the day before ap psychology exam review
Which psychological perspective is most likely to be concerned with identifying the powers and the limits of human reasoning
Cognitive
The paper "The role of imagery in memory processes" would most likely be written by someone who subscribes to
Cognitive Philosophy
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
Cognitive neuroscience
Focus: How we encode, process, and store, and retrieve information
Cognitive perspective
Margaret Floy Washburn
First female to be awarded a PhD in psychology; 2nd female president of the APA (1921)
Phineas Gage
First person to have a frontal lobotomy. Gave psychology information on part of the brain that is involved with emotions reasoning etc.
insecure attachment
Infants are wary of exploring the environment and resist or avoid the mother when she attempts to offer comfort or consolation
bottom-up processing
Information processing that emphasizes the importance of the sensory receptors in detecting the basic features of a stimulus in the process of recognizing a whole pattern; analysis that moves from the parts to the whole; also called data-driven processing.
After a small section of his basilar membrane was damaged, Jason experienced a noticeable loss of hearing for high-pitched sounds only. Jason's hearing loss is best explained by the __________theory.
Place theory
Focus: How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts
Psychodynamic perspective
what is contemporary psychology's position on the nature-nurture debate?
Psychological events often stem from the interaction of nature an nurture rather than them acting alone
long-term potentiation
an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
personality
an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
encoding
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously(ie. motion, form, depth, color); the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision;
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision.
A chest implant that intermittently stimulates the vagus nerve has been used to treat some patients with
chronic depression
By directly experiencing a thunderstorm, we learn that a flash of lightning signals an impending crash of thunder. This best illustrates
classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
classical conditioning
belief perseverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
evidence-based practice
clinical decision making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences
a branch of that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
clinical psychology
anxiety hierarchy
constructed by patient in which feared situations are arranged from least to most anxiety provoking; used to set sequence for therapy
(damage to) wernicke's area
damage to an area of the left temporal lobe people could speak only meaningless words
spontaneous states
daydreaming, drowsiness, dreaming
lewis terman
developed the IQ test
studying our chnaging abilities from the womb to the tomb
developmental psychologists
barbituarates
drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but imparing memory and judgment
amphetamines
drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes
antianxiety drugs
drugs used to control anxiety and agitation
antidepressant drugs
drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD
antipsychotic drugs
drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder
reciprocated gestures
each side gives a little
Gustav Fechner
early German psychologist credited with founding psychophysics
telegraphic speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.
shizotypal personality disorder
eccentric or odd behavior, such as the emotionless disengagement
voice effect
if given a chance to voice their opinion during a decision-making process, people will respond more positively to the decision
in fantis
latin word for not speaking
theories with conscious/cognitive labeling
lazarus, schachter, and singer theory
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
alpha waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
Because Ken is 6'6'', people often mistakenly assume that he must be a member of his college's basketball team. This mistaken judgement best illustrates the impact of
the representative heuristic
What do we define psychology as today?
the science of behavior and mental processes
eugenics
the science of improving a human population by controlled breeding to increase the occurrence of desirable heritable characteristics
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
positive psychology
the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive
flat affect state
no apparent feeling
biological influences (to successful aging)
no genetic predisposition to early cognitive or physical decline; appropriate nutrition
adaptation-level phenomenon
our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
spotlight effect
overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)
overconfidence
overestimating the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements; allows us to be happy and to make decisions easily, but puts us at risk for errors
Hans Eysenck
personality is determined to a large extent by genes; used the terms extroversion and introversion
investigating our persistent traits
personality psychologists
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
personality test classifies people in terms of the personality dimensions highlighted by Carl Jung
auditory cortex
the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information
auditory canal
the area that sound waves pass through to reach the eardrum
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
retroactive interference
the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
resolution
the body gradually returns to its unaroused state as the genital blood vessels release their accumulated blood
basal metabolic rate
the body's resting rate of energy expenditure
olfactory bulb
the brain center for smell, located below the frontal lobes
Thalamus
the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window
psychosexual stages
the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones
Carl Jung emphasized the importance of _______________ in personality functioning
the collective unconscious
repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity
Premack Principle
The concept, developed by David Premack, that a more-preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity.
central executive
The part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources.
hypnotic induction
The process in which a hypnotist creates a state of hypnosis in a subject, generally by voicing a series of suggestions
glucose
the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.
proactive interference
the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
state-dependent memory
The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.
fraternal birth order effect
The theory that the more older brothers a man has, the more likely he is to be a homosexual.
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience
stability and change
Which of our traits persist through life? How do we change as we age?
bipolar disorder
a disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania
cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
conversion disorder
a disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found
illness anxiety disorder
a disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease
illness anxiety disorder (hypochondriasis)
a disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease
autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors
Self-determinism
a doctrine that the actions of a self are determined by itself.
delusion
a false belief, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders
female sexual interest/arousal disorder
a female dysfunction marked by a persistent reduction or lack of interest in sex and low sexual activity, as well as, in some cases, limited excitement and few sexual sensations during sexual activity
calling
a fulfilling and socially useful activity (report the highest satisfaction with their work and lives)
Correlation coefficient
a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that has been used to identify clusters (factors) of test items that tap basic components of intelligence (such as spacial or verbal skill)
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Decibel
a unit that compares the intensities of different sounds
insight therapies
a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person's awareness of underlying motives and defenses; seek to relieve problems by providing an understanding of their origins; psychodynamic and humanistic thearpy
FOXP2 gene
a version of a gene that helps enable the lip, tongue, and vocal cord movements of human speech; allow for easy speaking
Lewis Terman
advocate of intelligence testing in US; developed Standford-Binet test and oversaw army's use of intelligence testing during WWI
human factors psychology
an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
sexual response cycle
the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
fattening world
we are eating more and moving less; jobs requiring physical activity are declining
social identities
we associate ourselves with certain groups and contrast ourselves with others
retrieval failure
we cannot access stored information accurately, sometimes due to interference or motivated forgetting
singer-schachter Theory
we expericne feelings first and then label them
closure
we fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object (ie. we assume that the circles o the left are complete but partially blocked by the (illusory) triangle. Add nothing more than little line segments to close off the circles and your brain stops constructing a triangle.)
Memory construction
we filter information and fill in missing pieces with plausible guesses and assumptions
happiness is not related to
- age - gender - parenthood - physical attractiveness
organizational psychology
- analyzing organizational structures - enhancing quality of work
Which brain structure relays information from the eyes to the visual cortex?
Thalamus
female orgasmic disorder
distress due to infrequently or never experiencing orgasm
Focus: How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences
neuroscience perspective
Norepenephrine
neurotransmitter that regulates wakefulness, learning, memory, mood, arousal
oral
0-18 months, pleasure centers on the mouth- sucking, biting, chewing
(negative explanatory style) internal
"It's all my fault"
(negative explanatory style) global
"It's going to affect everything I do"
(negative explanatory style) stable
"It's going to last forever"
Mary Cover Jones
"Mother of behavior therapy"; used classical conditioning to help "Peter" overcome fear of rabbits
psychokinesis
"mind over matter" ie levitating a table or influencing the roll of a die
outgroup
"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
sterophonic hearing
"three dimensional hearing" achieved by the placement of our ears
ingroup
"us"—people with whom we share a common identity.
The cortical regions that are not directly involved in sensory or motor functions are known as
Association areas
Ivan Pavlov
Described process of classical conditioning after famous experiments with dogs
B.F. Skinner
Described process of operant conditioning
Joseph Wolpe
Described use of systematic desensitization to treat phobias
Descartes
(1596-1650) French philosopher, discovered analytical geometry. Reduced everything to spiritual or physical.
anal
(18-36 months) pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control
psychological influences
- selective attention - leaned schema - gestalt principles - context effects - perceptual set
phallic
(3-6 years) pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings
sympathetic nervous system
(AROUSED) eyes: pupils dilate salvation: decreases skin: perspires respiration: increases heart: accelerate digestion: inhibits adrenal glands: secrete stress hormones immune system functioning: reduced
Hans Selye
(Accidentally) described General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
parasympathetic nervous system
(CALMING) eyes: pupils contract salvation: increases skin: dries respiration: decreases heart: slows digestion: activates adrenal glands: decreases secretion of stress hormones immune system functioning: enhanced
biological influences
- sensory analysis - unlearned visual phenomena - critical period for sensory development
overt
(adj.) open, not hidden, expressed or revealed in a way that is easily recognized
chronic schizophrenia
(also called process schizophrenia) a form of schizophrenia in which symptoms usually appear by late adolescence or early adulthood. As people age, psychotic episodes last longer and recovery periods shorten.
acute schizophrenia
(also called reactive schizophrenia) a form of schizophrenia that can begin at any age, frequently occurs in response to an emotionally traumatic event, and has extended recovery periods.
person-situation controversy
(also known as trait-vs-state controversy) this controversy stems from a disagreement about the degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality (trait) or is due to a situation itself (state)
teratogens
(literally, "monster maker") agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
criterion
(n.) a rule, test; a standard for judgment or evaluation
proximity
(n.) nearness, closeness
instinct theory
(now replaced by the evolutionary perspective) focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors
alcohol use disorder
(popularly known as alcoholism). Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.
Which of the following correlations between self-esteem and body weight would enable you to most accurately predict body weight from knowledge of level of self-esteem
+.60
social-cultural influences
- deindividuation, or a loss of self-awareness and self-restraint - challenging environmental factors, such as crowding, and direct provocations - parental models of aggression - minimal father involvement - rejection from a group - exposure to violent media
human factors psychology
- designing optimum work environments - optimizing person-machine interactions - developing system technologies
social-cultural influences
- difficult environment, - cultural acceptance of drug use - negative peer influences
psychological influences
- dominating behavior (which boosts testosterone levels in the blood) - believing that alcohol has been ingested (whether it has or not) - frustration - aggressive role models - rewards for aggressive behavior - low self-control
biological influences
- genetic influences - biochemical influences, such as testosterone and alcohol - neural influences, such as a severe head injury
biological influences
- genetic predisposition - variations in neurotransmitter systems
happy people tend to . . .
