the principal killers, drastically reducing longevity and the overall wellness of millions.

Nonmelanoma skin cancer

divided up into groups based upon the type of skin cell that is affected in the epidermis. The two major groups are basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma, and they account for about 95 percent of all cancers.

The latter 1900s

were characterized by technological change and innovation

The U.S. Surgeon General and the benefits of quitting smoking

• Individuals who quit smoking outlive those who continue to smoke. • Quitting smoking before the age of 50 reduces an individual's risk of dying by half compared to those who continue to smoke. • Individuals who quit smoking reduce their risk of developing other cancers, as well as heart disease, dramatically.

Today's leading causes of death

1. Heart Disease 2. Cancer 3. Chronic Lower Respiratory Disease 4. Stroke 5. Accidents (Unintentional Injuries)

early 1900's leading causes of death

1. Pneumonia 2. Tuberculosis 3. Diarrhea/enteritis 4. Heart Disease 5. Stroke

Classification of Blood Pressure

<120/80 mm Hg Normal 120-139/80-89 mm Hg Prehypertension 140-159/90-99 mm Hg Stage 1 Hypertension 160+/100+ mm Hg Stage 2 Hypertension

CLINICAL BREAST EXAMINATION

A clinical breast examination is performed by a trained health professional, such as a physician or nurse, and should occur every three years for women aged 20-39. Here, the physician or nurse physically examines the breasts, looking for any abnormalities or signs of cancer. Once a woman is 40, she should have a clinical breast examination annually

Pre-hypertension

A reading between 120/80-139/89 is classified as "Pre-hypertension."

thrombus

A thrombus can form in an artery that supplies blood to the brain. If the thrombus grows too large, it can block the supply of blood to the brain and result in a stroke. When a thrombus breaks loose and flows through the blood vessels, it is called an embolus. The embolus can then become lodged in an artery and result in a stroke.

CHEMICALS (RISK FACTORS FOR CANCER)

A variety of chemicals are viewed as carcinogens. Asbestos, arsenic, and benzene, to name a few, are known to be carcinogenic with repeated exposure. Reducing one's exposure to known carcinogenic chemicals greatly reduces the risk of developing cancer

UNCONTROLLABLE STROKE RISK FACTORS

AGE. As one ages, the risk of having a stroke increases. In fact, after age 55, the risk for stroke doubles each decade; the majority of strokes occur in individuals who are over age 65. SEX (GENDER). Men have a higher risk for stroke than women, but more women than men die from stroke. RACE. African Americans have the highest stroke risk among all races, followed by Hispanics, Asians/Pacific Islanders, and then Caucasians. FAMILY HISTORY. Individuals who have a family history of stroke are at a higher risk. PREVIOUS STROKE OR TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC ATTACK (TIA). Individuals who have had a previous stroke or a transient ischemic attack (ministroke) have a 25-40 percent chance of having another stroke in the next 5 years.

MAMMOGRAPHY

All women over the age of 40 should have an annual mammogram. Mammograms help physicians find tumors while they are still small, often too small to feel during a self-examination. Mammograms are very helpful in the early cancer detection process, and are responsible for saving thousands of women's lives each year.

MONTHLY BREAST SELF-EXAMINATION

All women should perform the breast self-examination (BSE) monthly. If a woman regularly performs the BSE, she begins to understand how her breasts feel normally and is much more adept at detecting any signs or symptoms of cancer. A woman should perform the BSE about a week after her menstrual period ends so that her breasts are not swollen or tender and so that she can accurately perform the examination. If a woman does not have regular periods, she should perform a BSE on the same day every month. Women who are pregnant, breastfeeding, or have breast implants also need to do regular breast self-examinations.

