Chapter 2 Inquezitive

1. Cara will eventually regain most of the use of her limbs. 2. Cara's seizures will diminish. 3. the results wouldn't be better if the surgery is postponed until Cara is a little older 4. Cara's ability to speak and to understand others' speech will be permanently impaired.

1. The brain has the ability to rewire and reorganize itself following trauma such as brain surgery. This is called brain plasticity. 2. Reduction in seizures is the reason for the surgery. 3. Younger brains recover more quickly and more fully than older brains. 4. As the case of Michelle Mack illustrates, the remaining hemisphere will take over language-processing functions. (Also, the left hemisphere is normally more responsible for language than the right one to begin with.)

environment

A supportive environment enables Mark to develop to his fullest genetic potential.

Acetylcholine

Acetylcholine facilitates learning and memory. John's amnesia may have been caused by the disruption of acetylcholine levels in the brain.

Dendrites

Dendrites receive either excitatory or inhibitory chemicals from other neurons Dendrites receive neurotransmitters from the presynaptic neuron.

Epinephrine

Epinephrine functions to provide energy bursts for mobilization; it is not related to memory.

dizygotic twins

Fraternal twins develop when two zygotes develop at the same time, so the twins have different genes.

synapse

Gap between neurons

Glutamate

Glutamate speeds up learning and memory. A loss of memory may have resulted from disruption in levels of glutamate.

monozygotic twins

Identical twins develop when one zygote splits into two, and both twins have exactly the same genes.

Once a neurotransmitter is received by a postsynaptic neuron's receptors, what happens?

If more excitatory messages are received, an action potential is set off. the cell body integrates the messages.

an inhibitory message will keep the neuron from firing when...

If more inhibitory messages are received, no action potential is set off.

Someone who suffers from a traumatic brain injury in the prefrontal cortex, similar to that of Phineas Gage, would not feel more emotionally connected with others because...

Lobotomies performed on psychological patients in the 1940s and 1950s left them disconnected from their social surroundings. The prefrontal cortex functions in part to provide a complex sense of self and an understanding of the norms of society.

genotype

Mark's genotype is his genetic makeup at conception.

phenotype

Mark's phenotype is his observable characteristics, which are determined by a combination of his genetic makeup and environmental influences.

Nurture only

Nurture alone will not determine his development.

low levels of dopamine

Parkinson's disease Dopamine regulates voluntary movements.

Terminal buttons

Terminal buttons hold and release chemicals.

autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system regulates the body's glands (like sweat glands) and internal organs (like the heart).

cell body

The cell body collects and integrates messages received by dendrites.

integrating information

The cell body integrates excitatory and inhibitory messages. A neuron labeled, "Presynaptic neuron (A) has dendrites which are web-like structures coming out of the left of its cell body. Three boxes describe the processes. Box one points to the axon of the presynaptic neuron and states, "Transmission: Neural communication begins when there is enough stimulation in the presynaptic neuron (A) to create an action potential. The action potential travels quickly down the myelinated axon to the terminal buttons." Box two points to the synapse and states, "Reception: The action potential causes chemicals called neurotransmitters to be released from the terminal buttons at the end of the axon. The neurotransmitters cross the synapse and fit into receptors in the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron (B)." Box three points to the cell body of the postsynaptic neuron and states, "Integration: Each neurotransmitter has either excitatory or inhibitory effects on the postsynaptic neuron (B). These effects are summed together in the cell body. If there is enough activation, it will lead to another action potential. At that point, the process begins again with Step one in a new neuron."

serotonin

The effects of serotonin are more related to mood regulation than to memory.

parasympathetic division of the nervous system

The parasympathetic division of the nervous system calms down the body to return to normal. The parasympathetic division of the nervous system calms down the body to return to normal.

the somatic division of the nervous system

The somatic division of the peripheral nervous system sends and receives signals from the skin, muscles, and joints; in this case, Heidi is not reacting to being physically touched.

sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic division of the nervous system activates the body for action and arousal.

thalamus

The thalamus is a sensory relay station, which acts as the gatekeeper to the cortex for all but olfactory input.

myelin sheath

This protective sheath speeds up the action potential as it travels down the axon.

synapse

This space between neurons allows chemicals to float from one neuron to the next neuron.

Axon

This structure carries the action potential to the terminal buttons.

neurotransmitter

chemical substance that carry signals from one neuron to another.

neurotransmitters

chemicals that are released into the synapse These chemicals carry either inhibitory or excitatory messages, depending on the receptor site.

axon

conducts electrical impulse the action potential is an electrical impulse that travels in an all-or-none fashion down the axon.

high levels of epinephrine

energy burst Epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, provides a burst of energy to respond to events. Maintaining healthy levels of neurotransmitters is vital for physical and mental health.

low levels of GABA

epileptic seizures GABA has inhibitory effects. Without it, too much excitation in the brain can result in seizures.

high levels of endorphins

euphoria and insensitivity to pain Endorphins are released to reduce pain and increase pleasure.

ovaries (female gonads)

female gonads The ovaries are the female endocrine glands that activate sexual behavior.

pineal

gland that governs bodily rhythms The pineal gland regulates rhythms of the body.

pituitary

gland that governs hormone release the pituitary gland activates the release of hormones throughout the body.

gonads

glands that govern male and female sexual behavior The gonads are the endocrine glands that regulate male and female sexual behavior.

peripheral nervous system

he peripheral nervous system encompasses every body part other than the brain and spinal cord.

terminal buttons

holds and releases chemicals into the synaptic cleft The action potential causes the release of chemicals to communicate to other neurons.

Estradiol

hormone with larger quantities in females Males and females both have estradiol, but larger quantities are found in females.

testosterone

hormone with larger quantities in males Males and females both have testosterone, but larger quantities are found in males.

cell body

integrates and stores information When enough excitatory chemicals are received to reach the threshold, an action potential begins. In integration, the cell body sums up the excitatory and inhibitory messages. If there are more excitatory messages, an action potential is fired.

The temporal lobe

involved with auditory processing and memory. Each lobe is an association area for processing the information it receives from the thalamus.

The frontal lobe

involved with planning, critical thinking, and movement.

The parietal lobe

involved with processing pressure, touch, and spatial relations.

The occipital lobe

involved with visual processing.

testes(male gonads)

male gonads The testes are the male endocrine glands that activate sexual behavior.

How many sperm fertilize an egg for monozygotic?

one sperm and one egg Identical twins develop from one sperm fertilizing one egg which then splits into two.

dendrites

receives chemicals from other neurons The communication of neurons begins with the chemicals received by the dendrites.

postsynaptic neuron dendrites

receiving information This neuron's dendrites receive the neurotransmitters.

low levels of serotonin

sadness, aggression, food cravings Serotonin helps to regulate mood

presynaptic neuron

sending information Once this neuron has fired, it releases its neurotransmitters into the synapse.

Jeanne is watching the sunset over the ocean, listening to the evening bird calls and feeling a cool breeze on her face. Which brain structure will organize and relay all this sensory information to the cortex?

the thalamus

How many sperm fertilize an egg for dizygotic

two sperm and two eggs Fraternal twins develop from two sperm fertilizing two eggs, which become two zygotes.