- have high self-esteem - be optimistic, outgoing, and agreeable - have close friendships - have work and leisure that engage skills - have an active religious faith - sleep well and exercise
psychological influences
- lacking sense of purpose - significant stress - psychological disorders such as depression
reasons people are negative about themselves
- subtly strategic - -prepare us for the worst possible failure - learn from our mistakes - pertain's to one old self
personnel psychology
-selecting and placing employees -training and developing employees -appraising performance
psychophysics
-studies relationship between physical nature of stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they evoke
latency
6-puberty, dormant sexual feelings
Sleep order
1-2-3-4-3-2-REM
effortful processing
1. Explicit memories (declarative) with conscious recall 2. Processed in the hippocampus and frontal lobes 3. - Facts and general knowledge (this chapter's concepts) - Personally experienced events (family holidays)
automatic processing
1. Implicit memories (non-declarative) without conscious recall 2. Processed in cerebellum and basal ganglia 3. - Space, time, frequency (where you ate dinner yesterday) - motor and cognitive skill s (riding a bike) - classical conditioning (reaction to a dentist's office)
sleep's functions
1. protects us (from being awake during dangerous periods aka night) 2. helps us recuperate (restore damaged neurons) 3. restores and rebuilds fading memories of the day's experiences; strengthens memories (neural connections that build memories are strengthened in REM & REM-2 sleep 4. feeds creative thinking / problem solving the next day 5. supports growth (during slow-wave sleep, the pituitary gland secretes human growth hormone, which is necessary for muscle development)
Depression Cycle
1. stressful experiences 2. negative explanatory style 3. depressed mood 4. cognitive and behavioral changes
REM sleep
10 minutes, rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur; also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active; aka paradoxical sleep
An 80-decibel sound is ___________ times louder than a 60-decibel sound
100
NREM-1
15-20 minutes, slowed breathing, irregular brain waves, and experience halluninations
sleep spindles
20 minutes, bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity
Young- Helmholtz trichromatic theory
3 corresponding color receptors (RGB)
NREM-3
30 minutes, deep sleep, emits slow delta waves and hard to wake up
Kurt Lewin
A German refugee who escaped Nazi oppression. He designed an experiment to investigate the effects of different leadership styles on group functions. He wanted to find out if people were more productive under 3 different leadership styles. 1. autocratic 2. laizssez-faire 3. democratic. This is the study when he had the children do activities under the 3 conditions. The democratic style proved to be the most productive as was expected.
Melatonin
A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.
mild cognitive impairment
A level of memory loss between normal loss with age and pathological loss from disease.
algorithm
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier - but also more error-prone, use of heuristics
major depressive disorder
A mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities.
Hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
Serotonin
A neurotransmitter that affects hunger,sleep, arousal, and mood.
seasonal pattern
A pattern of the occurrence of a specific mental disorder in selected seasons of the year.
antisocial personality disorder
A personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist.
trial and error
A problem-solving strategy that involves attempting different solutions and eliminating those that do not work.
deep-brain stimulation
A procedure for treatment-resistant depression that involves the implantation of electrodes in the brain that emit signals to alter the brain's electrical circuitry.
Learning perspective
A psychological approach that emphasizes how the environment and experience affect a person's or animal's actions; it includes behaviorism and social-cognitive learning theories.
Arousal theory
A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation.
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
A traumatic insult to the brain capable of producing physical, intellectual, emotional, social, and vocational changes.
clinical or psychiatric social workers
A two-year master of social work graduate program plus postgraduate supervision prepares some social workers to offer psychotherapy, mostly to people with everyday personal and family problems. About half have earned the National Association of Social Workers' designation of clinical social worker.
Systematic desensitization
A type of counterconditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli
systematic desensitization
A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.
moon illusion
A visual illusion involving the misperception that the moon is larger when it is on the horizon than when it is directly overhead.
Dorothea Dix
American activist who successfully pressured lawmakers to construct & fund asylums for the mentally ill
obsessive-compulsive disorder(OCD)
An anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsession) and/ or actions (compulsions).
panic disorder
An anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations.
In the DSM-IV, multiple personality disorder is categorized as a or an
Anxiety disorder
ancient philosopher that believed your mind is developed through your experiences and the external world
Aristotle
Which theory would be most likely to predict that rats are motivated to explore precisely those areas of an experimental maze where they receive mild electrical shocks
Arousal theory
Which area of psychology is most concerned with understanding the internal works of the the "mind" such as memory and thoughts?
Cognitive
Anything an organism does - blinking, sweating, talking
Behavior
Focus: how our genes and our environment influence our individual different
Behavior genetics perspective
What is the difference between cognitive psychology and behavior psychology?
Behavior psychology deals with reinforcement and punishment, while cognitive psychology deals with information processing.
Public behavior
Behavior that can be observed by others, even though special instrumentation may be required at times.
private behavior
Behavior that is only accessible to the person doing it.
Focus: How we learn observable responses
Behavioral perspective
From the 1920s through the 1960s, the two major forces in psychology were
Behaviorism and Freudian psychology
Tutored by James. completed requirements for a Harvard PHD. was offered an undergraduate degree from Radcliffe College which is the sister to Harvard. Was a distinguished memory researcher of the American Psychological Association and first female president in 1905
Calkins
collective unconscious
Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history
the first humanistic psychologists. found Freudian psychology too limiting.
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
argued that natural selection shapes behaviors as well as bodies, proposed the idea of natural selection, and wrote the book Origin of Species
Charles Darwin
Rogers
Client-centered; unconditional positive regard; transactional analysis
Of the following approaches to understanding behavior, which is most likely going to focus on the way that adults process information?
Cognitive
stresses the importance on how our mind processes and retains information. explores the ways we perceive, process, and remember information.
Cognitive psychology
Ernest Weber
Concluded that he difference threshold is a constant fraction of proportion of the specific stimulus (Webers law)
Stanley Milgram
Conducted "shocking" (Ha!) experiments on obedience
Philip Zimbardo
Conducted Stanford Prison experiment
Philip Zimbardo
Conducted Stanford Prison experiment. It was conducted to study the power of social roles to influence people's behavior. It proved people's behavior depends to a large extent on the role they are asked to play.
Martin Seligman
Conducted experiments with dogs that led to the concept of "learned helplessness"
Solomon Asch
Conducted famous conformity experiment that required subjects to match lines.
William Wundt
Conducted first psychology experiments in first psych laboratory
Jerome Kagan
Conducted longitudinal studies on temperament (infancy to adolescence)
Ancel Keys
Conducted semi-starvation experiments to measure psych effects of hunger
Michael Gazzaniga
Conducted the "HE-ART" experiments with split brain patients
A person who is careless and disorganized most clearly ranks low on the Big Five trait dimension of
Conscientiousness
Noam Chomsky
Created concept of "universal grammar"
Alfred Binet
Created first intelligence test for Parisian school children
Fritz Perls
Creator of Gestalt Therapy
Karen Horney
Critical of Freud's theories. She said that personality is continually mold by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts.
Leon Festinger
Described concept of cognitive dissonance
telomeres
DNA at the tips of chromosomes - shortened can lead to aging cells die
Which philosopher discussed the mind-body problem?
Descartes
Who most clearly emphasized that the immaterial mind was distinct from the body
Descartes
believed ideas are innate
Descartes
Stanley Schachter
Developed "Two-Factor" theory of emotion; experiments on spillover effect
Carl Rogers
Developed "client-centered" therapy
Albert Ellis
Developed "rational emotive behavior therapy" (REBT)
Aaron Beck
Developed cognitive-behavior therapy
Sigmund Freud
Developed psychoanalysis; considered to be "father of modern psychiatry"
David Weschler
Developer of WAIS and WISC intelligence tests
Noam Chomsky
Disagreed with Skinner and said there an infinite number of sentences in a language. He said that humans have an inborn native ability to develop language.
Nature vs. Nurture
Do genes (nature) or environmental factors (nurture) contribute more to a person's being?
stimulants
Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy, and methamphetamine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
John Watson
Early behaviorist; famous for the "Little Albert" experiments on fear conditioning
The method of introspection was used by Titchener to identify
Elements of sensory experience
active listening
Empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy.
Focus: How the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes
Evolutionary perspective
Edward Thorndike
Famous for "law of effect" and research on cats in "puzzle boxes"
Benjamin Lee Whorf
Famous for describing concept of "liguistic determinism"
Lawrence Kohlberg
Famous for his theory of moral development in children; made use of moral dilemmas in assessment
Albert Bandura
Famous for the Bobo Doll experiments on observational learning & influence in the Socio-Cognitive Perspective
Gordon Allport
Founder of Trait Theory
John Watson
Founder of behaviorism- Did the study of generalization
The psychoanalytic approach to understanding personality was described by
Freud
theorist and therapist that influenced humanity's self-understanding. developed the psychoanalytic approach to understanding personality.
Freud
psychoanalysis
Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions
emphasized the way our unconscious thought of processes and our emotional responses to childhood affects our behavior
Freudian psychology
William James was a prominent American:
Functionalist
linkage analysis
Genetic research strategy in which occurrence of a disorder in an extended family is compared with that of a genetic marker for a physical characteristic or biological process that is known to be located on a particular chromosome.
GRIT
Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction - a strategy designed to decrease international tensions
Walter B. Cannon
He believed that that gastric activity in as empty stomach was the sole basis for hunger. Did an experiment by inserting balloon in subjects stomach
H. Rorschach
He developed one of the first projective tests, the Inkblot Test. The subject reads the inkblots and projects to the observer aspects of their personality. It uses 10 standardized inkblots
David McClelland
He devised a way to measure "the need to achieve that varied in strength in different people and influenced their tendency to approach success and evaluate their own performances"(H. Murray's theory). He is credited with developing the scoring system for the TAT's use in assessing achievement motivation, not for the TAT itself.
Charles Spearman
He found that specific mental talents were highly correlated. He concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he labeled "g", for general ability
David Rosenhan
He with a number of people from different walks of life conducted a hospital experiment to test the diagnosis of hospitals make on new patients. He also wanted to see the impact on behavior on being a patient. He proved that once you are diagnosed with a disorder, your care would not be very good in a mental hospital setting.
Elizabeth Loftus
Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony
Kubler-Ross
Her theory proposes that the terminally ill pass through a squence of 5 stages: 1. denial, 2. anger/resentment, 3. bargaining with God, 4. depression, and 5. acceptance
Albert Maslow
Hierarchy of needs-Needs at the lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied. Once these needs are adequately met, the higher needs occupy the individual's attention.
Professor Smith told once class that alcohol consumption has been found to increase sexual desire. He informed another class that alcohol consumption has been found to reduce sexual appetite. The fact that neither class was surprised by the information illustrates the power of
Hindsight Bias
nature and nurture
How do genetic inheritance and experience influence our development?
Of the following approaches to psychology, which area would be most concerned with the idea that people strive towards self-actualization?
Humanistic
Which of the following approaches focuses on free will and consciousness?
Humanistic
Abraham Maslow
Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"
drew attention to to ways that current environmental influences can nurture or limit our growth potential, and to the importance of having our needs for love, and acceptance satisfied. emphasizes human growth potential.
Humanistic psychology
The brain structure that provides a major link between the nervous system and the endocrine system is the
Hypothalamus
Acquisition
In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
Both Plato and Socrates saw knowledge as
Innate
Raymond Cattell
Intelligence: fluid & crystal intelligence; personality testing: 16 Personality Factors (16PF personality test)
Paul Ekman
Interested in the universality of facial expressions: facial expressions carry same meaning regardless of culture, context, or language. Use of microexpressions to detect lying.
maldaptive
Interferes with ones ability to function effectively in the world
In early psychology, Wilhelm Wundt developed a technique for doing research that involved having people describe their thoughts as they observed an object. This technique is called
Introspection
Why did structuralism fail?
Introspection was unreliable, results were too varied, it differed from person to person, and experience to experience.
Daniel Kahneman & Amos Tversky
Investigated the use of heuristics in decision-making; studied the availability, anchoring, and representativeness heuristics
Erik Erikson
Known for his 8-stage theory of Psychosocial Development
Jean Piaget
Known for his theory of cognitive development in children
Fechner's Law
It states that the magnitude of a sensory experience is proportional to the number of JND's that the stimulus causing the experiences above absolute threshold.
glutamate
LTP enhancing neurotransmitter
The person who is most responsible for developing the school of thought called functionalism is
James
promoted functionalism. influenced by Darwin. created the book Principles of Psychology (1890). mentored Calkins.