Modern day

Americans are their own worst enemy, with lifestyles characterized by inactivity, poor eating habits, and tobacco, drug, and alcohol abuse.

hypertension or "high" blood pressure

Anything over 140/90 mm HG is considered hypertension or "high" blood pressure, and is broken down into Stage 1 and Stage 2 Hypertension

UNCONTROLLABLE- INCREASING AGE (Major risk factor)

As a person ages, the likelihood of having a heart attack increases, especially after age 65. But it is not uncommon for some, especially men who have a family history of coronary heart disease, to have heart attacks in their 40s. Furthermore, older women who have heart attacks are more likely to die within a few weeks after the cardiac episode than are men

Basal cell carcinoma

Basal cells make up the deepest layer of the epidermis. Basal cell carcinoma accounts for about 70 percent of all skin cancer, and usually affects the face, neck, hands, and arms—the chronically sunexposed areas. This type of cancer is usually slow growing and rarely spreads to other parts of the body; however, if left untreated, it can spread. Additionally, even after being removed, basal cell carcinomas have been known to recur. So prevention is very important

pulmonary circulation

Blood flows through the heart itself, starting in the right atrium to the right ventricle, and out to the lungs for oxygenation.

CONTROLLABLE-HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (HYPERTENSION). (Major risk factor)

Blood pressure is the amount of force applied to the arterial walls by the heart when it beats. It is measured in millimeters of mercury (mm HG) and is expressed as one number over another. Hypertension is known as the "silent killer" because it rarely has any early warning signs. Over 34% of the adult population in the United States each year is hypertensive, and many do not know that they have it

systemic circulation

Blood then flows back to the heart, through the left atrium and left ventricle, and out to the body via the aorta, the largest artery of the body

DETECTING CANCER

Both men and women should perform monthly self-examinations with respect to the seven warning signs of cancer. However, some cancers are sex specific (e.g., prostate, uterine) and have high incident rates, so special consideration to prevention efforts and site-specific self-examinations must be employed.

BREAST CANCER

Breast cancer primarily occurs in women, but a few cases do occur rarely in men. Most breast tumors are benign-that is, not cancerous-are called cysts, and are not life threatening. On the other hand, malignant tumors are very dangerous and are prone to spreading to other tissues The American Cancer Society recommends that women perform the following three tests for the prevention and early detection of breast cancer: 1) breast self-examinations; 2) clinical breast examinations; and 3) mammography.

Seven Warning Signs of Cancer

C hange in bowel or bladder habits A sore that does not heal U nusual bleeding or discharge T hickening or lump in the breasts or elsewhere I ndigestion or difficulty swallowing O bvious change in a wart or mole N agging cough or hoarseness

"ABCDE" Rule for Early Detection of Melanoma

C is for COLOR: Coloring may be of differing shades of brown or black, with patches of red, white, or blue. A is for ASYMMETRY: One-half of a mole or birthmark does not match the other. B is for BORDER: The edges are irregular, ragged, notched, or blurred. D is for DIAMETER: The area is larger than 6 millimeters (about the size of a pencil eraser) or is growing larger. E is for EVOLVING: The area has been changing, particularly growing larger over time.

US cancer death rates

Cancer Number of Deaths Prostate: 29,480 Breast (Female): 40,000 Lung and Bronchus: 159,260 Colon and Rectum: 50,310

metastasis

Cancer spreads through a process called metastasis. Cancer cells do not stay together like normal cells, but break loose and invade other tissues by traveling through the lymphatic system and the blood vessels. Once cancer begins to invade the lymphatic system, it is very difficult to stop. Early detection is a must. If cancer cells are removed before they metastasize, the chances of recovery are high.

CONTROLLABLE- HIGH BLOOD CHOLESTEROL (Major risk factor)

Cholesterol is a fatty substance found in the blood that is used for cell membrane maintenance and other bodily functions. It is synthesized within the body by the liver and, additionally, is found in dietary sources. Cholesterol is a necessary requirement for the body to function optimally. However, in excessive levels, cholesterol can be damaging to the body by increasing atherosclerosis. As blood cholesterol rises, so does the risk of coronary heart disease. Cholesterol is carried by classes of lipoproteins: very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs), low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), and high-density lipoproteins (HDLs).