James
collective unconscious
Jung's theory that we all share an inherited memory that contains our culture's most basic elements
E.L Thorndike
Law of effect-(the relationship between behavior and its consequences) the principle that behavior followed by favorable consequences becomes more likely. Behavior followed by less likely consequences becomes less likely
A therapist suggests that Mr. Broshi continues to bite his fingernails because this behavior often reduced his feelings of anxiety in the past. The therapist's suggestion most clearly reflects a _________________ perspective.
Learning perspective
Lewis Terman's widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test was the
Lewis Terman
Which philosopher is responsible for the concept of Tabula Rosa?
Locke
argued the mind is a blank slate on which experience writes
Locke
Frued called the remembered story line of a dream its ________________ content
Manifest
counselors
Marriage and family counselors specialize in problems arising from family relations Pastoral counselors provide counseling to countless people Abuse counselors work with substance abusers and with spouse and child abusers and their victims
hiearchy of needs
Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active
hierarchy of needs
Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active
When light strikes the retina, it signals the suprachiasmatic nucleus to alter ______________ production by the pineal glan
Melatonin
Hermann Ebbinghaus
Memorized nonsense syllables in early study on human memory
When asked to recall their attitudes of 10 years ago regarding marijuana use, people offer recollections closer to their current views than to those they actually reported a decade earlier. This best illustrates
Memory construction
internal, subjective experiences we infer from behavior-sensations, dreams, thoughts, beliefs
Mental Processes
clinical psychologists
Most are psychologists with a Ph.D. (includes research training) or Psy.D. (focuses on therapy) supplemented by a supervised internship and, often, postdoctoral training. About half work in agencies and institutions, half in private practice.
orgasm
Muscle contractions appear all over the body and are accompanied by further increases in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates.
chameleon effect
Natural (unconscious) tendency to imitate other peoples speech, inflections & physical movements
Maturation is to education as ________________ is to ________________
Nature; nurture
Karen Horney
Neo-Freudian; countered Freud's assumptions that women have weak superegos and suffer "penis" envy
Alfred Adler
Neo-Freudian; introduced concept of "inferiority complex" and stressed the importance of birth order
Karen Horney
Neo-Freudian; offered feminist critique of Freud's theory
During a state of emotional arousal, the adrenal glands release _______________ into the bloodstream
Norepinephrine
Roger's inspired hints
Paraphrase, invite clarification, and reflect feelings
The study of phenomena such as clairvoyance and telepathy is called
Parapsychology
death-deferral phenomenon
People tend to put off dying when there is an event to look forward to, such as holidays spirit affects life expectancy; depression causes poor health and early death; ex: more people die 2 days after Christmas than before
After hearing rumors about the outbreak of an infectious disease, Alyhosha began to perceive his normal aches and pains as disease-related symptoms. His reaction best illustrates the impact of
Perceptual set
Developing assessment tools for selecting and placing employees is of most direct relevance to
Personnel psychology
Humanistic psychology has recently been "rediscovered" and is now a popular approach to understanding behavior. This area is now called
Positive Psychology
Carol Gilligan
Presented feminist critique of Kolhberg's moral development theory; believed women's moral sense guided by relationships
The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information is called
Proactive interference
In 1921, Hermann Rorschach introduced what has become the most widely used type of test
Projective test
Which stage of sleep is also referred to as paradoxical sleep?
REM
paradoxical sleep
REM; when muscles are deeply relaxed but there are high levels of brain activity
Albert Ellis
Rational Emotive Therapy-focuses on altering client's patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behavior and emotions
The selective permeability of a neural membrane creates a or an
Resting potential
A picture of a cat is briefly flashed in the left visual field and a picture of a mouse is briefly flashed in the right visual field of a split-brain patient. The individual will be able to use her
Right hand to indicate she saw a mouse
Which theorist emphasized that an individual's personal growth is promoted by interactions with others who are genuine, accepting, and empathic
Rogers
a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review.
SQ3R
What event defined the start of scientific psychology?
Scientific psychology began in Germany in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychology laboratory.
enduring companionate love
Self-Disclosing intimacy + mutually supportive equity = _____________
The humanistic perspective emphasized the importance of
Self-determinism
An animal trainer is teaching a miniature poodle to balance on a ball. Initially, he gives the poodle a treat for approaching the ball, then only for placing its front paws on the ball, and finally only for climbing on the ball. The trainer is using the method of
Shaping by successive approximations.
Carol Gilligan
She maintained that Kohlber's work was developed only observing boys and overlooked potential differences between the habitual moral judgement of men and women
For the most rapid acquisition of a CR, the N should be presented
Shortly after the US
psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences - and the therapist's interpretations of them - released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.
a leading behaviorist who rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior, and championed psychology as the scientific study of behavior along with Watson
Skinner
Continuing to operate a fuel-inefficient car despite warnings about the effect of greenhouse gases best illustrates the dynamics of
Social trap
Focus: How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures
Social-cultural perspective
automatic processing examples
Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page. Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you. Reading and comprehending our on language
an early school of thought promoted by Wundt, and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
Structuralism
Edward Bradford Titchener
Student of Wundt and founder of structuralism. Used introspection to search for the mind's structural elements.
Mary Ainsworth
Studied attachment in infants using the "strange situation" model. Label infants "secure", "insecure" (etc.) in attachment
Harry Harlow
Studied attachment in monkeys with artificial mothers
Thomas Bouchard
Studied identical twins separated at birth
Simon Asch
Study on conformity. His experiment had a subject unaware of his situation, test to see if he would conform if all the members of the group gave an incorrect answer
Spearman's general intelligence (g)
Summary : A basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas. Strengths: Different abilities, such as verbal and spatial, do have some tendency to correlate. Other considerations: Human abilities are too diverse to be encapsulated by a single general intelligence factor
Sternber's Triarchic Theory
Summary: Our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict real-world success; analytical, creative, and practical Strengths:These three domains can be reliably measured Other Considerations: 1. These three domains may be less independent than Sternberg thought and may actually share an underlying g factor 2. Additional testing is needed to determine whether these domains can reliably predict success
Thurstone's primary mental abilities
Summary: Our intelligence may be broken down into seven factors: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning and memory Strengths: A single g score is not as informative as scores for seven primary mental abilities Other Considerations: Even Thurstone's seven mental abilities show a tendency to cluster, suggesting an underlying g factor
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences
Summary: Out abilities are best classified into eight or nine independent intelligences which include a broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts Strengths: Intelligence is more than just verbal and mathematical skills. Other abilities are equally important to our human adaptability. Other Considerations: Should all our abilities be considered intelligences? Shouldn't some be less vital talents?
Emotional intelligence
Summary: Social intelligence is an important indicator to life success. Emotional intelligence is a key aspect, consisting of perceiving, understanding, managing, and using emotions Strengths: The four components that predict social success Other Considerations: Does this stretch the concept of intelligence too far?
English-speaking children learn to put the object of a sentence last, whereas Japanese-speaking children put the object before the verb. Chomsky suggests that this illustrates a difference in the two languages
Surface structure
The construction of an anxiety hierarchy and training in relaxation are important aspects of
Systematic desensitization
Mr. Dutoit was asked by his psychotherapist to look at some ambiguous pictures and make up a story about each. Mr. Dutoit was most likely taking the
TAT
On Monday, the meteorologist forecast a 20 percent chance of rain, so Sheryl took her umbrella to work. On Friday, he reported an 80 percent chance that it would not rain, so Sheryl left her umbrella at home. Sheryl's behavior illustrates the impact of
The Framing Effect
diagnostic labels
The ability of mental health professionals to quickly communicate the characteristics of their patients' complex symptoms; both positive and negative
According to Piaget's theory, during the concrete operational stage, a child is still unlikely to demonstrate
The ability to think hypothetically
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
rational emotive behavior therapy
The confrontational cognitive therapy in which therapists challenge people's illogical statements
person-situation theory
The debate among psychologists about whether it is personality traits or the situation at hand that influences personality more.
resting potential
The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane
spreading activation
The process through which activity in one node in a network flows outward to other nodes through associative links.
heritability
The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.
Flynn effect
The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations
predictive validity
The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.
immigrant paradox
The surprising fact that immigrants tend to be healthier than U.S. born residents of the same ethnicity. This was first evident among Mexican Americans.
Howard Gardner
Theory of multiple intelligences
The psychologist who trained with Wundt and traveled to the United States to set up one of the first labs at Cornell University is
Titchener
used introspection to search for the mind's structural elements
Titchener
S. Schacter
To experience emotions 1. must be physically aroused 2. must cognitively label arousal (know the emotion before you experience it)
Clearly communicating a vision of goals so as to inspire others to follow is most indicative of
Transformational leadership
William Masters & Virginia Johnson
Used direct observation and experimentation to study sexual response cycle (4 stages)
electrode
a conductor, such as a wire, through which electrical current enters or leaves
The WAIS consists of separate ____________ subtests.
Verbal and performance
APA's second woman president in 1921
Washburn
championed psychology as the scientific study of behavior along with Skinner
Watson
Little Albert
Watson's study on the generalization of fear. Conditioning subject to be afraid
proximity
We group nearby figures together. (ie. we see not six separate lines, but three sets of two lines)
continuity and stages
What parts of development are gradual and continuous, like riding an escalator? What parts change abruptly in separate stages, like climbing rungs on a ladder?
Eysneck Personality Questionnaire
When their answers were analyzed , the extraversion and emotionality factors emerged as personality dimensions.
lingustic determinism
Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think; we cannot think about things unless we have words for those concepts
Which of the following psychologists started the first psychology lab in Germany?
Wilhelm Wundt
established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany
Wilhelm Wundt
achievment motivation
a desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of skills or ideas; for control; and for attaining a high standard
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
theories without any conscious/cognitive appraisal
Zajonic; ledoux theory
counterconditioning
a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning
strange situation
a behavioral test developed by Mary Ainsworth that is used to determine a child's attachment style
self-fulfilling prophecy
a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient
therapeautic alliance
a bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client, who work together constructively to overcome the client's problem
anterior cingulate cortex
a brain area that activates in response to physical pain
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
psychosis
a broad term for a break or split from reality
trait
a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports
psychoactive drug
a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
narcotics
a class of opium-related drugs that suppress the sensation of pain by binding to and stimulating the nervous system's natural receptor sites for endorphins
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses; snail shaped tube, where hair cells are located
flow
a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one's skills
instinct
a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned
schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
blindsight
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
savant syndrome
a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing
equity
a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it
premature ejaculation
a condition in which the male reaches climax too soon, usually before, or shortly after, penetration of the female
intellectual disability
a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound
Down Syndrome
a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21
general intelligence (g)
a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
sterotype
a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief a group of people.
happiness set point
a genetically based value representing a central level of an individual's degree of happiness during a particular period of life
self-help groups (support groups)
a group composed of people who have similar problems and who meet together without a therapist or counselor for the purpose of discussion, problem solving, and social and emotional support
cohort
a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as from a given time period
syndrome
a group of symptoms
melontonin
a hormone secreted by the pineal gland; it is involved in the regulation of circadian rhythms; sleep-inducing hormone
client-centered therapy
a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth. (Also called person-centered therapy.)
mania
a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state in which dangerously poor judgement is common
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections.
polygraph
a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes).
body mass index (BMI)
a measure of body weight relative to height
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance; Thus, a child who does well as an average 8 year old is said to have a mental age of 8
recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
imagination inflation
a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred
concepts
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another - Through different experiences, we get different results.
Representativeness heuristic
a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case
intelligence test
a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled with 3 or 4 seconds
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a 0.5 seconds
dysthymic disorder
a mood disorder involving a pattern of comparatively mild depression that lasts for at least two years
motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
semantic memory
a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world
hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage
"low road"
a neural shortcut that bypasses the cortex; a fear-provoking stimulus would travel from the eye or the ear DIRECTLY to the amygdala; enables lighting emotional response (likes, dislikes, and fears)
alzheimer's disease
a neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with an onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities
grandmother cell
a neuron that responds only to a specific stimulus
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
conflict
a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas
360-degree feedback
a performance appraisal process in which feedback is obtained from the boss, subordinates, peers and coworkers, and the employees themselves
emerging adulthood
a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults
midlife transition
a period in middle adulthood when a person's perspective on his or her life may change significantly
subjective well-being
a person's sense of satisfaction with his or her life; 1st pillar of positive psychology
extraversion
a personality dimension describing someone who is sociable, gregarious, and assertive
projective tests
a personality test that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics
Projective test
a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics
A need refers to
a physiological state that usually triggers motivational arousal.
cognitive behavioral therapy
a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)
incentive
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior; external incentive (smell and sight)
cocaine
a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria
LSD
a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)
methamphetamine
a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels
Perceptual set
a predisposition or readiness to perceive something in a particular way
sexual dsyfunction
a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning
meta-analysis
a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies
Meta-analysis refers to
a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different studies
reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again
managing by objectives
a process of joint objective setting between a superior and a subordinate
TAT
a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
thematic apperception test (TAT)
a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
CREB
a protein that enhances the LTP process
Schizophrenia
a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression
somatic symptom disorder
a psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a bodily form without apparent physical cause
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity
Carl Jung
a psychologist who believed people had conscious and unconscious awareness-two layers of unconscious archetypes-personal/collective
Functionalist
a psychologist who studied the function (rather than the structure) of consciousness
lobotomy
a psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain
personality inventory
a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.
strobscopic motion
a rapid series of slightly varying images as continuous movements
dissociative identity disorder (DID)
a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Also called multiple personality disorder.
self-serving bias
a readiness to perceive oneself favorably
secure attachment
a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver
catatonia
a state of unresponsiveness to one's outside environment, usually including muscle rigidity, staring, and inability to communicate
id
a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.
emotion
a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience
refractory period
a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm
iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
sterotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative sterotype
autonomy
a sense of personal control
hepatic
a sense of touch you remember that lasts greater than 1 second long
dream
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind; are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.
role
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms
Social trap
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior
social trap
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior
night terrors
a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary breaks of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
narcolepsy
a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
hypnosis
a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
Hypnosis
a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
hypocondriasis
a somatoform disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease
critical period
a specific time in development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned
dissociation
a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
dissocation
a split in different levels of consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.
nicotine
a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco
"high road"
a stimulus path that would travel (by the way of the thalamus) to the brain's cortex. It would then be analyzed and labeled before the response command is sent out, via the amygdala
placenta
a structure that allows an embryo to be nourished with nutrients and oxygen from the mother
basilar membrane
a structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors
cross-sectional study
a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
cost-benefit analysis
a study that compares the costs and benefits to society of providing a public good
organizational psychology
a sub-field psychology that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change
organizational psychology
a subfield of I/O psychology that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change
Personnel psychology
a subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development
personnel psychology
a subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development
insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions
fugue state
a sudden loss of memory or change in identity, often in response to an overwhelmingly stressful situation
posthypnotic suggestion
a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors
psychological disorder
a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior
Ecstasy (MDMA)
a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
homeostasis
a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for support for our own views and ignore contradictory evidence
empirically derived test
a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups
achievement test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned
aptitude test
a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn
terror management theory
a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death
stage theory
a theory of development characterized by distinct periods of life
activation-synthesis theory
a theory of dreaming; this theory proposes that the brain tries to make sense of random brain activity that occurs during sleep by synthesizing the activity with stored memories
signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency
aversive conditioning
a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)
procedural memory
a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits
aptitude
ability to learn
productive language
ability to produce words
receptive language
ability to understand what is being said
operational stage
abstract logic ie. thinking about abstract concepts such as "freedom"
terminal decline
acceleration in deterioration of cognitive functioning prior to death
basic trust
according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
fixation
according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved
unconscious
according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.
Manifest content
according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content)
manifest content
according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content)
latent content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)
self-actualization
according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential
self-transcedence
according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self
unconditional positive regard
according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person
encoding context
according to craik and tulving the most important in memory performance
neurocognitive disorders (NCDs)
acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer's disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse. In older adults neurocognitive disorders were formerly called dementia
implementation intentions
action plans that specify when, where, and how they will march toward achieving those goals
antisocial behavior
actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
stimulation
activates a type of behavior controlled by the target brain
accommodation
adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
conformity
adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
great person theory of leadership
all great leaders share certain traits
self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
destruction
also known as a lesion. the target region of the brain is damaged if the electrical signal is too strong
prenatal influences
altered prenatal hormone exposure may lead to homosexuality in humans and other animals and men with several older biological brothers are more likely to be gay, possibly due to a maternal immune-system reaction
speed dating
an accelerated form of dating in which men and women choose whether to see each other again based on a very short interaction
near-death experience
an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations
generalized anxiety disorder
an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal
social anxiety disorder
an anxiety disorder involving the extreme and irrational fear of being embarrassed, judged, or scrutinized by others in social situations
phobia
an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation
virtual reality exposure therapy
an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking
electric approach
an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy
life-span perspective
an approach to the study of human development that takes into account all phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood
arcuate nucleus
an arc-shaped hypothalamic nucleus implicated in appetite control
Carl Wernicke
an area of the brain (in the left temporal lobe) involved in language comprehension and expression was named for him because he discovered it
passionate love
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship
bulimia nervosa
an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise
anorexia nervosa
an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly underweight; sometime accompanied by excessive exercise
bulimia nervosa
an eating disorder in which a person alternates binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) with purging (by vomiting or laxative use) or fasting
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
Cannon-Bard Theory
an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion
fight or flight response
an emotional and physiological reaction to an emergency that increases readiness for action
attachment
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
sexual orientation
an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)
McGurk Effect
an error in perception that occurs when we misperceive sounds because the audio and visual parts of the speech are mismatched.
self-displine
an even better predictor of performance than intelligence
social-responsibility norm
an expectation that people will help those needing their help
reciporcity norm
an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
continuity
an idea where developmental researchers emphasize learning and experience
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
token economy
an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats
career
an opportunity to advance fro,m one position to a better position
afterimage effect (opponent process theory)
an optical illusion that refers to an image continuing to appear after exposure to the original image has ceased. Prolonged viewing of the colored patch induces an afterimage of the complementary color (for example, yellow color induces a bluish afterimage).
critical period
an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development
gestalt
an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
job
an unfulfilling but necessary way to make money
prejudice
an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.
triarchic theory
analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, practical intelligence
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
antidepressant drugs that achieve their agonistic effect on serotonin by selectively blocking the reabsorption and removal of serotonin from synapses
avoidant personality disorder
anxiety, such as a fearful sensitivity to rejection
aggression
any act intended to harm someone physically or emotionally
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
applied research
toddlerhood
approximate age: 1 to 3 years issue: autonomy vs. shame and doubt description of task: leran to excersice their will and do things for themselves, or they will doubt their abilities
young adulthood
approximate age: 20s to early 40s issue: intimacy vs. isolation description of task: struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intamte loves, or they feel socially isolated
preschool
approximate age: 3 to 6 years issue: inititative vs. guility description of task: learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they will feel guilty about their efforts to be independent
middle adulthood
approximate age: 40s to 60s issue: generativity vs. stagnation description of task: people discover a sense of contibutiing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a loack of purpose
elementary school
approximate age: 6 years to puberty issue: competence vs. inferiority description of task: learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior
postconventional morality
approximate age: adolescence and beyond focus: actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles example: "people have the right to live"
preconventional morality
approximate age: before age 9 focus: self-interest; obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards example: "if you save your dying wife, you'll be a hero"
conventional morality
approximate age: early adolescence focus: uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order example: "if you steal that drug for her, everyone will think you're a criminal"
late adulthood
approximate age: late 60s and up issue: integrity vs. despair description of task: reflecting on his/her life, an older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure
adolescence
approximate age: teen years into 20s issue: identity vs. role confusion description of task: work at refining the sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity or they become confused with who they are
infancy
approximate age: to 1 year issue: trust vs. mistrust description of task: if needs are dependably met, infants devlop a sense of basic trust
Association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
social animal
aristotle's term for humans since we are social creatures and have a need to belong
guilty knowledge test
assesses a suspect's physiological responses to crime-scene details known only to the police and the guilty person
gene-environment interaction
because of their genetic makeup, individuals differ in their responsiveness to qualities of the environment
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event that we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (also called source misattribution); is the heart of many false memories
hair cells
auditory receptors; extremely sensitive and speed sensor; if they are damaged, they will be forever damaged; the transform sound waves into neural messages
conscious track
aware, deliberate, reflective, sequential processing
4 month
babbles many speech sounds ex. "ah-goo"
10 month
babbling resembles household language ex. "ma-ma"
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
basic research
two-word stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements
babbling stage
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
inferioty complex
behavior driven by efforts to conquer childhood inferiority feelings that trigger out strivings and power
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and enviormental influences on behavior
behavior genetics
Aggression
behavior whose purpose is to harm another
This perspective emphasizes observation of how we respond to and learn in different situations
behavioral perspective
exposure therapies
behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to the things they fear and avoid
subliminal
below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
Ernst Weber
best known for "Weber's Law", the notion that the JND magnitude is proportional to the stimulus magnitude
Howard Gardner
best known for his theory of "multiple intelligences"
own-age bias
better recognition memory for faces of one's own age group
maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
exploring the links between brain and mind
biological scientist
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of , offeres a more complete picture of any given mental or behavior process
biopsychological approach
hammer, anvil, and stirrup
bones of the ear
optic nerve
carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain, made up of ganglion cells and axons
interpersonal therapy
brief variation of psychotherapy (12-16 sessions); aims to help people gain insight into their roots and difficulties and concentrates on current relationships and helping people improve their relationship skills
sadness
brow's inner corners raised, mouth corners drawn down
anger
brows drawn together and downward, eyes fixed, mouth squarish
fear
brows levels, drawn in and up, eyelids lifted, mouth corners retracted
interest
brows raised or knitted, mouth softly rounded, lips may be pursed
surprise
brows raised, eyes widened, mouth rounded in oval shape
right frontal lobe
calling up a visual party scene
antisocial personality disorder
callous and dangerous
traits
characteristic patterns of behavior
hypocretin (orexin)
chemical in your brain that causes you to feel awake
the oval window
cochlea's membrane
lazarus theory
cognitive appraisal ("is it dangerous or not?" - sometimes without our awareness - defines our emotion ie. the sound is "just the wind"
jean piaget
cognitive development theorist
experimenting with how we perceive, think, and solve problems
cognitive psychologists
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social enviorments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
community psychology
positive support
compliments, sympathy, smiles - key to finding enduring love
addiction
compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors (such as gambling) despite known adverse consequences
rumination
compulsive fretting; overthinking about our problems and their causes
Shaping by successive approximations
conditioning a target behavior by progressively reinforcing behaviors that come closer and closer to the target
Stanley Milgram
conducted a study on obedience when he had a subject shock a patient to the extent that they would be seriously injuring the patient
Big Five Personality Traits
conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion (CANOE)
concrete operational stage
conservation ie. understanding that physical properties stay the same even when objects change form; having the ability to do reverse math operations
Wolfgang Kohler
considered to be the founder of Gestalt Psychology
overlearning
continued rehearsal of material after one first appears to have mastered it.