CHRONIC LOWER RESPIRATORY DISEASE

Chronic lower respiratory disease, also known as CLRD, generally includes chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma. CLRD is a leading cause of death in the USA today, and it burdens American society to the tune of over $100 billion a year

CONTROLLABLE-DIABETES MELLITUS (Major risk factor)

Diabetes mellitus is a medical condition wherein the body has difficulty properly controlling blood glucose levels. Although it is often managed through medication or the injection of insulin, it seriously increases one's risk of developing coronary heart disease. Diabetes affects the balance of lipoproteins in the blood, often promoting atherosclerosis. Moreover, diabetes is associated with obesity, which can place additional stress on the heart.

DIET (RISK FACTORS FOR CANCER)

Diet plays a significant role in cancer prevention. The American Cancer Society states that approximately one-third of all cancer deaths can be attributed to diet. The type and variety of food, plus its preparation and portion size, affect an individual's risk of cancer. Further, phytochemicals (e.g., sulforaphane, genistein, flavonoids, chlorogenic acid) and fiber, commonly found in abundance in fruits and vegetables, are thought to help prevent cancer by blocking tumor formation.

RISK FACTORS FOR CANCER

Everyone is at risk of developing cancer. The American Cancer Society estimates that the risk for men developing cancer over the course of their entire life is 1 in 2, and for women, 1 in 3. However, modifying one's lifestyle can lessen the risk of developing cancer. Controllable cancer risk factors are the external ones. Approximately 75 percent of all cancer is related to external factors, such as smoking, diet, and disease.

ALCOHOL (CONTRIBUTING RISK FACTORS FOR CORONARY HEART DISEASE)

Excessive alcohol consumption can increase blood pressure, contribute to high triglycerides, and cause heart failure. Nonetheless, the risk of heart disease in moderate drinkers (i.e., 1 drink for women and 2 drinks for men per day) has been shown to reduce one's risk for coronary heart disease. A drink is defined as 1.5 fluid ounces of 80-proof spirits, 1 fluid ounce of 100-proof spirits, 4 fluid ounces of wine, or 12 fluid ounces of beer. That said, the American Heart Association does not recommend that nondrinkers start using alcohol or that drinkers increase their alcohol consumption to decrease their risk of coronary heart disease.

Act F.A.S.T

FACE Ask the person to smile. Does one side of the face droop? ARMS Ask the person to raise both arms. Does one arm drift downward? SPEECH Ask the person to repeat a simple sentence. Are the words slurred? Can he/she repeat the sentence correctly? TIME If the person shows any of these symptoms, time is important. Call 911 or get to the hospital fast. Brain cells are dying.

UNCONTROLLABLE- HEREDITY (INCLUDING RACE) (Major risk factor)

Family history affects the predisposition for coronary heart disease. If individuals' parents or grandparents had coronary heart disease, they are at a higher risk for developing it as well. However, they are not destined to develop coronary heart disease just because of an inherited genetic predisposition. They simply need to be aware of their increased risk and change their lifestyles accordingly. African Americans tend to have a higher incidence of heart disease than other races, mainly because of more severe high blood pressure. Hispanics tend to have a higher risk of developing coronary heart disease than Caucasians, and Asians tend to have the lowest risk

"good" cholesterol

HDLs are considered the "good" cholesterol because they carry the unused fat back to the liver, and, thus, reduce the amount of available fatty plaque that can adhere to the arterial walls.

CONTROLLABLE STROKE RISK FACTORS

HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE (HYPERTENSION). Controlling high blood pressure, or hypertension, is the most important risk factor for preventing a stroke. Being hypertensive increases one's stroke risk by nearly six-fold. Most individuals who suffer from a stroke have high blood pressure. ATRIAL FIBRILLATION (AF). Atrial fibrillation (AF) results when the two upper chambers of the heart (i.e., atria) beat rapidly and unpredictably, producing an irregular heartbeat and allowing blood to pool in the heart. Blood pooling substantially increases one's risk of having a stroke, because pooling blood is more likely to clot. Furthermore, long-term AF weakens the heart, leading to heart failure. HIGH CHOLESTEROL. High cholesterol levels affect one's risk of stroke both directly and indirectly. Directly, high cholesterol affects stroke risk by promoting atherosclerosis, or clogging of the arteries. Indirectly, clogged arteries put an individual at higher risk of heart disease, thus increasing stroke risk. HEART DISEASE. Stroke risk is increased up to six times in those who have heart disease. The primary reason for the six-fold increase in stroke risk is atrial fibrillation (AF).During AF, the atria (i.e., the upper chambers of the heart) contract rapidly and inefficiently, allowing blood to "pool," where it can clot, be carried to the brain, and result in a stroke. DIABETES. Diabetics have a higher stroke risk. Circulation problems and high blood sugar levels are believed to be contributing factors for an increased risk of stroke, often as high as 2 to 4 times that of non-diabetics. SLEEP APNEA. Sleep apnea, or sleep disordered breathing, increases stroke risk by increasing blood pressure and reducing blood oxygen levels. Both factors are thought to promote blood clots.

RADIATION (RISK FACTORS FOR CANCER)

Ionizing radiation (e.g., X-rays, radon) and ultraviolet radiation (i.e., sunlight) have been shown to cause cancer in humans. Ionizing radiation affects the entire body, but particularly the thyroid and bone marrow. Skin cancer is quite simply caused by overexposure to ultraviolet radiation. Limiting exposure to radiation is highly recommended to reduce one's risk of developing cancer

aneurysm

Lastly, strokes can occur because of an aneurysm, a bulging area of the artery that bursts and empties blood into the brain. This type of stroke, a hemorrhagic stroke, is the most severe, yet the least common.

LUNG CANCER

Lung cancer is one of the most prevalent forms of cancer today for both men and women. The inhalation of tobacco smoke, especially from cigarettes, is considered one of the greatest contributing factors for lung cancer, both directly from a tobacco product itself or indirectly from second-hand smoke. According to the American Cancer Society, some 87 percent of lung cancers are related to smoking. Nonetheless, smoking, especially cigarettes, enhances one's odds of developing cancer tremendously, and the mortality rates for those who smoke and develop lung cancer are 23 times higher for males and 13 times higher for females, respectively, than for non-smokers. Two other risk factors for lung cancer are chemical agents (e.g., asbestos, radon) and personal traits, such as family history

Incidence of Cancer in Males and Females

Males Females Prostate 27% Breast 29% Lung and bronchus 14% Lung and bronchus 13% Colon and rectum 8% Colon and rectum 8% Urinary bladder 7% Uterine corpus 6% Melanoma of the skin 5% Thyroid 6% Kidney and renal pelvis 5% Non-Hodgkin lymphoma 4% Non-Hodgkin lymphoma 4% Melanoma of the skin 4% Oral cavity and pharynx 4% Kidney and renal pelvis 3% Leukemia 4% Pancreas 3% Liver and intrahepatic Leukemia 3% bile duct 3%

UNCONTROLLABLE- MALE SEX (GENDER) (Major risk factor)

Men have a much higher risk of developing coronary heart disease than do women, at least until women reach their mid '70s; then the risk begins to close between the sexes, but men are still at a higher risk. Estrogen is believed to be a protective factor for women, but this protective factor diminishes after menopause. Even though women have a reduced risk for developing coronary heart disease, it is still their leading cause of death.

SMOKING (RISK FACTORS FOR CANCER)

More preventable deaths are related to smoking than any other factor. Additionally, more than one-half of all smokers die prematurely. Further, smoking-related deaths and disease cost over $200 billion annually. A major health concern associated with smoking is lung cancer. The American Cancer Society reports that 90 percent of lung cancers are related to smoking. It is not fair, however, to say that smoking directly causes cancer, because all smokers do not necessarily develop cancer. Nonetheless, the mortality rates for those who smoke and develop lung cancer are higher than for non-smokers. In fact, the life expectancy for non-smokers is over 10 years longer than for smokers

CONTROLLABLE-OBESITY AND OVERWEIGHT (Major risk factor)