substance use disorder
continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk
Broca's area
controls language expression - an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
Wernicke's area
controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
semicircular canals
controls vestibular sense
dissociative disorders
controversial, rare disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings
transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
a branch of psychology that assists people problems with living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well being
counseling psychology
massed practice
cramming
William James
created Functionalist school of thought; early American psychology teacher/philosopher
Charles Spearman
creator of "g-factor", or general intelligence, concept
Robert Sternberg
creator of "successful intelligence" theory (3 types)
Paul Costa & Robert McCrae
creators of the "Big Five" model of personality traits
social-cultural influences
cultural assumptions and expectations
social script
culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people transmitted from one generation to the next
culture
nonsuicidal self-injury
cutting, burning, or purposely injuring one's body to cope with stress
damage to broca's area
damage to an area of the left frontal lobe a person would struggle to speak while still being able to comprehend speech and sings songs
challenges (of growing old)
decline of muscular strength, reaction times, stamina, sensory keenness, cardiac arrest, and immune system declines; risk of cognitive decline increases
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
basal ganglia
deep brain structures involved to facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills; implicit memories
intelligence quotient (IQ)
defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.
standardization
defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group
ostracism
deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups
monocular cues
depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone
binocular cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes
REM
describes sleep in which vivid dreams typically occur; this type of sleep increases as the night progresses while stage 4 sleep decreases
synesthesia
describing one kind of sensation in terms of another ("a loud color", "a sweet sound")
formal operational stage
description: abstract reasoning typical age range: about 12 through adulthood developmental phenomena: abstract logic and potential for mature moral reasoning
sensorimotor stage
description: experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping) typical age range: birth to nearly 2 years developmental phenomena: object permanence and stranger anxiety
preoperational stage
description: representing things with words and images; using intuitive rather than logical reasoning typical age range: about 2 to 6 or 7 years developmental phenomena: pretend play and egocentricism
concrete operational stage
description: thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and preforming arithmetical observations typical age range: about 7 to 11 years developmental phenomena: conservation and mathematical transformations
lesion
destruction that suppresses or disrupts the type of the behavior with the region causing to have opposite effects of the intentional behavior
amplitude (sound)
determines loudness
wavelength (sound)
determines pitch
Hubel and Wiesel
did a study of the activities of neurons in the visual cortex
impaired theory of mind
difficulty perceiving facial emotions and reading others' states of mind
theory of mind
difficulty perceiving facial emotions and reading others' states of mind
PYY
digestive tract hormone; sends "I'm not hungry" signals to the brain
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
projection
disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others - disfuising form
neophobia
dislike of things unfamiliar
borderline personality disorder
dramatic or impulsive behaviors, such as attention-getting
acetaminophen
drug that lessens physical and SOCIAL pain
depressants
drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
emotional arousal
elated excitement and panicky fear involve similar physiological arousal; that allows us to flip rapidly between the two emotions
amygdala
emotion-control center
amygdala
emotion-related memory formation
catharsis
emotional release. in psychology, the catharsis hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.
visual perception track
enables us "to think about the world"—to recognize things and to plan future actions
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort; how we encode explicit memories
memory system
encoding, storage, and retrieval
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
On a cloudy day, a yellow flower is likely to appear ____________ it does on a bright sunny day.
equally as yellow as
David Weschler
established an intelligence test especially for adults (WAIS); also WISC and WPPSI
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
biological influences
evolution, individual genes, brain structure and chemistry
the study of evolution of behavior and the mind , using principles of natural selection
evolutionary psychology
Introspection
examination of one's own thoughts and feelings
narcassism
excessive self-love and self-absorption
narcissism
excessive self-love and self-absorption
plateau
excitement peaks at breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rate continue to increase
divergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions creative thinking that diverges in different directions
social norms
expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior
creativity's "five components"
expertise, imaginative thinking skills, a venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, and a creative environment
defensive self-esteem
fragile; focuses on sustaining itself, which makes failures and criticism feel threatening; correlates with aggressive and antisocial behavior
neural activation theory
explanation: REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories which our sleeping brain weaves into stories critical considerations: the individual's brain is weaving the stories, which still tells us something about the dreamer
cognitive development theory
explanation: dream content reflects dreamer's levels of cognitive development- their knowledge and understanding; dreams stimulate our lives, including worst-case scenarios critical considerations: does not propose an adative function of dreams
information processing theory
explanation: dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories critical considerations: But why do we sometimes dream about things we have not experienced and about past events?
freud's wishfulfillment theory
explanation: dreams preserve sleep and provide a "psychic safety valve" - expressing otherwise unacceptable feelings; contain manifest (remembered) content and a deeper layer of latent content (a hidden meaning) critical considerations: lacks any scientific support; dreams may be interpreted in many different ways
psychological function theory
explanation: regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways critical considerations: this does not explain why we experience meaningful dreams
frontal lobes and hippocampus
explicit memory formation
social cognitive theories
explore interaction between traits and social context
social-cognitive perspective
explores how people's assumptions and expectations influence what they perceive
psychological influences
exposure to stimulating conditions, and sexual fantasies
prosopagnosia
face blindness
utilitarianism
idea that the goal of society should be to bring about the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people
rape acceptance
false idea that women enjoy being raped and may increase a males willingness to hurt women
hallucinations
false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
social-cultural influences
family and society values, religious and personal values, cultural expectations, and media
Ernest Hilgard
famous for his hypnosis research & the theory that a "hidden observer" theory
intuition
fast, automatic, effortless feelings and thoughts based on our experience; huge and adaptive but can lead us to overfeel and underthink
specific phobia
fear of objects or specific situations, events, animals.
agoraphobia
fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one has felt loss of control and panic
"river of perception"
fed by sensation, cognition, and emotion
attitude
feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
G. Stanley Hall
first american to work for Wundt; • Founded the American Psychological Association (now largest organization of psychologists in the USA) and became first president
Mary Whiton Calkins
first female president of the APA (1905); a student of William James; denied the PhD she earned from Harvard because of her sex (later, posthumously, it was granted to her)
H. Ebbinghas
first to conduct scientific studies on memory and forgetting; learning curves
positive character
focuses on exploring and enhancing creativity, courage, compassion, integrity, self-control, leadership, wisdom, and spirituality; 2nd pillar of positive psychology
arousal theory
focuses on finding the right level of stimulation
drive-reduction theory
focuses on how we respond to our inner pushes
hierarchy of needs
focuses on the priority of some needs over others
neo-freudians
followers of Freud who developed their own competing psychodynamic theories; emphasized the role of the conscious mind and doubted that sex and aggression were all consuming motives
motivated forgetting
forgetting that occurs when something is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering it is intolerable
Carl Rogers
founded person-centered perspective, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person
Lev Vygotsky
founder of "Social Development Theory" (note: not "social learning theory" OR "psychosocial" development...); emphasizes importace of More Knowledge Others (MKO) and the Zone of Proximal Development
Jean Paiget
four-stage theory of cognitive development - 1. sensorimoter 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational; he said that two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth-assimilation and accommodation
early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral process function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish
functionalism
Alfred Binet
general I.Q. tests. A Frenchman designed a test that would identify slow learners in need of remedial help. It was not that valuable in America as it was too culture bound.
task leadership
goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals
survivor resiliency/post-traumatic growth
greater appreciation for life, bounce back from traumatic experience
social leadership
group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support
visual action track
guides our moment-to-moment movements
positive symptoms (of schizophrenia)
hallucinations, disorganized talk, inappropriate laughter, tears, or rage
physiologically induced states
hallucinations, orgasm, food or oxygen starvation
asexual
having no sexual attraction to others
diminished satisfaction
having preconceived ideas of experience to reduce people's satisfaction with their own sexual partner
Diana Baumrind
her theory of parenting styles had three main types (permissive, authoratative, & authoritarian)
covert
hidden; undercover
Benjamin Whorf
his hypothesis is that language determines the way we think
Charles Darwin
his idea, that the genetic composition of a species can be altered through natural selection, has had a lasting impact on psychology through the evolutionary perspective
Alfred Kinsey
his research described human sexual behavior and was controversial (for its methodology & findings)
Phineas Gage
his survival of a horrible industrial accident taught us about the role of the frontal lobes (okay, he's not really a psychologist...)