Obesity is classified as a disease according to the American Medical Association. Persons who have excess body fat—especially if it is stored around the waist—are more likely to develop heart disease, even if they have no other risk factors. Obese individuals typically have higher rates of hyperlipidemia—elevated fat levels in the blood—higher blood pressure, increased risk of diabetes, and are more sedentary, which results in the increased risk. Obesity in and of itself is not necessarily the problem; it is the by-products of obesity (e.g., atherosclerosis, hypertension) that increase one's probability of developing coronary heart disease. Obesity is defined for men as being greater than 20 percent body fat and for women as being greater than 30 percent body fat.

CONTROLLABLE- PHYSICAL INACTIVITY (Major risk factor)

Physical inactivity, or sedentary living, greatly increases the chances of developing coronary heart disease. Exercising regularly helps reduce high blood pressure, increases high-density lipoproteins (the "good" cholesterol commonly referred to as HDLs), and helps control obesity and diabetes, thus reducing the overall risk of coronary heart disease.

PROSTATE CANCER

Prostate cancer is only found in men and has one of the highest incidence rates of all cancers. Prostate cancer is typically a slow-growing cancer A self-examination for prostate cancer is not available. So it is recommended that men over the age of 50 undergo a Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) blood test annually. AGE. As men age, they are at an increased risk of developing prostate cancer. In fact, most cases are found in men over age 50, and 80 percent of cases are in men over age 80. RACE. Prostate cancer is more prevalent in African Americans than other races, being about twice as common. DIET. High-fat diets are believed to be a precipitating factor in the development of prostate cancer. FAMILY HISTORY. Heredity plays a role in prostate cancer. Men with close relatives who had prostate cancer have a higher risk of developing it, as well.

CONTROLLABLE- TOBACCO SMOKE (Major risk factor)

Smoking cigarettes can be one of the most damaging habits to one's health. Smokers run two to four times the risk of developing coronary heart disease than non-smokers, depending on the number of packs smoked per day. Cigar and pipe smokers seem to have a higher risk of death from coronary heart disease, but their risk is not as great as that of cigarette smokers. Even more troubling is the fact that women who smoke and take "the pill" or other estrogen-based methods for birth control are at a much greater risk of suffering a stroke or heart attack than are non-smokers. Smoking is problematic for several reasons. First, nicotine and carbon monoxide, both found in smoke, cause harmful effects to the body. Nicotine is a stimulant and causes vasoconstriction, i.e., narrowing of the blood vessels, resulting in an increase in blood pressure and heart rate. Carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin—the oxygen-carrying component of blood—and, thus, reduces the amount of oxygen in the bloodstream, further taxing the heart. Second, smoking also exacerbates atherosclerosis by promoting the build-up of lipids on the arterial walls.In addition, individuals exposed to second-hand smoke can be at a high risk for developing coronary heart disease

STROKE

Some 700,000 Americans each year suffer from a stroke; roughly one every 40 seconds. According to the National Stroke Association, a stroke, or "brain attack," occurs when blood flow to an area of the brain is disrupted or stopped. Without blood, the cells are deprived of much needed oxygen and die within a few minutes, resulting in an infarct, an area of dead cells. To compound the problem, when brain cells die, they release chemicals into neighboring cells, which results in a process called an ischemic cascade. A stroke typically is caused by a blood clot, technically known as a thrombus, blocking blood from reaching the brain. Strokes also occur when blood vessels rupture in the brain, causing bleeding, or hemorrhaging.

STRESS (CONTRIBUTING RISK FACTORS FOR CORONARY HEART DISEASE)

Stress has a negative effect upon the body. It can increase blood pressure, which can overwork the heart, leading to the development of coronary heart disease. Further, stress may lead individuals to overeat or start smoking, or to smoke more than they normally would, all increasing one's chances of developing coronary heart disease.