Lawerence Kohlberg
his theory states there are 3 levels of moral reasoning and into 2 stages: 1. Pre-conventional 2. conventional 3. post-conventional. His theory focuses on moral reasoning rather than behavior.
prolactin
hormone associated with sexual satisfaction
ghrelin
hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends "I'm hungry" signals to the brain
insulin
hormone secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose
sex hormones
hormones that regulate the development and functioning of reproductive organs and that stimulate the devolopment of male and female sexual characteristics
psychodynamic perspective
how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts
self-esteem
how valued and accepted we feel
Cognitive
how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information
Carl Rogers
humanistic psychology; Contributions: founded client-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard,
orexin
hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus
Anton Mesmer's so-called "animal magnetism" best illustrated the dynamics of
hypnosis
belief perseverance
ignoring evidence that proves our beliefs wrong; closes our mind to new ideas
imagination effect
imagining an event which never happened can increase confidence that it actually occurred
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).
cerebellum and basal ganglia
implicit memory formation
social facilitation
improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
intimacy
in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood
egocentrism
in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
preoperational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
sensorimotor stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
concrete operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
formal operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
syntax
in a given language, is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentence
semantics
in a given language, is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds
grammar
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others
morpheme
in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix) ex. in the word "cats" there are 2 cat and s
self
in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions
Place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated; best explains how we percieve high pitches
frequency theory (temporal theory)
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch; best explains how we percieve low pitches
phoneme
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit ex. the word "cats" has 4 c, a , t, and s'; THEY ARE NOT LETTERS
reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
free association
in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing
interpretation
in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight
resistance
in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material
transference
in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent)
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
defense mechanisms
in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
embodied cognition
in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments
grit
in psychology, passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals
perceptual adaptation
in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
persistent depressive disorder
in which a person experiences milder depressive feelings
randomized clinical trial
in which clients are randomly assigned to treatment or control conditions, and the treatment and control groups are compared on outcome measures
erectile dysfunction
inability to develop or maintain an erection due to insufficient bloodflow to the penis
phonagnosia
inability to recognize familiar voices
ansomia
inability to smell
fixation
inability to view problems from a new angle; focuses thinking but hinders creative problem solving
formal operations
includes the ability to use abstract thinking
Epinephrine
increases arousal and boosts mood
sweet
indicates energy source
salty
indicates sodium essential to physiological processes
synesthetes
individuals who experience various combinations of smell, taste, touch, sight, and sound
sexually transmitted disease/infection (STD/STI)
infectious diseases spread from person to person through sexual contact
personality disorders
inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning
normative social influence
influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
informational social influence
influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality
storage decay
information faded from our memory
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
self-defeating beliefs
intensely negative assumptions about themselves, their situations, and their futures lead them to magnify bad experience and minimized good ones
Francis Galton
interested in link between heredity and intelligence; founder of the eugenics movement
assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
structured interview
interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scales
looking inward
introspection
William Wundt
introspection-psychology became the scientific study of conscious experience (rather than science); father of modern or scientific psychology; structuralism was the approach and introspection was the methodology
tardive dyskinesia
involuntary movements of the facial muscles, tongue, and limbs; a possible neurotoxic side effect of long-term use of antipsychotic drugs that target certain dopamine receptors
enruesis
involuntary urination, especially by children at night, most common in young males
hypothalamus
is the control center for motivated behavior aimed to satisfy our physiological need s for food, water, and sex (part of the brain's limbic system)
James-Lange Theory
it asserts that the perception of emotion in our awareness of our physiological response to emotion arousing stimuli ie. sight of car coming - pounding heart - fear
Clark Hull-Drive theory
it maintains that the goal of all motivated behavior is the reduction or alleviation of a drive state. It is the mechanism through which reinforcement operates
knowledge work
jobs that primarily involve cognitive activity versus physical activity
10 basic emotions
joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt
representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
halo errors
judgments based on personal qualities rather than on the job behavior
word salad
jumble of incoherent speech as sometimes heard in schizophrenia
Transformational Leadership
leadership that generates awareness and acceptance of a group's purpose and mission and gets employees to see beyond their own needs and self-interests for the good of the group
Martin Seligman
learned helplessness is the giving up reaction that occurs from the experience that whatever you do you cannot change your situation
epigenetic effect
leaves chemical marks on DNA that switch genes abnormally on or off
conduction hearing loss
less common form of hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
secure self-esteem
less fragile, less contingent on external evaluations, and more likely to achieve a greater quality of life; a healthier self-image that allows us to focus beyond ourselves and enjoy a higher quality of life
the differing and complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon
levels of analysis
Roger Sperry
like Gazzaniga, studied split brain patients; showed that left/right hemispheres have different functions
right temporal lobe
location of association area that enables the recognition of faces
arousal
low versus high
progressive relaxation
lying down comfortably and tensing and releasing the tension in each major muscle group in turn
George A. Miller
made famous the phrase: "the magical number 7, plus or minus 2" when describing human memory
Francis Galton
maintained that personality and ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance (human traits are inherited)
excessive optimism
may lead to complacency may prevent recognition of real risks may be self-defeating when dealing with temptations may be directed toward group (illusionary optimism)
valid
measuring what is supposed to be measured
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"; also called declarative memory
iq
mental age/chronological age x 100
medical model
mental illness diagnosed through symptoms --> treated though therapy
Robert Zajonc
mere exposure effect; it is possible to have preferences without inferences and to feel without knowing why
graphic rating scale
method of performance measurement that lists traits and provides a rating scale for each trait; the employer uses the scale to indicate the extent to which an employee displays each trait
algorithm
methodological rule or procedure that guarantees a solution but requires time and effort
phrenia
mind
telepathy
mind to mind communication
lawrence kohlberg
moral development theorist
WAIS
most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance subtests
gesture
motion of hands or body to emphasize or help to express a thought or feeling
transformational leadership
motivates others to identify with and commit themselves to the group's mission; tend to be rxtraverted and set high standrads
joy
mouth forming smile, cheeks lifted, twinkle in eye
mirror-image perceptions
mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive
convergent thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
the principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
natural selection
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors
nature-nurture issue
esteem needs
need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others
saftey needs
need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable
self-transcendence needs
need to find meaning and identity beyond the self
self-actualization needs
need to live up to our fullest and unique potential
belongingness and love needs
need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and separation
physiological needs
need to satisfy hunger and thirst
institutional discrimination
negative treatment of a minority group that is built into a society's institutions
Carl Jung
neo-Freudian who created concept of "collective unconscious" and wrote books on dream interpretation
feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
insula
neural center deep inside the brain; activated when we experience various negative social emotions like pride or disgust
phantom sights
nonthreatening hallucinations
disgust
nose wrinkled, upper lip raised, tongue pushed outward
identity
our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
unconscious track
our minds perform automatic actions, often without being aware of them; automatic intuitive, and parallel processing
rods
number: 120 million location in the retina:periphery sensitivity in dim light: high color sensitivity: low detail sensitivity: low
cones
number: 6 million location in retina: center sensitivity in dim light: low color sensitivity: high detail sensitivity: high
sensorimotor stage
object permanence ie. understanding that something is not gone for good when it disappears from sights such as when Mom "disappears" behind the shower curtain
Albert Bandura
observational learning- allows you to profit immediately from the mistakes and successes of others; his experiment had adult models punching BoBo dolls and then observed children whom watched begin to exhibit many of the same behaviors; social learning theory
recency errors
occur when raters focus only on easily remembered recent behavior
stimulus generalization
occurs when a person experiences a fearful event and later develops a fear of similar events
central route persuasion
occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts
peripheral route persuasion
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness
Walter Mischel
offered famous critique of trait theory and its claims
postive transfer
old information facilitates the learning of new information
brain differences
one hypothalamic cell cluster is smaller in women and gay men than straight men and gay men's hypothalamus reacts as do staright women's to the smell of sex-realted hormones
self-esteem
one's feelings of high or low self-worth
self-efficacy
one's sense of competence and effectiveness
12 months
one-word stage ex. "kitty"
Big Five Personality Traits
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
B.F. Skinner
operant conditioning--techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism's behavior in order to observe the effects of subsequent behavior; Skinner box; believed psychology was not scientific enough; wanted it to be believed everyone is born tableau rosa (blank slate); NOT concerned with unconscious or cause, only behavior
opiates
opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
psychological influences (to successful aging)
optimistic outlook, physically and mentally active lifestyle
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences
our abilities are best classified into eight independent intelligences, which include a broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts; linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal, intrapersonal
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
authoritatian parenting
parents are coercive; they impose rules and expect obedience
authoritative parenting
parents are confrontive; they are both demanding and responsive
permissive parenting
parents are unrestraining; they make few demands and use little punishment
lateral hypothalamus
part of brain that brings on hunger, when DESTROYED haves no interest in food
ventromedial hypothalamus
part of brain that depresses hunger, when DESTROYED cannot feel full and starts eating uncontrollably
prefrontal cortex
part of the brain that has one of the jobs that dampens the feeling of physical pain
hypothalamus
part of the brain that is responsible for biologically motivational processes; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland and is linked to emotion and reward (a brain structure lying below the thalamus)
phantom limb sensation
patients who have had a limb amputated may still experience sensations such as itching, pressure, tingling, or pain as if the limb were still there
person-centered perspective
people are basically good and are endowed with self-actualizing tendencies
anxiety
people constantly crave acceptance but remain vigilant to signs of possible rejection
Erik Erikson
people evolve through 8 states over the life span; each state is marked by psychological crisis that involves confronting "who am I"
avoidance
people experience discomfort getting close to others and use avoidant strategies to main distance to others
ash Experiment
people will conform to group even when the group is wrong. 75% confrom at least once
theory of the mind
people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.
feel-good, do-good phenomenon
people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood
color consistency
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
precognition
perceiving future events (ie. an unexpected death in the next month)
perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change
clairvoyance
perceiving remote events (ie. a house is on fire in another state)
checklists
performance appraisal methods using a series of statements about job performance
yerkers-dodson law
performance is related to arousal; moderate levels of arousal equal better performance; you want to be alert, but not too alert and too little arousal can decrease your preformance
sleep
periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
Chronic depression
persists for long periods of time
fetal alchohol syndrome (FAS)
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features
biomedical therapy
physically changing the brain's functioning by altering its chemistry with drugs; affecting its circuitry with electroconvulsive shock, magnetic impulses, or psychosurgery; or influencing its responses with lifestyle changes
psychiatrists
physicians who specialize in the treatment of psychological disorders. Not all psychiatrists have had extensive training in psychotherapy, but as M.D.s or D.O.s they can prescribe medications. Thus, they tend to see those with the most serious problems. Many have their own private practice.
arousal
physiological/psychological tension; inspires curiosity
cerebellum
plays a key role in forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning; implicit memory formation
valence
pleasant versus unpleasant feeling; positive versus negative feeling
erogenous zones
pleasure sensitive areas of the body
rewards (of growing old)
positive feelings tend to grow, negative emotions are less intense, and anger, stress, worry, and social-relationship problems decrease
posttraumatic growth
positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises
the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths, and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive. uses methods to explore the building of a "good life" and a "meaningful life."
positive psychology
prosocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior
bitter
potential poisons
sour
potentially toxic acid
biomedical therapy
prescribed medications or medical procedures that act directly on the patient's nervous system
client-centered therapy
presumed problem: barriers to self-understanding and self-acceptance therapy aim: enable growth via unconditional positive regard, genuineness, acceptance, and empathy therapy technique: listen actively and reflect clients' feelings
psychosurgery
presumed problem: brain malfunction therapy aim: relieve severe disorder therapy technique: remove or destroy brain tissue
behavior therapy
presumed problem: dysfunctional behaviors therapy aim: learn adaptive behaviors; extinguish problem ones therapy technique: use classical conditioning (via exposure or aversion therapy) or operant condition (as in token economies)
cognitive therapy
presumed problem: negative; self-deflating thinking therapy aim: promote healthier thinking and self talk therapy technique: train people to dispute negative thoughts and attributions
drug therapies
presumed problem: neurotransmitter malfunction therapy aim: control symptoms of psychological disorders therapy technique: alter brain chemistry through drugs
cognitive-behavioral therapy
presumed problem: self-harmful thoughts and behaviors therapy aim: promote healthier thinking and adaptive behaviors therapy technique: train people to counter self-harmful thoughts and to act out their new ways of thinking
brain stimulation
presumed problem: server "treatment resistant" depression therapy aim: alleviate depression that is unresponsive to drug therapy therapy technique: stimulate brain through eletroconvulsive shock, magnetic impulses, or deep-brain stimulation
therapeutic lifestyle change
presumed problem: stress and unhealthy lifestyle therapy aim: restore healthy biological state therapy technique: alter lifestyle through adequate exercise, sleep, and other changes
group and family therapy
presumed problem: stressful relationships therapy aim: heal relationships therapy technique: develop an understanding of family and other social systems , explore roles, and improve communication
psychodynamic therapy
presumed problem: unconscious conflicts from childhood experiences therapy aim: reduce anxiety through self-insight therapy technique: interpret patients' memories and feelings
preoperational stage
pretend play ie. enjoying imaginary play such as dress up ; having difficulty taking another's point of view (as when blocking someone's view of the TV)
standardized
pretested on similar group of people
frontal lobes and hippocampus
processes and stores your explicit memories for facts and episodes
tutored human enrichment
program began by Hunt; trained caregivers to play language-fostering games and to repeat baby's babbling
Albert Bandura
proposed the social-cognitive theory perspective on personality, which emphasizes the interaction of people with their enviornment.
leptin
protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger
odorant receptors
protein molecules on cilia of olfactory sensory neurons where odorants bind
umami
proteins to grow and repair tissue
unstructured interview
provide a sense of someone's personality - informal interviews; result in interviewer illusion
Hallucinogens
psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders, practiced by a physician who sometimes provides medical treatments as well as psychological treatments
psychiatry
Sigmund Freud
psychoanalytical theory that focuses on the unconscious; id, ego, superego; believed innate drives for sex and aggression are the primary motives for our behavior and personalities
somatic symptom disorder
psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause
Anxiety disorder
psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety
anxiety disorders
psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety
mental illness
psychopathology
erik erikson
psychosocial development theorist
genital
puberty on, maturation of sexual interests
not engaged employees
putting in the time, but investing little passion or energy into their work
moral intuition
quick gut feelings that precede moral reasoning
24+ months
rapid development into complete sentences
measures of retention
recall, recognition, and relearning
supercell clusters
receive info from feature detectors and respond to more complex patterns
kinesthetic receptors
receptors in the muscles, joints, and skin that provide information about movement, posture, and orientation.
insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep; those who complain of it often OVERESTIMATE how long it takes them to sleep and UNDERESTIMATE how long they actually slept for
secure base
refers to the idea that the presence of a trusted caregiver provides an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible for the child to explore the environment
leniency and severity errors
reflect evaluators' tendencies to be either too easy or too harsh on everyone
rejects
reflects
denial
refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities
effortful processing examples
remembering lines to a play and learning new material
prospective memory
remembering to do things in the future
compulsions
repetitive behaviors
obsessions
repetitive thoughts
stress innoculation training
replace negative self-talk with more positive comments.
longitudinal study
research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
Robert Rescorla
researched classical conditioning; found subjects learn the predictability of an event through trials (cognitive element)
Edward Tolman
researched rats' use of "cognitive maps"
social-cognitive theorists
researchers who believe we learn many of ur behaviors either through conditioning or by observing and imitating others; they also stress the importance of mental processes;focus on how we and our enviornment interact
Wenicke's area
responsible for the comprehension of language and the production and meaningful speech
left frontal lobe
responsible for working memory; recalling a password; process explicit memories
implicit memory
retention independent of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection; also called nondeclarative memories
cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
regression
retreating to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated ie. childhood stuffed animals
self-disclosure
revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
Lewis Term
revised Binet's I.Q. test and established norms for American children
nociceptors
sensory receptors that enable the perception of pain in response to potentially harmful stimuli
Lewis Terman
revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children; tested group of young geniuses and followed in a longitudinal study that lasted beyond his own lifetime to show that high IQ does not necessarily lead to wonderful things in life
tinnitus
ringing in the ears
social-cultural influences
roles, expectations, definitions of normality and disorder
adolescents
search for identity
positive groups, communities, and cultures
seeks to foster a positive social ecology; 3rd pillar of positive psychology
subjective well-being
self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.
relatedness
sense of belonging
Piaget's stages of cognitive development
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
psychology induced states
sensory deprivation, hypnosis, and meditation
information processing model
sensory memory --> short-term memory --> long term memory
dissociates
separates
therapeutic lifestyle change
set of alterations in one's activities and behaviors to promote healthy living, has potential to prevent and treat physical and psychological conditions such as aerobic exercise, adequate sleep, light exposure, social connection, anti-rumination, and nutritional supplements
estrogens
sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity
paraphilias
sexual arousal from fantasies, behaviors, or urges involving nonhuman objects, the suffering of self or others, and/or nonconsenting persons; ie. exhibitionism, necrophilia, and pedophilia
bisexual orientation
sexual attraction to both sexes
biological influences
sexual maturity, and sex hormones, especially testosterone
heterosexual orientation
sexually attracted to members of the opposite sex
homosexual orientation
sexually attracted to members of the same sex
supordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
genetic influences
shared sexual orientation is higher among identical twins than among fraternal twins, sexual attraction in fruit flies can be genetically manipulated, and male homosexuality often appears to be transmitted from the mother's side of the family
mood linkage
sharing up and down moods
displacement
shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person - obvious form
binge eating disorder
significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa
heuristics
simple thinking shortcuts that allow us to act quickly and efficient, but also put us as risks for error
NREM-2
sleep spindles, clearly asleep
disinhibitor
slows brain activity that controls judgement and inhibitions
olfaction
smell
social loafing
social context: group projects psychological effect: diminished feelings of responsibility when not individually accountable behavioral effect: decreased effort
deindividuation
social context: group setting that fosters arousal and empathy psychological effect: reduced self-awareness behavioral effect: lowered self-restraint
social facilitation
social context: individual being observed psychological effect: increased arousal behavioral effect: amplified domain behavior, such as doing better when one does well (or doing worse what is difficult)
ecology of eating
social influences and portion size affect the amount of food we eat
exploring how we view and affect one another
social psychologists
This perspective in psychology focuses on how behavior and thoughts differ from situation to situation and culture to culture
social-cultural perspective
zajonic; ledoux theory
some emotional responses happen instantly, without conscious appraisal ie. we automatically feel startled by the sound in the sound in the forest before it as a threat
David McClelland
studied achievement motivation; found those with high levels are driven to master challenging tasks
Need
something essential for survival
body position - kinesthesia (sensory receptors)
source: any change in position of a body part, interacting with the vision
taste (sensory system)
source: chemical in the mouth receptors: basic tongue receptors of sweet, salty, bitter, and umami
vision (sensory system)
source: light waves striking the eye receptors: rods and cones in the retina
body movement - vestibular sense (sensory receptors)
source: movement of fluids in the inner ear caused by head/body movement receptors: hairlike receptors in the semicircular canals and vestibular sacs
touch (sensory system)
source: pressure , warmth, cold on the skin receptors: skin receptors detect pressure, warmth, cold, and pain
hearing (sensory system)
source: sound waves (compressed air molecules) striking the outer ear receptors: cochlear hair cells in the inner ear
gay-straight differences
spatial abilities, fingerprint ridge counts, auditory system, handedness, occupational preference, relative finger lengths, gender noncomformity, age of male puberty, male body size
schizo
split
Henry Murray
stated that the need to achieve varied in strength in different people and influenced their tendency to approach success and evaluate their own performances; devised the TAT (Thematic Appreciation Test) with Christina D. Morgan
retrieval cues
stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory; background, smell, tastes, sight
psychological influences
stress, trauma, learned helplessness, mood-related perceptions and memories
school-age children
strive for competence and feeling able and productive
two early schools of thought
structuralism and functionalism
young children
struggle with trust and strive for autonomy, and initiative
John Garcia
studied taste aversion in rats; led to knowledge that sickness and taste preferences can be conditioned
practical skills
such as daily personal care, occupational skill, travel, and health care.
social skills
such as interpersonal skills, social responsibility, and the ability to follow basic rules and laws and avoid being victimized
conceptual skills
such as language, literacy, and concepts of money, time, and number
mood stablizing drugs
such as lithium, used to treat mood instability and bipolar disorders
insight
sudden Aha! reaction that provides instant realization of the solution
appropriate placement
suited to each child's talents so it can better promote equity and excellence
social-cultural (to successful aging)
support from family and friends; cultural respect from aging, and safe living conditions
oxytocin
supports feelings of trust, clamness and bonding with a mate
psychosurgery
surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior
reaction formation
switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites
Mary Cover Jones
systematic desensitization
behavior rating scales
systematic means of recording the frequency with which certain behaviors occur
Mary Cover Jones
systemic desensitization; maintained that fear could be unlearned; Little Peter experiment
inoculation training
teaching people to restructure their thinking in stressful situations
distributed practice
technique in which items to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time.
test beliefs
technique: examine consequences therapist's directives:explore difficult situations, assessing possible consequences and challenging faulty reasoning technique: decatastrophize thinking therapist's directives: work through the actual worst-case consequences of the situation you face, then determine how to cope with the real situation you face
reveal beliefs
technique: question your interpretations therapist's directives: explore your beliefs, revealing faulty assumptions such as "I must be liked by everyone" technique: rank thoughts and emotions therapist's directives: gain perspective by ranking your thoughts and emotions from midly to extremely upsetting
change beliefs
technique: take appropriate responsibility therapist's directives: challenge total self-blame and negative thinking, noting aspects where you are truly responsible and when you aren't technique: resist extremes therapist's directives:develop new ways of thinking and feeling to replace maldaptive habits
self-reference effect
tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves
negative explanatory style
tendency to blame unfortunate circumstances on self and see problems as enduring
primacy effect
tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well
recency effect
tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
testing effect
deja vu
that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
social identity
the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships
DSM-5
the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
the WAIS and its companion versions for children are the most widely used intelligence tests; contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests
analytical intelligence
the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving
social influence
the ability to control another person's behavior
creative intelligence
the ability to deal with new and different concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems
competence
the ability to do something successfully or efficiently
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
practical intelligence
the ability to solve everyday problems through skilled reasoning that relies on implicit knowledge
empathy
the ability to understand and share the feelings of another
floccinaucinihilipification
the act of estimating something as worthless
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
bilingual advantage
the advantage of bilingual individuals to inhibit one language while using the other and inhibit attention to irrelevant information
intensity
the amount of energy in a light wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness by the wave's amplitude (height)
relative illuminance
the amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings
Industrial-Organizational psychology (I/O)
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
medical model
the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital.