LIFESTYLE CHOICES THAT INCREASE STROKE RISK:

TOBACCO USE/SMOKING. Smoking promotes atherosclerosis by damaging the arterial walls and increasing blood pressure, both causing the heart to work much harder and doubling stroke risk. Women smokers have an extreme risk of stroke, especially if they take oral contraceptives or use other estrogen-based methods, which can increase stroke risk by as much as 34 times that of nonsmoking women. ALCOHOL USE. While modest alcohol consumption (e.g., 1 to 2 drinks per day) reduces the risk of stroke, it is believed that excessive alcohol consumption increases stroke risk by as much as 50 percent. OBESITY/EXCESSIVE WEIGHT. When someone is excessively overweight, the circulatory system is overly taxed and stroke risk increases. Being obese increases the likelihood of having high cholesterol, high blood pressure, and diabetes, thus increasing stroke risk indirectly. Strokes are preventable.

TESTICULAR CANCER

Testicular cancer typically affects males between the ages of 15 and 40. However, any male is susceptible. The top risk factor for testicular cancer is having an undescended testicle, a condition called cryptorchidism Caucasian males are at a much higher risk for developing testicular cancer. Caucasians are five times more likely than African Americans and twice as likely as Asians to develop testicular cancer. The reason for this is unknown. The benefits of regular testicular self-examinations are somewhat ambiguous. The American Cancer Society states, "that for men with average testicular cancer risk, there is [no] medical evidence to suggest that monthly examination is any more effective than simple awareness and prompt medical evaluation.

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

The combination of chronic bronchitis and emphesyma is a condition known as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). COPD leads to a high rate of morbidity and mortality because it damages the tissue within the lungs where oxygen exchange occurs. This makes breathing increasingly more difficult as the disease worsens. COPD is associated with a cough, mucus production, wheezing, and breathlessness

diastolic blood pressure

The force exerted on the arterial walls when the heart is at rest is the diastolic blood pressure

melanoma

The least-common form of skin cancer is melanoma. It begins in the melanocytes, the melanin-producing cells in the skin, and is considered the most dangerous form of skin cancer. Melanoma is very dangerous because it frequently spreads to other parts of the body, unlike the other forms of skin cancer. One alarming statistic shows just how dangerous melanoma is: One person dies of melanoma every 57 minutes. The incidence of melanoma has increased substantially over the last decade.

SKIN CANCER

The most common type of cancer, yet the easiest typically to cure, is skin cancer, with an estimated 5 million cases annually The skin covers the entire body and is its largest organ. In the average adult, it covers more than 3,000 square inches. It has many functions—protecting the body against infectious agents, regulating body temperature, perception of stimuli, excretion, and synthesis of vitamin D. The skin has three layers: epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous, or the top, middle, and bottom layers, respectively. Skin cancer typically affects the epidermis. The epidermis is usually made of four layers, unless the area is exposed to friction, such as in the hands and feet, where it has five layers.

CANCER

The second leading cause of death in the United States is cancer, with more than 560,000 deaths each year. Approximately 40 percent of Americans, at some point during their life, shall be diagnosed with some form of cancer. In addition, it is estimated to cost Americans more than $239.5 billion annually

systolic blood pressure

The top number is the systolic blood pressure, the amount of force exerted on the arterial wall when the heart beats

Classification of Cholesterol

Total Cholesterol Less than 200 mg/dl Desirable 200-239 mg/dl Borderline High Greater than 240 mg/dl High Risk High-Density Lipoproteins (HDLs) Less than 35 mg/dl High Risk Greater than 60 mg/dl Desirable

risk factors for skin cancer:

ULTRAVIOLET (UV) RADIATION. UV radiation has been shown to be the primary catalyst for skin cancer development. The major source for UV radiation is from sunlight; however, artificial tanning lamps and beds also emit UV radiation. FAIR SKIN. Caucasians are 20 times more likely to develop skin cancer than African Americans. In addition, Caucasians with red or blond hair, coupled with skin that freckles and burns easily, are at an exceptionally high risk. FAMILY HISTORY. If a close relative has had skin cancer, one's risk is greater. MOLES. The presence of moles on the body increases the likelihood of developing skin cancer, particularly melanoma. SEX (GENDER). Men are more than twice as likely to develop basal cell cancer and three times more likely to have squamous cell cancer than women. AGE. As an individual ages, the odds increase for skin cancer.