extrasensory perception (ESP)
the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve
the course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time
social clock
the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
sleep debt
the cumulative effect of not getting enough sleep
compassionate love
the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
person-enviornment fit
the degree to which the needs and resources of a person and the needs and resources of an environment complement each other
erotic plasticity
the degree to which the sex drive can be shaped and altered by social, cultural, and situational forces
fetus
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
embryo
the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month
hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth
tolerance
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect
withdrawal
the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug
Proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
wavelength (vision)
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
acoustic encoding
the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
group polarization
the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group
sleep paralysis
the experience of waking up unable to move
fear factor
the extent to which a person's fear keeps them from doing something; any feeling of fear that prevents an action
validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
content validity
the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
Reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
stranger anxiety
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
zygote
the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
excitement
the genital areas become engorged in blood; vagina expands and secretes lubricant, breasts and nipples enlarge
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
drive-reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
encoding specificity principle
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it
blame-the-victim dynamic
the idea that the victim of discrimination is partially responsible for that discrimination
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
infantile amnesia
the inability to remember events from early childhood
infantile amnesia
the inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3
fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set
readiness potential
the increased motor cortex activity prior to the start of the movement
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)
the infectious agent that causes AIDS; is a retrovirus
inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
According to the text, aggression always involves
the intent to hurt
reciprocal influences
the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
cognitive appraisal
the interpretation of an event that helps determine its stress impact
social intelligence
the know-how involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully
delta waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
ego
the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.
settling point
the level at which a person's fixed wight settles in response to caloric intake and expenditure (which are influenced by environment as well as biology); researchers prefer this term than set point
retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the PROCESSING of visual information
Surface structure
the literal ordering of words in a sentence
deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
THC
the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations
cognition
the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
intelligence
the mental potential to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time
absolute thresholds
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time
groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives
sensorieneural hearing loss
the most common form of hearing loss, also called nerve deafness, caused by the damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerve
testosterone
the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes; a "lie" scale that assesses the extent to which a person is faking to make a good impression
rorchach inkblot test
the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots
affiliation need
the need to belong
auditory nerve
the nerve that carries impulses from the inner ear to the brain, resulting in the perception of sound
optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
olfactory nerve
the nerve that carries smell impulses from the nose to the brain
memory consolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory
frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second)
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
outer ear
the outermost part of the ear, consisting of the pinna and the external auditory canal
superego
the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations
sympathetic division
the part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to deal with perceived threats; pumps out the stress hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine to prepare our body for fight or flight
Paul Broca
the part of the brain responsible for coordinating muscles involved in speech was named for him, because he first identified it
autonomic nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
relative deprivation
the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself
grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
puberty
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information; serves to predict the future and alert us to potential dangers
resilience
the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma
mere exposure effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
physical arousal
the physical changes that occur when a person is aroused, such as increased pulse, greater alertness, and more energy
set point
the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.
blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there
minority influence
the power of one or two individuals to sway majorities
personal control
the power of the individual
social control
the power of the situation
conservation
the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
frustation-aggression principle
the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger which can generate aggression
dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
Yerkes-Dodson Law
the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases (ie. when anxious, it's better not to become further aroused with a caffeinated energy drink)
weber's Law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
imprinting
the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system RECIEVE and represent stimulus energies from our environment
accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
language acquisition
the process by which the infants learn to understand and speak their native language
identification
the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos
Encoding
the process of getting information into short-term memory
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
rehersal
the process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it
perception
the process of organizing and INTERPRETING sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
narcisstic personality disorder
the self-focused and self-inflating
vestibular sense (ear)
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
vesitbular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance; located in inner ear
psychological contract
the sense of mutual obligations between workers and employers
audition
the sense or act of hearing
self-disclosure
the sharing of intimate information about oneself
one-word stage
the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
sensory memory
the stage that first enters when it comes into the information processing model
epigenetics
the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
Parapsychology
the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis
parapsychology
the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis
psychopharmacology
the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior
delayed gratification (self-discipline)
the subject undergoes when the subject resists the temptation of an immediate reward in preference for a later reward; considered a key to long term success
normal curve
the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.
kinesthesia
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
REM rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)
bystander effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
diffusion of responsibility
the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way
mere exposure
the tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
just-world phenomenon
the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request
The Framing Effect
the tendency for people's choices to be affected by how a choice is presented, or framed, such as whether it is worded in terms of potential losses or gains
behavior feedback effect
the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions
facial feedback effect
the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
Hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
size constancy
the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance
shape constancy
the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina
interviewer allusion
the tendency to overrate their ability to predict people's futures
brightness constancy (lightness constancy)
the tendency to perceive the apparent brightness of an object as the same even when the light conditions change
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
other-race effect
the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races
stimulus generalization
the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response
functional fixedness
the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving
planning fallacy
the tendency to underestimate how long it will take to complete a task
volley principle
the theory holding that groups of auditory nerve fibers fire neural impulses in rapid succession, creating volleys of impulses.
cannon-bard theory
the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion' simultaneously ie. our heart races at the same time we feel afriad
opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
james-lange theory
the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli; sequentially ie. we observe our heart racing after a threat and then feel afraid
social exchange theory
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs
scapegoat theory
the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory
the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.
gate-control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.
cognitive dissonance theory
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes
attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition
reward theory of attraction
the theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events
nondirective therapy
the therapist listens, without judging or interpreting, and seeks to refrain from directing the client toward certain insights
moral reasoning
the thinking that occurs as we consider right and wrong
meopause
the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
adolescence
the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
cornea
the transparent outer covering of the eye; where the light enters; is the first structure in focusing photons of light.
lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
behavior modification
the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior
neuroadaptation
the user's brain chemistry adapts to offset the drug effect
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
Stanford-Binet
the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test.
growth mind-set
their qualities can change and improve through effort
Charles Darwin
theory of evolution, survival of the fittest-origin of the species
Paul Ekman
theory that facial expressions are universal
William Sheldon
theory that linked personality to physique on the grounds that both are governed by genetic endowment; endomorphic (large), mesomorphic (average), ectomorphic (skinny)
fertile females theory
theory that the same genes that predispose women to be strongly attracted to men (and therefore have a lot of kids) may also dispose some men to be attracted to men seems like a far out theory...
group therapy
therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits from group interaction
psychodynamic therapy
therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight
behavior therapy
therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors; assume the problem behavior is the problem and treat it directly, paying less attention to its origins
cognitive therapy
therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions
family therapy
therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members
hallucinations (Schizophrenia)
they see, feel, taste, or smell things that only exist in their minds
stages
those who emphasize biological maturation are supporting
Gordon Allport
three levels of traits-- 1. cardinal trait- dominant trait that characterizes your life, 2. central trait- common to all people, 3. secondary trait- surfaces in some situations and not in others
eardrum
tightly stretched membrane located at the end of the ear canal that vibrates when struck by sound waves
odor molecules
tiny airborne particles that trigger the sense of smell
empathize
to show or feel understanding of another's feelings or problems
operant conditioning
to teach a behavior, catch a person doing something right and reinforce it
negative symptoms (of schizophrenia)
toneless voices, expressionless faces, or mute and rigid bodies
psychotherapy
treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth
Robert Sternberg
triarchic theory of intelligence: 1. academic problem-solving intelligence 2. practical intelligence 3. creative intelligence
individualism
trusting and acting on one's feelings, being true to self, fulfilling oneself
rationalization
trying to justify something
two-factor theory (schachter-singer theory)
tthe theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal; two factors lead to our experience of an emotion: physical; arousal and cognitive appraisal ie. we may interpret our arousal as fear or excitement depending on the context
David Hubel & Torsten Weisel
two Nobel prize winning neuroscientists who demonstrated the importance of "feature detector" neurons in visual perception
polygenetic
two or more genes contribute to the phenotypic expression of a single characteristic;ie. intelligence and height
24 months
two-word stage ex. "get ball"
heroin
type: depressant pleasurable effects: a rush of euphoria, relief from pain negative aftereffects: depressed physiology, agonizing withdrawl
alcohol
type: depressant pleasurable effects: initial high followed by relaxation and disinhibition negative aftereffects: depression, memory loss, organ damage, and impaired reactions
LSD
type: hallucinogen pleasurable effects: "visual" trip negative aftereffects: risk of panic
Marijuana (THC)
type: mild hallucinogen pleasurable effects: enhanced sensation, relief of pain, distortion of time, relaxation negative aftereffects: impaired learning and memory, incresed risk of psychological disorder, and lung damage from smoke
nicotine
type: stimulant pleasurable effects: arousal and relaxation, sense of well-being negative aftereffects: heart disease and cancer
Methamphetamine
type: stimulant pleasurable effects: euphoria, alertness, energy negative aftereffects:irrability, insomnia, hypertension, and seizures
caffeine
type: stimulant pleasurable effects: increased alertness and wakefulness negative aftereffects: anxiety, restlessness in insomnia in high doses; uncomfortable withdrawal
Ecstasy (MDMA)
type: stimulant; mild-hallucinogen pleasurable effects: emotional elevation, disinhibition negative aftereffects:dehydration, overheating, depressed mood, impaired cognitive and immune functioning
sociopath/psychopath
unable to keep a job, irresponsible as a spouse and as a parent, assaultive and criminal
encoding failure
unattended information never entered our memory system.
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings; how we encode implicit memories
actively disengaged employees
unhappy workers undermining what their colleagues accomplish
discrimination
unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members
cognitive dissonance
unpleasant mental experience of tension resulting from two conflicting thoughts or beliefs
altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others
light therapy
use of specialized illuminating light boxes and visors to treat seasonal affective disorder; has shown promise as an effective treatment
mental practice
uses visual imagery to mentally rehearse future behaviors, activating some of the same brain areas used during the actual behaviors. visualizing the details of the process is more effective than visualizing only your end goal
humanistic theories
view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth
psychodynamic theories
view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences
Reification
viewing an abstract, immaterial concept as if it were a concrete thing; IQ score
devaluing partner
viewing images of sexually attractive women and men may also lead people to devalue their own partners and relationships
social-cognitive perspective
views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.
connectionism
views memories as products of interconnected neural networks
outcome stimulation
visualizing the outcome of something (seeing your "A" on the grade list)
process stimulation
visualizing the processing information (studying, denying an offer to go out, etc.)
hypnagogic hallucinations
vivid sensory phenomena that occur during the onset of sleep; sensation of falling or floating weightlessly
sleepwalking
walking or carrying out behaviors while asleep; occurs NREM-3; also known as somnambulism
continuity
we perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones (ie. The pattern could be a series of alternating semicircles, but we perceive two continuous lines- one way, and one straight)
food variety
when foods are abundant and varied, we tend to eat more
misinformation effect
when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event
spillover effect
when one emotion continues from one situation to another; more happy about getting job after running as opposed to just waking up
situations likely to encourage obedience
when the authority is nearby, when the victim was not nearby, and when there were no models of defiance
unit bias
when the portion size is larger, people will eat more
curse of knowledge
when we know something, we often make the mistake of assuming others know it too
abuse-breeds-abuse phenomenon
whether reared by adoptive or biological mothers, most people who are abusive were abused as a child. NOT vice versa - most children who are abused do NOT later become abusive, most are resilient
time
while going about your day, you intentionally note the sequence of its events; ;later realizing you've left your coat somewhere the event sequence your brain automatically encoded will enable you to retrieve your steps
space
while reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page; later when you want to retrieve that information, you may visualize its location on the page
Konrad Lorenz
won Nobel prize for research on imprinting
framing
wording a question or statement so that it evokes a desired response; can influence others' decisions easily, but puts us at risk for errors
engaged employees
working with passion and feeling a profound connection to their company or organization
reliable
yielding consistent results
frequency
you effortlessly keep track of how many times things happen