"bad" cholesterol

VLDLs and LDLs are known as the "bad" cholesterol because they promote atherosclerosis.

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE (CVD)

an encompassing term used to describe various diseases of the heart and its circulatory system— accounts for the greatest number of deaths in the United States today. it affects nearly one-half of the American population.

Obesity-related diseases

are estimated to cost the United States over $100 billion annually and is projected to rise up to $957 billion annually by 2030. So, obesity is extremely costly in both human and monetary capital

Stroke (also a CVD)

fourth leading cause of death

The average life spans of Americans today

has nearly doubled, and average individuals can expect to live well into their upper 70s or low 80s.

Cancer

is a group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells. Normal cells are changed by a carcinogen—a catalyst for the development of cancer—and begin to divide, forming a tumor, being either benign or malignant. Benign tumors typically pose no major health concerns because they are enclosed in a membrane and do not invade neighboring tissue. They only become dangerous if they impair the proper functioning of other cells, e.g., a tumor in the throat inhibiting breathing. Malignant tumors are a different story, however. They are cancerous, typically grow rapidly, and spread throughout the surrounding tissue and to other areas of the body.

"Normal" blood pressure

is considered less than 120/80 mm HG. (NOTE: Some, particularly women, may have lower blood pressure, yet still be very healthy.)

The high rate of CVD

is directly attributable to the lifestyle most Americans live. Americans are simply too inactive, eat too much fat, smoke too many cigarettes, and fail to manage their stress effectively

Coronary heart disease, a major form of CVD

is the leading cause of death in the United States, reportedly attributing to more than 700,000 deaths annually

The expanded life expectancy

is the result of several factors, including improved healthcare, refrigeration, vaccinations, and better sanitation practices.

Risk factors for COPD

mainly center around smoking tobacco, especially from cigarettes, but exposure to air pollution and chemical fumes, recurrent infections, poor diet, and other genetic factors play a role as well. COPD is not curable.

hypokinetic diseases

named for "hypo" meaning too little and "kinetic" for movement—and are caused by "too little movement."

THE SPANISH FLU OF 1918

one of the deadliest influenza pandemics. The disease spread quickly throughout Europe during the first World War, mainly because of the close living quarters of the soldiers and the mass movement of troops.

atherosclerosis

problems arise with the accumulation of fatty deposits on the arterial walls or clogging of the arteries. This is most problematic when it develops in the coronary arteries—the arteries that feed the heart its oxygen and nutrient supply.

chemical agents

radon—an odorless, colorless gas that emanates from rocks and dirt, which occasionally gets caught in houses and buildings. The inhalation of radon is considered highly dangerous and carcinogenic. Other substances that are known carcinogens and that should not be inhaled are asbestos, arsenic, silica, and chromium.

ischemic cascade

reduces the blood flow to the neighboring cells, often causing them to die. However, if prompt medical attention is given, the ischemic cascade can be attenuated, thus reducing cellular death. The "window for opportunity" is roughly 6 hours. So, prompt medical attention is needed. Furthermore, the reason that strokes are so damaging is that brain cells have extremely limited rejuvenating ability.

industrialization and mass production

removed people from the farm and placed them in factories and offices. The jobs individuals undertook were quite often less physically demanding, and commonly referred to as "desk jobs."

Lipoproteins

shuttle cholesterol throughout the bloodstream to and from the cells and the liver

Medicines for COPD

such as bronchodilators and inhaled glucocorticosteroids along with pulmonary rehabilitation and oxygen therapy are used as well during the treatment of COPD.

highest incidence of cancer

the highest incidence of cancer in males is in the prostate; whereas, breast cancer has the highest incidence rate in females The other leading incidences of cancers are quite similar between males and females and are as follows: lung, colon and rectum, and lymphomas